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DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
Faculty of Business and Economics
David Throsby and Ekaterina Petetskaya
Number 1/2015 September 2015 ISSN 1833-5020 (print) 1834-2469 (online)
Macquarie Economics Research Papers
RESEARCH PAPER 1/2015 (SEPTEMBER 2015)
Remote Indigenous Cultural Practitioners in East Arnhem Land: Survey Methodology and Principal Results
Throsby, David and Ekaterina Petetskaya
Remote Indigenous cultural practitioners in East Arnhem Land: Survey methodology and principal results
Research paper 1/2015 (September 2015)
ISSN 1833-5020 (print)
1834-2469 (online)
Published by the Department of Economics, Macquarie University
Building E4A, Room 443
Eastern Avenue
Macquarie University NSW 2109
Tel: +61 2 9850 8474
Email: [email protected]
Papers in the series are also available at www.econ.mq.edu.au/research
Remote Indigenous cultural practitioners in East Arnhem
Land: Survey methodology and principal results
David Throsby1 and Ekaterina Petetskaya
ABSTRACT
Arts and cultural production is one of the major avenues for providing incomes and economic
opportunity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This is particularly true in remote towns,
settlements, homelands and outstations across Australia, where arts and cultural production is likely to
be one of the most important means for providing a viable and culturally-relevant livelihood for
members of the community. But there is little systematic data on the economic conditions of individual
cultural production in remote regions and on how such production can contribute towards the economic
and cultural sustainability of communities in such areas. This report provides details of a survey of
individual cultural practitioners undertaken in one such region, East Arnhem Land in Northern
Australia, during 2012-2014. The survey formed part of a larger ARC Discovery project titled The Value
of Aboriginal Cultural Heritage: Cultural Production and Regional Economies in East Arnhem Land and
the Western Desert. The survey was designed to identify ways in which the accumulation of cultural
capital occurs in remote Indigenous communities, and to investigate why and how Indigenous adults in
the study region utilise their cultural capital when participating in economic and cultural activities. This
report gives an outline of the survey methodology, the survey instrument design, the sampling procedure
and the survey implementation. It also provides an overview of the survey results. The report concludes
by noting the fundamental role played by intergenerational cultural transmission, not only in endowing
cultural practitioners with the knowledge and skills that they draw upon in their work, but also in
motivating them in allocating their time between their cultural responsibilities and obligations and their
production of work for the market. It is clear that art and cultural production does indeed offer
considerable potential for contributing to the regional economy in a manner that also enhances cultural
sustainability and resilience.
Keywords: Cultural practitioners, cultural heritage, individual artists, cultural capital, Australian
Aboriginal art, economic and cultural sustainability
JEL classification: Z10, Z13
1 Corresponding author; Professor of Economics, Macquarie University, Sydney, Ph: +61 2 9850 8474, email :
The research was conducted as part of a three-year study entitled The value of Aboriginal cultural heritage:
Cultural production and regional economies in Eastern Arnhem Land and the Western Desert, funded by the
Australian Research Council under a Discovery Project grant (DP120101387).
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
2. RELEVANCE/NEED FOR THE PROJECT ............................................................................. 1
3. SURVEY OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS ........................................................................... 2
4. TARGET POPULATION .......................................................................................................... 3
5. SAMPLING ISSUES ................................................................................................................ 8
6. QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................................... 9
7. SURVEY IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................................................... 13
8. SAMPLE vs. TARGET POPULATION AND WEIGHTING ISSUES ...................................... 17
9. MAIN RESULTS .................................................................................................................... 18
10. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 27
APPENDIX 1: CONSENT FORM ..................................................................................................... 28
APPENDIX 2: GARMA FESTIVAL .................................................................................................... 29
APPENDIX 3: CULTURAL ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................... 31
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. 33
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Arts and cultural production is one of the major avenues for providing incomes and economic
opportunity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This is particularly true in remote towns,
settlements, homelands and outstations across Australia, where arts and cultural production is likely
to be one of the most important means for providing a viable and culturally-relevant livelihood for
members of the community. Indeed it can be suggested that in a number of such locations, the only
feasible pathway towards long-term economic and cultural sustainability lies in the production and
marketing of artistic and cultural goods and services, such as visual and performing arts production,
cultural tourism, cultural and environmental management and so on. Indigenous Australians possess
significant cultural skills and knowledge, which they utilise while participating in a wide range of arts
and cultural activities. These are the activities that allow Indigenous cultures to be maintained,
developed and expressed, ensuring their continuation. They also encourage a strong sense of
community identity.
The contribution of cultural production to the economic sustainability of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander communities in remote Australia remains a poorly researched area, notwithstanding the
significant contributions of studies cited in the next section. Indigenous skills and knowledge have
rarely received proper acknowledgement in economic development initiatives. But to comprehend the
role of cultural production in sustainable economic development, the situation of the individual
cultural practitioner needs to be understood, since art and cultural production begins with the
individual working alone or as a member of a group. While there is a lot of information about the
working circumstances of professional artists in the mainstream in Australia, there are no reliable or
comprehensive data on the conditions under which individual cultural production occurs in remote
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. This survey was designed as a first step towards
filling that gap. The survey is part of a larger ARC Discovery project titled The Value of Aboriginal
Cultural Heritage: Cultural Production and Regional Economies in East Arnhem Land and the
Western Desert (DP120101387) that was initiated in 2012 and is due for completion in 2015. The
project aims to examine the economic and cultural value of Indigenous cultural heritage and to
identify how and which forms of Aboriginal cultural heritage create sustainable development
opportunities in remote communities. The research brings together the theoretical concepts and
empirical methods of cultural economics and cultural anthropology in an integrated framework for
evaluating the role of Indigenous cultural heritage in the context of regional economic development.
The chief investigators in the project have been Professors Howard Morphy (Australian National
University) and David Throsby (Macquarie University).
The survey discussed in this report focuses on one specific Indigenous arts and cultural region in
Australia, Arnhem Land, and on all major forms of artistic and cultural production in this region. The
survey was designed and undertaken by Professor Throsby and Ekaterina Petetskaya, the research
team based at Macquarie University, in close collaboration with Yolngu communities, organisations
and individuals in the East Arnhem Land region. This report gives an outline of the survey
methodology, the survey instrument design and sampling procedure. It also provides an overview of
the survey results; more detailed analyses will be presented in subsequent publications.
2. RELEVANCE/NEED FOR THE PROJECT
Several research projects have been undertaken in the past that deal with issues of artistic production
in various parts of Australia. For example, Jon Altman’s work in Maningrida (Altman 1982) and his
Review of the Aboriginal Art and Crafts Industry in the late 1980s (Altman 1989) provided very
valuable data that had not been assembled before, but it was confined to a particular industry and is
now a long way out of date. More recent studies have focussed on specific locations or modes of
practice, including, for example, the Canning Stock Route project 2007-2009 (Ngurra Kuju Walyja
2014), and several modules of the research undertaken under the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Art Economies Project of the Cooperative Research Centre for Remote Economic Participation based
at Curtin University (CRC-REP 2015). The Art Economies Project gathered extensive data from the
supply and demand sides of the primary market and estimated the production and sale of Indigenous
visual art in remote Australia (Acker and Woodhead 2015a and 2015b). However, that project was
2
limited to the visual art industry, and focused on Indigenous art centres and private art businesses
trading in Australia rather than on individual Indigenous artists. A further study was published in the
report the Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations under the title At the Heart of Art (ORIC
2012). This study examined the 101 corporations registered under the Corporations (Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander) Act over four consecutive financial years using information gathered by the
Registrar. Again, the predominant focus of the report was on the visual arts sector. In addition, the
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey (NATSISS) of the ABS provides current
national-level data about Indigenous participation in selected forms of creative arts as well as about
their engagement in some customary activities (ABS 2002, 2008); this survey, however, is not geared
towards cultural production, and its results are not designed to address the sorts of questions that
motivate the present study.
In the mainstream arts in Australia it has been recognised that the only way to collect reliable, robust,
systematic and objective data about the conditions of individual artistic production is via a nationwide
survey. Such a survey was undertaken for the first time in 1983 as a component of the Australia
Council’s Individual Artist Inquiry, and has been repeated periodically ever since, with the most recent
survey having been carried out in 2009 (Throsby and Zednik 2010). The information about arts
practice yielded by the surveys has been of inestimable value to government departments and agencies
at Federal, State and Territory, and local levels, peak bodies in all areas of the arts, other arts-related
organisations, cultural institutions and the general public. But while these surveys have included
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists working at a professional level in the mainstream –
mostly in metropolitan and other urban locations – it has never been possible to extend the coverage
to include remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists. It has always been apparent that a
completely different questionnaire and survey methodology would have to be applied to these artists.
Up until now, however, the resources, both human and financial, that would be required to undertake
such a project have not been available. The present survey is a step towards remedying this situation.
Several reasons make this project timely at the present moment. There has been renewed emphasis in
government policy on initiatives aimed at overcoming disadvantage and providing meaningful
employment and economic opportunity for Indigenous people. There is considerable scope for
consolidation of the economic base for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander arts and the Strategic
Plan adopted by the Australia Council for the Arts in 2014 places considerable emphasis in this area.
At the same time, concerns continue to be raised regarding the viability of some remote Indigenous
communities. In these circumstances the need for a clearer understanding of the ways in which
production of cultural goods and services can contribute to long-term sustainability has never been
more urgent.
3. SURVEY OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS
The survey was designed to identify ways in which the accumulation of cultural capital occurs in
remote Indigenous communities in the study region, and to investigate why and how Indigenous
adults in the study region utilise their cultural capital when participating in economic and cultural
activities. The study developed and applied a survey instrument and methodology that provides a
prototype model that is currently being adapted for application in other Indigenous regions in
Australia.
In this study we use the term cultural practitioners to refer to persons who have had experience in
utilising their cultural capital (cultural heritage, knowledge and skills) to produce arts and cultural
products and services whether for sale, domestic consumption or cultural purposes. The specific
activities designated as cultural production in this study are detailed in Section 4 of this Report.
The principal research questions that the survey was designed to address were the following:
What are the characteristics of remote Indigenous cultural practitioners in the study region?
How do Indigenous cultural practitioners attain their cultural knowledge, skills, training and
education to participate in activities that are based on their culture?
What sorts of training and experience have been essential in developing their capacities for this
work?
3
How many Indigenous cultural practitioners (those with experience) participate in art and cultural
activities?
How many choose to exit the art and cultural sector? What are the reasons for discontinuation of
practice?
What are the time allocation strategies that Indigenous cultural practitioners employ to distribute
their time between art and cultural production for a market, local consumption, volunteering and
doing other work?
How important is cultural production as an income source for Indigenous cultural practitioners
and their communities?
How many Indigenous cultural practitioners earn income from producing goods and services that
are based on their culture? In what form this income is received?
What factors have either facilitated or acted as an obstacle to advancement of the careers of remote
Indigenous artists and cultural practitioners?
4. TARGET POPULATION
4.1 INTRODUCING THE SURVEY POPULATION AND REGION
The target population in this study are adult cultural practitioners residing in the East Arnhem Land
region in the Northern Territory of Australia, the traditional land of the Yolngu people. The colonial
history of the Yolngu people differs from that of many other Indigenous Australians. The Yolngu led a
relatively autonomous existence until the 1930s; they were subject to few massacres and the impact of
introduced diseases was considerably less than in many other parts of Australia (Berndt and Berndt
1954, Morphy 2007). The Methodist Overseas Mission interfered little directly with Yolngu cultural
practices, did not introduce a dormitory system where children were separated from their parents and
developed literacy programs in the Yolngu languages (Morphy 2005). Art and cultural production has
always played a central role in Yolngu life. The visual arts have developed along distinctive lines, with
particular emphasis on paintings on bark. The traditions of Yolngu music and dance have contributed
to the evolution of contemporary Australian Aboriginal arts through the work of ensembles such as
Yothu Yindi and the Bangarra dance company. The annual Garma festival held in the East Arnhem
Land region provides a major forum for discussing Indigenous issues and for introducing visitors to
the different domains of Yolngu cultural knowledge2
The East Arnhem Land region includes the mining town of Nhulunbuy, the major communities of
Yirrkala, Galiwinku, Ramingining, Milingimbi and Gapuwiyak – typically established as former
missions – and small communities located on the traditional homelands of the various Yolngu clans.
The major communities are those with some ‘hub’ settlement characteristics, such as a shop, a school,
a Centrelink agency or a fuel outlet. During the homelands movement that began in the early 1970s,
large numbers of the Yolngu moved out from the larger communities like Yirrkala to form small
settlements on the surrounding clan estates, while the larger communities still remain as service
centres for these homelands. The homelands in East Arnhem Land vary in size from well over 100
people to very small settlements that could be home to a single extended family of fewer than 20
people. People from the landowning clan and intermarrying clans typically populate them (Morphy
2012: 18).
4.2 IDENTIFYING REGIONAL CULTURAL PRODUCTION
The Yolngu apply their cultural resources towards achieving economic, social and cultural outcomes in
many different ways. In order to identify the range of activities that can be interpreted as cultural
production for the target population of cultural practitioners, the research team undertook a mapping
exercise initiated via individual discussions and participatory workshops in the region. This process
2 For further details, see Morphy and Throsby (2015).
4
usually started with a simple diagram with a “Yolngu culture” circle being drawn in the middle. The
participants were then asked to identify cultural activities that could come from their culture and that
they thought were important to them, their families and the wider Yolngu community. Once this was
completed, the participants were asked to identify among these cultural activities those that were also
economic activities, i.e. “those cultural activities that bring jobs and incomes”. The diagram below
(Figure 1) shows the results of the mapping exercise.
Figure 1: Cultural-economic activities in East Arnhem Land
The mapping exercise allowed the research team to identify 15 cultural-economic activities that are
currently practised in the region, classified into the following three categories relating specifically to
Yolngu culture and forms of cultural expression:
1. Creative artistic activities:
Making arts or crafts
Composing music
Writing or storytelling
Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio program
2. Cultural maintenance activities:
Participating in ceremonies
Caring for country
Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
5
3. Applied cultural activities:
Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food
Providing tourism services
Providing health services
Making medicine or cosmetics
Making Yolngu design
An additional “Other” option to identify any other cultural-economic activities was also offered to
respondents. It needs to be noted that the above classification is not according to any particular
categorisation system used by the Yolngu themselves – for example, all of these activities could be seen
by the Yolngu as cultural maintenance activities.
Almost every adult Yolngu in the region will have had previous experience in some of the above listed
cultural-economic activities. The following three activities are particularly common in the East
Arnhem Land region: fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food; participating in ceremonies;
and caring for country. While these cultural activities can also be seen as economic, the majority of the
Yolngu population participate in these activities without being paid for it – in this case, the production
occurs for the customary sector and not necessarily for the market. Because the scope of the survey
was to identify those cultural practitioners who are active in both the customary and market sectors,
two requirements were introduced to determine eligibility for inclusion in the survey: (1) respondents
had to have had previous experience in at least three of the fifteen cultural-economic activities; and (2)
if only three of the most common cultural-economic activities were selected, respondents had to have
received payment for at least one of these three activities.
All cultural-economic activities listed above can be interpreted with reference to standard industrial
definitions as determined under the Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification
(ANZSIC) 2006 (Revision 2.0), as shown in Appendix 4.
4.3 IDENTIFYING THE SURVEY REGION
For the purpose of this survey, the boundaries of the study region coincide with the boundaries of East
Arnhem Statistical Area Level 2 (SA2) and Nhulunbuy SA2 as defined by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (ABS)3. Within East Arnhem SA2 and Nhulunbuy SA2, there are six Indigenous areas
(IAREs) and 16 Indigenous locations (ILOCs) 4 as shown in Table 1.
3 The Statistical Area Level 2 (SA2) is an area defined in the Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS), and consists of one or more whole Statistical Areas Level 1 (SA1s). Wherever possible SA2s are based on officially gazetted State suburbs and localities. In rural areas, they define functional zones of social and economic links. Geography is also taken into account in SA2 design. SA2s cover, in aggregate, the whole of Australia without gaps or overlaps. 4 Indigenous Areas (IAREs) are aggregates of one or more Indigenous Locations (ILOCs) and ideally have a minimum of 250 Indigenous usual residents. IAREs aggregate to Indigenous Regions (IREGs), and cover the whole of Australia without gaps or overlaps.
6
Table 1: Indigenous locations and Indigenous areas within the study region
ABS Indigenous Locations (ILOCs) ABS Indigenous Areas (IAREs)
Gapuwiyak Gapuwiyak and Outstations
Gapuwiyak Outstations Gapuwiyak and Outstations
Dhalinybuy Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands
Gan Gan Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands
Gumatj - Surrounds Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands
Laynhapuy Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands
Yilpara Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands
Galiwinku Marthakal Homelands - Galiwinku
Marthakal Homelands exc. Galiwinku Marthakal Homelands - Galiwinku
Gunyangara Nhulunbuy - Gunyangara
Nhulunbuy Nhulunbuy - Gunyangara
Numbulwar and Outstations Numbulwar and Outstations
Milingimbi Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations
Ramingining Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations
Ramingining - Milingimbi Outstations Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations
Yirrkala Yirrkala
Source: 1270.0.55.002 - Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): Volume 2 - Indigenous Structure
All of the locations and areas included in the study region are classified as ‘very remote’ in the 2011
ASGS Remoteness Structure.5
4.4 IDENTIFYING THE TOTAL POPULATION OF YOLNGU CULTURAL PRACTITIONERS
While it is well understood that Indigenous people living in remote areas possess significant skills and
knowledge, how many of them participate in cultural production for economic purposes is largely
unknown. In an attempt to address this gap, we have made use of the series of National Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Social Surveys (NATSISS), the first of which was undertaken in 1994, followed
by the 2002 and 2008 surveys. The most recent NATSISS (2024-2015) is due to be released in March
2016. The 2002 survey asked respondents whether in the 12 months before interview they had taken
part in any of the following creative artistic activities:
Making Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander arts or crafts
Performing any Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander music, dance, theatre
Writing or telling any Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander stories.
In the 2008 survey, the wording of these categories was changed slightly and three new response
categories for customary activities were included:
Fishing
Hunting
Gathering wild plants/ berries
5 Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS) Volume 5 – Remoteness Areas, July 2011 (cat. no. 1270.0.55.005).
7
The designations used in the 2008 survey could not be readily rationalised against the criteria adopted
in the present study, so it was necessary to use the 2002 percentages as a basis for estimating the
numbers of Indigenous cultural practitioners in the region covered by our survey. The NATSISS 2002
data specific to the study region were not available; however, it was possible to stratify the aggregate
data by remote and non-remote areas. Because differences in estimates of participation in remote and
non-remote areas are not statistically significant (ABS 2006) we used the nationwide data to estimate
the proportions of cultural practitioners in the study region.
Analysis of the 2002 NATSISS data indicates that 27.4 percent of Indigenous people in Australia aged
15 years or over had participated in at least one of the above creative artistic activities in 2002, as
shown in Table 2. We therefore assume that this percentage can be applied to the adult Indigenous
population in our survey region in order to estimate a lower bound on the number of cultural
practitioners located in the region. The resulting estimate of almost 1,300 cultural practitioners, as
shown in Table 3, is likely to understate the true figure because our definition covers a wider range of
cultural activities than are included in the NATSISS data. Nevertheless, for the purposes of estimating
appropriate sample sizes, we can adopt the estimates from Table 3.
Table 2: Participation in NATSISS selected cultural activities by adult (15+)
Indigenous Australians, 2002
Participation in selected creative artistic activities (a) in 2002
N (weighted) %
Participated 77,324 27.4
Did not participate 204,882 72.6
Total 282,205 100.0
Source: ABS 2002 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey
Table 3: Indigenous adult population and target population in the study region,
2011 (no.)
IAREs covered by the survey Indigenous adult
population (no.)
Estimated number of Indigenous cultural
practitioners (no.)
Nhulunbuy – Gunyangara 340 93
Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 413 113
Marthakal Homelands – Galiwinku 1,399 383
Gapuwiyak and Outstations 686 188
Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations 1,373 376
Yirrkala 490 134
Total 4,701 1,288
Note: (a) For activities included, see text. Source: ABS 2011 Census of Population and Housing
8
Note that this estimate of the population of cultural practitioners is broadly consistent with the data on
artist numbers assembled for the Art Economies Value Chain project undertaken in 2010-2014 in the
Cooperative Research Centre for Remote Economic Participation based at Curtin University.6
5. SAMPLING ISSUES
The appropriate sampling methodology for a survey such as this would be one involving systematic
random sampling from a complete list of names of adult Yolngu cultural practitioners, i.e. the target
population. However, implementation of such an approach faces a number of obstacles. First, while
some of the Yolngu cultural practitioners, particularly visual artists, are registered and listed with
some organisations such as art centres, professional associations or Indigenous corporations, there is a
high probability that many of the Yolngu involved in different cultural activities are not on any of these
lists. Yolngu artists who choose to work independently from art centres, or cultural practitioners who
undertake cultural work unpaid, are likely not to be registered with any organisation. Also not all
professional associations have lists of Yolngu individuals they represent; for example, the Association
of Northern, Kimberley and Arnhem Aboriginal Artists (ANKAAA), the peak Indigenous art body for
the region, does not hold regional lists of artists, relying on databases managed by the art centres
located in the region. While some regional art centres are well organised and have comprehensive
listings of the artists they work with, their databases are mainly focused on visual artists. Some Yolngu
cultural practitioners, particularly those involved in writing and storytelling are likely not to be
associated with any particular organisation.
For all of these reasons, sampling from a complete population list of cultural practitioners was not a
possible approach to apply in the present study. An alternative would be to make use of a list of the
entire Yolngu adult population of the study region, including those Yolngu who are cultural
practitioners and those who are not. In this case a sampling frame could be constructed from different
regional administrative records available, such as those held by medical centres or government
departments based in the region. A cluster sampling methodology could be applied to limit the
number of locations that would need to be included. The selected regions would have to be small
enough to enable a list of cultural practitioners in the region to be compiled. In our case, Indigenous
Locations (ILOCs) as defined by the ABS could have been an appropriate option. This approach would
allow us to simplify the problems associated with building the sampling frame, since the ILOC
geographical units are small enough for the survey team to contemplate creating a list of Yolngu
cultural practitioners or adult Yolngu residents for these areas.
However, even when lists of names do exist, there are difficulties in building up a sampling frame.
Many organisations are not willing to disclose their members’ contact details to third parties for
privacy reasons. Moreover, listed names may be misleading; there is a practice of adoption of non-
Yolngu surnames and given names, and most Yolngu have multiple given names (at least two, and
sometimes up to seven). Thus, a person may be known by two or three of their names. In addition,
some of their names may not be being used due to a recent death of a person with the same or a similar
sounding name. In other words, the same person could be listed under different names in different
administrative records (Morphy 2012: 19), which creates a problem of multiple counting.
Furthermore, there are significant logistical and travel issues that would need to be dealt with. For
example, it is likely to take some time to organise invitations to visit homelands and arrange the
necessary permissions. Communities and homelands in East Arnhem Land are spread out, and
travelling to these widely separated geographical units is usually very costly in terms of both money
and time. Another problem is residence patterns in the region that make it difficult to locate individual
Yolngu in their listed addresses. High mobility of population and seasonality had to be taken into
account when planning fieldtrips. Thus, although the cluster sampling approach could have reduced
the associated travelling requirements and simplified the process of building the sample frame
compared with the full enumeration methods described earlier, it proved to be infeasible to adopt this
6 This project identified 1,723 visual artists in an Indigenous population of 7,095 across the whole of Arnhem Land (Acker and Woodhead, 2015b). Applying this proportion (0.24) to the Indigenous population estimate of the East Arnhem land region gives an estimated number of visual artists in the region of 1,128; this number can be compared with our survey, which finds that 85 per cent of cultural practitioners have practised visual art (see Table 11), indicating a total number of 1,095 in the target population who have ever practised the visual arts.
9
approach, primarily because of budget limitations. In the end, we were obliged to use a more limited
sampling procedure, with the option of weighting the resulting sample using known characteristics of
the target population to standardise the results obtained. These procedures are described later in this
report.
On the basis of the estimates of the target population and of the proportion of cultural practitioners in
the survey region as reported in Section 4 above, it was calculated that the minimum sample size
needed for this study would be n=52 at a confidence level of 90 percent and a margin of error of 10
percent. In the event we obtained a total sample size of 71 completed responses, as described in more
detail below.
6. QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 SURVEY INSTRUMENT DESIGN
To devise a survey instrument that will be culturally appropriate and comprehensible to respondents,
it was essential that Indigenous cultural practitioners in the study region should participate in the
questionnaire design process. To achieve this, a number of scoping trips, information sessions,
participatory workshops and multiple individual interviews were carried out in the region between
March 2012 and August 2014.
The path of gradual engagement with the local communities was chosen to overcome suspicions and
concerns that many Yolngu have about outside balanda (or non-Yolngu) researchers. The survey
benefited significantly from having Professor Morphy, a leading anthropologist of art and material
culture who has had a long-term engagement particularly with the Yolngu arts and crafts industry, as
co-chief investigator of The Value of Aboriginal Cultural Heritage project. Professor Morphy has
undertaken many years of fieldwork in East Arnhem Land and was able to provide local insight and
introduce the research team to the regional Yolngu networks. Frances Morphy, also a distinguished
anthropologist and linguist who has been working with the Yolngu in North East Arnhem Land since
the mid-1970s, was another important contributor to the project. She was particularly involved during
the survey instrument development stage because of her previous experience in developing and
implementing surveys in remote Indigenous regions of Australia, such as the Gumurr Miwatj Yolngu
population survey for North East Arnhem Land.
During the course of the research the project team had contacted relevant Indigenous corporations,
community councils, and local art and tourism organisations in order to gain permissions, establish
support for the survey, facilitate relationships and guide the survey process. Many of these
organisations also provided valuable insight during the development of the survey instrument. They
included:
Association of Northern, Kimberley and Arnhem Aboriginal Artists (ANKAAA)
Buku Larrnggay Mulka Art Centre
Bula’bula Arts
Dhimurru Rangers
Gapuwiyak Culture and Arts
Laynhapuy Homelands Aboriginal Corporation (LHAC)
Lirrwi Tourism
Miwatj Employment
Rripanngu Yiadaki
Yirrkala Homelands School
Yirralka Rangers
Yirrkala School
10
The project team undertook multiple fieldtrips to the region throughout different stages of the project.
During the first three trips of the first stage of the project in March 2012, May 2013 and October 2013,
the survey project was introduced to the regional relevant agencies, organisations and local
communities so that their feedback could be incorporated in the survey design. These repeated trips
were also crucial to obtain relevant approvals to proceed with the survey. Most importantly, they
allowed the necessary time for developing the survey instrument with our Yolngu collaborators.
Several more formal participatory workshops were held in Yirrkala in October 2013, allowing the
research team: to introduce and inform the regional communities about the survey in a more official
way; to check that the survey questions reflected the issues that the Yolngu in East Arnhem Land face;
to incorporate local and region-specific insight; and to strengthen cooperation, build relationships and
create some good word-of-mouth for the project.
Further refinement of the survey instrument and pilot testing occurred in February 2014. The survey
interviews were conducted in July, August and November of that year.
6.2 YOLNGU COLLABORATORS
Yolngu people who can operate in both Yolngu and non-Yolngu worlds, and who can understand and
interpret Yolngu concepts to/from a non-Yolngu perspective, are frequently called “bridge people”.
Only a relatively small number of people in any given community can perform “bridge people” tasks;
they are usually in high demand in their respective communities and hence engaging them to work on
a project can be problematic. Nevertheless, the project benefited greatly from involvement and support
of a number of collaborators from the communities we worked with between 2012 and 2014, including
Dhanggal Gurruwiwi of the Galpu clan; Waka Mununggurr of the Madarrpa clan; Yananymul
Mununggurr of the Djapu clan; Djawa Yunupingu, Randjupi Yunupingu, Djapirri Mununggirritj and
Djawa Burarrwanga from the Gumatj clan; Wukun Wanambi from the Marrakulu clan; Galuma
Maymuru from the Manggalili clan; Dhukal Wirrpanda from the Dhudi Djapu clan; Rarriwuy Marika,
Wayalwanga Marika, Ishmael Marika and Phillip Marika of the Rirratjingu clan; and Joseph
Neparrnga Gumbula of the Gupapuyngu clan. Five of these collaborators were employed subsequently
under the supervision of the project team as casual staff of Macquarie University (Professional Level 8)
as translators/interpreters of the survey questionnaire, cross-cultural consultants and survey
interviewers. The Yolngu collaborators also gave an alternative name to the project – Yolŋu Rom
Djäma Mirriyama – which literally means something like "work that comes from Yolngu
culture/law". A shortened rendering of this phrase might be Earning on country.
It was important to ensure that all interviewers and translators/interpreters understood the purpose of
the survey and ideas behind the questions of the survey instrument. Training for the task included the
project coordinator taking potential interviewers, translators and interpreters through the project
development process to explain how and why particular questions were included. The interviewers
were also trained in how to enter details into computer tablets, although in the event about half of the
respondents opted to do this task themselves. The training took approximately two to three hours and
typically involved the trainees in completing the survey themselves.
6.3 QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
As noted above, the survey instrument was a product of collaboration between the Macquarie
University researchers and the Yolngu partners; it operated with concepts and categorisations that
exist in both the Yolngu and the balanda realms. The terminology used reflected this duality. Some of
the concepts used in the survey such as “cultural capital” or “cultural resources” are used by the Yolngu
in their everyday life and have similar meaning for the Yolngu and for cultural economists. On the
other hand, the research team had to work out how to formulate some Yolngu concepts in English as
well as to interpret concepts such as “economy”, “in the last year”, “working full time”, “working for a
non-for-profit organisation” and others, because Yolngu languages do not have a vocabulary for many
of these concepts.
The first draft questionnaire was produced in August 2013 following the initial field trips to the region.
It was workshopped during a meeting with the anthropology team at the Australian National
University, including Professor Howard Morphy, Dr Marianne Riphagen and Frances Morphy, in
September 2013. The survey instrument was then modified a number of times to develop an outline of
questionnaire topics. The final topic headings are shown in Table 4.
11
Table 4. Topic headings for the survey questionnaire
Questionnaire sections Questionnaire topics
Section A: Individual characteristics
Gender, age, highest formal education, marital status, number of dependent children. Clan association, place of homeland, place of residence.
Section B: Acquisition of cultural capital and professional development
Pathways to gain cultural knowledge to participate in cultural activities. Pathways to gain professional skills to participate in cultural activities. Level of cultural competency (seniority). Level of professional development.
Section C: Cultural production Experience in the art and cultural industries: Cultural activities ever done. Existing practice in the art and cultural industries: Cultural activities in the last year. Paid cultural activities in the last year. Time spent on cultural activities in the last year.
Section D: Conditions of paid cultural production
Type of income received from cultural activities. Type of payment from cultural activities. Cultural activities work arrangement.
Section E: Circumstances of cultural production
Willingness to do more or less of paid cultural activities. Reasons for discontinuing paid cultural activities. Reasons for doing unpaid cultural activities. Reasons for stopping cultural activities in the last year.
Section F: Other paid work (not cultural activities)
Time spent on other paid work. Type of income received from other paid work. Type of payment from other paid work. Other paid work arrangement.
6.4 LANGUAGE
The first language for the vast majority of Yolngu is one of the Yolngu-matha dialects. English can be
anywhere from a third to a tenth language for them. It would therefore be only logical for the survey
questionnaire to be written in Yolngu-matha. The obvious advantage of using Yolngu-matha is that it
would give a clear signal to the interviewees that the survey was being undertaken “by Yolngu for
Yolngu”. Additionally, because the survey uses Yolngu concepts and terms it would have been
appropriate to include their Yolngu-matha version in the questionnaire. Nevertheless, after consulting
with our collaborators it was decided that the survey questionnaire should be presented to
respondents in English. This decision was taken for several reasons. Firstly, although an ideal scenario
might be to translate the questionnaire into a number of dialects, this was logistically infeasible.
Secondly, if only a single dialect were to be used, the question would arise as to which one.
12
A significant proportion of the population of the region lives in the area around Yirrkala and
Nhulunbuy, where Gumatj is one of the most commonly spoken variants and many Yolngu-matha
speakers understand it. However, all dialects are socially marked as intrinsically belonging to a
particular country and to the clan that owns that country (Morphy 2012: 20). The feedback from our
collaborators was that in a situation like this the English language would be the most neutral and
would eliminate suspicions regarding an undesirable association of this survey with a particular clan
group.
In the event, the English version of the survey instrument was the one actually used in the field for
respondents who had no difficulties with the English language. Otherwise, the English version was
translated orally by one of the translators/ interpreters into whichever of Yolngu-matha dialects was
known to the respondent. The translation and interpretation of the English form was rehearsed with
the field assistants prior the interviews to ensure that no information would be omitted or questions
paraphrased in a way that they could lose their original meaning.
6.5 PILOT TESTING
Pilot testing of the questionnaire was carried out in Yirrkala and Birritjimi in February 2014 and in
July 2014. The process included: field testing and field rehearsal of the draft questionnaire;
identification of survey instrument design errors; checking the clarity of the survey concepts to
respondents; testing the interlinking and consistency of the survey questions; undertaking a full
timing; and assessing administration, management and procedural issues. Information on the
following issues was specifically sought from the piloting process:
The possibility of non-responses to questions that may be considered culturally inappropriate or
“too direct”.
Language and cultural differences and issues of using translators/interpreters.
Literacy levels of respondents.
Ability of the survey to accommodate different worldviews, for example, alternative concepts of
time.
The possibility of non-responses to certain questions if being asked by an interviewer who is male
or female, a Yolngu from the same area or a non-Yolngu. In some cases, for example, it was
important to ensure that interviewers and respondents were not familiar to each other.
The possibility of forming a “consensus position” by respondents from the same family.
One of the objectives of the first draft of the questionnaire was to test whether it was possible to collect
more detailed data about time spent on cultural activities and income generated from these activities
annually. Respondents were asked questions such as “How much do you think you receive from [a
cultural activity] and in what time period?” and “Think about your entire last week or last month, how
many full days do you think you spent on [a cultural activity]? Please do not include any other work
and activities that do not relate to this cultural activity”. The majority of the pilot test responders
found these questions intrusive, felt uncomfortable answering them and gave inconsistent answers,
while some refused to answer. Consequently, these questions had to be removed and alternatives
needed to be found to be included into the survey instrument.
In the initial pilot in February 2014 it took about two hours for respondents to complete the draft
questionnaire. Thus, the draft questionnaire had to be reworked and the second pilot test was
required. The research team spent some time on simplifying the survey form, reducing its length and
further clarifying the survey concepts. The questions about income details were removed as were
questions regarding access to data from external organisations7. In the second pilot test in July 2014,
7 Permission was sought from interviewees in the pilot to gain access to their information from one or other of the organisations to which they beloing. Such permissions would have allowed the survey team to enquire about those details on respondents’ behalf. To do so respondents had to give details of their full names and date of birth. It was explained to the respondents that their responses would remain confidential and that their identity would not be revealed in the survey findings. However, only one of the respondents in the pilot test agreed to grant such permission, and this option was not pursued in the survey proper.
13
the average time for completing the questionnaire was approximately 40 minutes; all respondents
completed the questionnaire during the second pilot test.
7. SURVEY IMPLEMENTATION
7.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
The survey was administered by computer-assisted face-to-face interviews. While personal interview is
one of the most expensive methods to conduct a survey compared with phone interviews or online
surveys, it does provide for collection of more accurate data than the other methods. In any case,
limited access to phone and the Internet in the region made these other alternatives impractical. The
interviews were conducted in the following five locations in East Arnhem Land as well as one location
outside the study region:
Yirrkala, a larger community and the centre for many of the services provided to the surrounding
homelands.
Gunyangara, a smaller community with some of the ‘hub’ settlement characteristics.
Birritjimi (Wallaby Beach), a small community, located near the Alcan refinery site.
Nhulunbuy, located 15 kilometers from the Gove Airport, the mining town that has been financially
supported by the Rio Tinto bauxite mine.
Gukula, the site of the Garma Festival in August 2014.
Mount Bundy Station at Adelaide River, Northern Territory, the location of the ANKAAA Arnhem
Regional Meeting in November 2014.
There were a number of reasons for choosing these particular locations for the survey:
Conducting the survey in bigger communities like Yirrkala or Gunyangara permitted capturing a
significant component of Yolngu cultural practitioners from surrounding homelands in addition to
local residents. Entire families may use two houses as their residences, both seasonally and on a
temporary basis, one in a hub community such as Yirrkala and one in their homeland. Many
Yolngu who spend most of their time at their outstation in the dry season come in to major
communities to shop and socialise.
In East Arnhem Land, the Garma Festival pulls in significant numbers of people, sometimes entire
families, from many of the region’s communities and homelands, some of which are very remote
and very difficult to access. The idea to carry out the survey at the festival so that cultural
practitioners from remote homelands could be captured by the survey came from one of our Yolngu
collaborators, Dhanggal Gurruwiwi, who at the time was also an Executive Board Member of
Garma (see Appendix 3).
The ANKAAA regional meetings8 bring many of cultural practitioners from the ANKAAA regions,
including Arnhem Land, in one location for a few days. Attending an event like this provided us
with an opportunity to interview cultural practitioners from the study region, including from those
communities and homelands that would have been difficult to access otherwise. In 2014, Mount
Bundy Station at Adelaide River, Northern Territory was the location of the Arnhem Regional
Meeting that was held on 12-14 November. The project team received permission from ANKAAA to
interview artists from the study region that were invited to attend the event.
In order to ensure that all individuals from the target population had a chance to be selected and
represented in the survey, we adopted the following strategies when finding survey respondents:
8 Every year ANKAAA holds regional meetings for each of its four regions: The Arnhem Land Region, Tiwi Region,
Darwin/Katherine Region, Kimberley Region.
14
Potential respondents were located via connections to a family or an organisation, or were
approached in public spaces in the survey locations listed above.
The interviewers explained the nature and objectives of the survey to the potential respondents,
who were then asked whether they would be willing to participate in the survey.
Screening questions as detailed earlier in this report were then asked to allow for elimination of
ineligible respondents.
Because the survey was voluntary, informed consent was required. The interviewers were trained to
give a short description of the project to respondents and a brief summary of the project was displayed
in the online and offline questionnaire versions. In addition, a printed diagram was given to
respondents to help them to grasp the objectives of the survey visually (see Figure 1 in Section 4.1
above). Respondents then were asked to give their oral consent to proceed with the interview (see
Appendix 2). The survey team planned that if possible all survey interviews would be conducted
privately because of the sensitive nature of some survey questions. However, where respondents
wished for some other people to be present during the interview, this was accommodated.
It is usual for some reward to be offered to people who complete surveys such as this. Typically
researchers offer participants movie or shopping vouchers, entry into major prize draws and so on.
We were advised by our collaborators that it would be polite to give a small reward/present to those
who would agree to participate in the survey, in line with the local gift economy which places high
value on producing social relations and their maintenance. Accordingly, respondents were given a
small "thank you" amount of $20 upon completion of the survey. A cash reward was deemed more
appropriate than a fuel or food vouchers, because not many people own a vehicle and even travelling to
particular food stores could have been problematic for some.
Fig.2: Yolngu interviewers assist survey respondents in Yirrkala
7.2 DATA ENTERING AND RECORD KEEPING
Apple iPads were used in the field to record, store, manipulate and transmit the survey data collected.
All iPads and researchers’ computers utilised in collecting survey data were protected with a
password. If an online connection was available when the interview was taking place, the online
version of the survey form was used, otherwise the offline form was utilised. In either case, the
15
interviewers would oversee respondents entering data on the iPads and assist them as required. About
half of the respondents entered their data themselves. Figure 2 shows this process in operation.
We used the Surveygizmo and Qualtrics survey software for the administration of the survey –
Surveygizmo to develop the online version of the questionnaire and Qualtrics for the offline version. In
cases where an Internet connection was not accessible at the time of interviewing, responses would be
held on an iPad and uploaded back into Qualtrics when the connection was available. This could
usually be done within 24 hours. The data stored on an iPad were protected with a password so if the
same iPad was used in the field again the earlier data would not be accessible to others.
Subsequent data cleaning included checking quota fields; corrections of misspelling; cleaning skip
patterns; reviewing "other" responses; source document cleaning; and weighting data (see further
below).
7.3 RESPONDENT DISTRIBUTION IN THE SURVEY REGION
Tables 5, 6 and 7 show the geographical distribution of respondents by place of residence, homeland,
and clan association respectively. The majority of the interviews were conducted in Yirrkala,
Gunyangara, Birritjimi and Gukula, which explains the distribution by residence of the survey
respondents. Yolngu mobility is not random or widespread – most people gravitate towards one or
another service hub and their movements are constrained by their kin network.9 Thus, it was possible
for the interviewers to reach cultural practitioners residing outside of the survey interview locations
(see Table 5).
Table 5. Distribution of survey respondents by residence and IARE
Place of residence IARE Count
Birritjimi Nhulunbuy - Gunyangara 10
Gunyangara Nhulunbuy - Gunyangara 7
Nhulunbuy Nhulunbuy - Gunyangara 3
Total Nhulunbuy – Gunyangara 20
Baniyala Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 1
Bukudal Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 1
Gangan Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 2
Garrthalala Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 2
Wandawuy Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 2
Total Laynhapuy - Gumatj Homelands 8
Galiwinku Marthakal Homelands - Galiwinku 1
Total Marthakal Homelands – Galiwinku 1
Gapuwiyak Gapuwiyak and Outstations 6
Total Gapuwiyak and Outstations 6
Ramingining Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations 5
Total Ramingining - Milingimbi and Outstations 5
Yirrkala Yirrkala 31
Total Yirrkala 31
Total 71
9 However, different mobility patterns occur in cases of large ceremonies, which typically attract people from across the region (Morphy 2011: 8).
16
Respondents were also asked a question about their homelands or traditional lands, which are
different from residencies. The Yolngu in East Arnhem Land associate themselves strongly with
particular homelands. The homelands play a central role in art and cultural production and in
environmental management in the region. They are also the major focus of ceremonial activities and
other activities associated with cultural maintenance for the Yolngu, even for those who usually reside
in the hub communities. Most of these homelands are occupied throughout the year, although in some
cases people move to bigger communities during the wet season and return to their homelands in the
dry (Morphy 2012: 18). As Table 6 demonstrates, the homelands of the respondents in our survey were
widely distributed.
Table 6. Distribution of survey respondents by homeland
Homeland Count Homeland Count
Gulurunga 5 Gikal 2
Wandawuy 5 Gitan 2
Yalangbara 5 Gurkawuy 2
Bawaka 4 Rorruwuy 2
Dhanaya 4 Balma 1
Garrthalala 4 Barrkira 1
Dhambaliya 3 Baygurrtji 1
Gangan 3 Cape Barrow 1
Gunyangara 3 Dhupuwamirri 1
Gurrumuru 3 Dhuruputjpi 1
Baniyala 2 Nalyindi 1
Bukudal 2 Ngaypinya 1
Dhalinybuy 2 Wugularr 1
Djarrakpi 2 Ramingining 1
Gapuwiyak 2 Yirrkala 1
Gawa 2 Yudu Yudu 1
Total
71
The social structure of Yolngu society is based on clans (or extended family groups) and moieties (the
Dhuwa or Yirritja moieties). There are more than 50 Yolngu clans in East Arnhem Land. Each clan has
its own traditional land, and dialect of the Yolngu language as well as their particular song lines and
ceremonies. Table 7 shows the composition of the survey sample by clan group.
Table 7. Distribution of survey respondents by associated clan
Clan Count Clan Count
Gumatj 17 Manggalili 2
Rirratjingu 12 Marrakulu 2
Other 7 Djambarrpuyngu 2
Djapu 5 Wangurri 1
Galpu 4 Djarrwark 1
Dhalwangu 4 Dhudi Djapu 1
Marrangu 3 Ngaymil 1
Golumala 2 Warramiri 1
Daatiwuy 2 Gupapuyngu 1
Madarrpa 2 Ganalbingu 1
Total
71
17
Overall, both the homeland and the clan distributions (Tables 6 and 7) indicate that the sample
provides an extensive geographical coverage of the region.
8. SAMPLE vs. TARGET POPULATION AND WEIGHTING ISSUES
In order to determine how representative our survey sample is of the population of the Yolngu cultural
practitioners in the East Arnhem Land region, we need to compare the sample socio-demographic
characteristics to the corresponding characteristics of the target population of adult Indigenous
Australians involved in selected cultural activities as determined above. Table 8 shows comparisons
for age and gender between the 2002 NATSISS data and the sample for our own survey. The 2002
NATSISS defined cultural practitioners as those Indigenous adults who participated in the selected
activities in “the last year”. Our survey uses a wider definition for cultural practitioners to include
those who have experience but may not currently participate in any of the cultural-economic activities.
To make a comparison between these two datasets we used the data on “practising cultural
practitioners”, i.e. those practitioners who participated in the cultural-economic activities in “the last
year” or “the last 12 months”.
Table 8. Age and gender of Indigenous people who participate in cultural activities
(percent)
Male Female
15-34
yrs (%)
35-54 yrs (%)
>55 yrs (%)
Sub-total (%)
15-34 yrs (%)
35-54 yrs (%)
>55 yrs (%)
Sub-total (%)
Total
(%)
NATSISS 23 14 6 43 30 20 7 57 100
Our sample
16 21 6 43 14 23 20 57 100
It is apparent that although the overall gender composition of our sample coincides exactly with that of
the target population, the age distributions within the genders differ. Accordingly it will be necessary
to weight our raw survey results to correct for this discrepancy. The required weights are as follows:
Male: 15-34 yrs: 1.46
35-54 yrs: 0.67
>55 yrs: 0.98
Female: 15-34 yrs: 2.11
35-54 yrs: 0.85
>55 yrs: 0.37
These weights are used throughout this report to calculate weighted responses to survey questions.
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9. MAIN RESULTS
This section provides an overview of the main survey findings as summarised in the tables below.
9.1 ACQUISITION OF CULTURAL CAPITAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
In defining the cultural capital of the Yolngu in this project, we distinguish between the cultural
practitioners’ cultural knowledge on the one hand and the skills they acquire from learning and
experience on the other. Individuals use different pathways for acquiring this knowledge and these
skills.
Turning first to the acquisition of cultural knowledge, we show in Table 9 the pathways for learning
about their culture that are regarded as important, where respondents can indicate more than one. We
also show the single pathway that respondents regard as the most important one in their own case.
More than half of the respondents have acquired their cultural knowledge from several different
sources, including from family members, from clan elders, from ceremonies and from the visual and
performing art of their culture. Overwhelmingly the single pathway regarded as most important is the
traditional one whereby the cultural knowledge is passed from one generation to the next by family
members, elders and community members.
Table 9. Pathways for acquisition of cultural capital (percent of all respondents)
Cultural knowledge pathways Important
pathways10 (n=71) (%)
Most important pathway (n=71)
(%)
From family members, elders or other community members
95 85
From ceremonies 64 6
From festivals or other cultural events 44 5
From artworks, songs, stories or country 56 2
Some other way 6 2
Total - 100
In regard to gaining industry skills and experience, again the majority of the respondents (nearly three
quarters) stated that observing from/participating with family, elders or other community members
was important for them in developing those skills, as shown in Table 10. Learning on the job was also
important for more than half of respondents and nearly two in five of the interviewed cultural
practitioners believed that self-learning was important for them in gaining their industry skills. When
asked about what pathway was the most important for respondents to develop their skills in order to
participate in the arts and cultural industries, half of the respondents stated that observing
from/participating with family, elders or other community members was the most important (see
Table 10 Column 2). The second most important choice was learning on the job (14 percent).
All of the respondents had participated in formal education of some sort: 39 percent of respondents
had completed schooling to between years 6 and 11; 32 percent had completed year 12; 19 percent had
a certificate or diploma, and 10 percent had a bachelor degree or diploma. Nevertheless, formal
education was seen as an important pathway towards acquiring cultural and creative skills by only 28
percent of respondents and only 11 percent saw this as the most important.
10 Multiple responses were allowed.
19
Table 10. Pathways for gaining industry skills and experience (percent of all
respondents)
Industry skills pathways Important
pathways11 (n=71) (%)
Most important pathway (n=71)
(%)
Observing from/ participating with family, elders or other community members
72 50
Observing from/ participating with a professional, such as an art advisor, ranger or tourism operator
25 4
Workshops or short courses 28 6
Learning on the job 52 14
Self-learning 38 12
School, TAFE or university program 28 11
Some other way 3 2
Total - 100
9.2 CULTURAL PRODUCTION
Table 11 shows the range of cultural activities identified as cultural production in this study. The first
numerical column of the table indicates which of these activities respondents have ever undertaken. It
can be seen that there is a lot of experience in art and cultural industries in the region. Among the
creative artistic activities, more than four in five of the Yolngu cultural practitioners have been
previously involved in visual arts. Many Yolngu practitioners are performers, with nearly two in five
having performed or showcased their culture at some point in their lives. Almost one-third of Yolngu
cultural practitioners have been a writer/storyteller, which means that they are experienced in literary
or other professional writing and/or storytelling.
In terms of applied cultural-economic activities, nearly every Yolngu cultural practitioner is
experienced in fishing, hunting, gathering and preparing bush food, which is not surprising as most of
the Yolngu live on country and have access to the land. About two in five Yolngu practitioners are
experienced in making medicine or cosmetics. Approximately one in five practitioners have been
engaged in design and tourism at some point in their lives.
It appears, however, that cultural maintenance activities are those activities where Yolngu cultural
practitioners have the most of experience. More than two thirds of them have had experience in
environmental resource management (or caring for country); more than two in five are experienced in
translating and interpreting to/from Yolngu languages and/or cross-cultural consulting; one-third
have been a member of a Yolngu cultural board, council or committee at some time; and 20 percent
are experienced in archiving or record-keeping of historical materials related to Yolngu culture.
Virtually all of them have participated in Yolngu ceremonies.
Survey questions about current cultural-economic activities or activities undertaken “last year” were
used to identify those Yolngu cultural practitioners who are currently doing the activity and who
amongst these were being paid for it (cols 2 and 3 of Table 11). It is apparent that among all cultural
practitioners in the region, the great majority of them are currently engaged in traditional activities
such as participating in ceremonies, hunting and gathering food, and caring for country. However very
11 Multiple responses were allowed.
20
few are paid for these activities, although some are paid for caring for country if they are employed in
ranger programs. By far the most common cultural economic activity for which practitioners are
currently being paid is making Yolngu arts and crafts, underlining the significant role that the visual
arts industry plays in the economy of the region. Caring for country is another cultural activity that
provides some sort of income to every third Yolngu cultural practitioner. Tourism, interpreting/
translating/ cross-cultural consulting and Yolngu governance are also among those activities that
provide income to a relatively large proportion of cultural practitioners in the region - approximately
one in five of all survey respondents are currently being paid for providing these services.
The data in Table 11 show percentages of all survey respondents. We now turn our attention
specifically to the practitioners within each cultural activity (i.e. who have ever engaged in it) who are
currently doing it, and of these, how many are being paid. These results are shown in Table 12. We see,
for example, that 81 percent of those cultural practitioners who have ever been involved in making art
and craft are currently engaged in it, and 88 percent of the latter respondents are being paid for it.
Table 11. Cultural-economic activities undertaken by cultural practitioners (percent of
all respondents)
Proportion of all respondents (n=71) (%)
# Cultural economic activities Have ever done the activity
Currently doing the
activity
Currently being paid
for the activity
CREATIVE ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
1 Making arts or crafts 85 68 60
2 Performing music or dance/performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
38 22 15
3 Composing music 14 7 6
4 Writing or storytelling 30 12 6
5 Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio program 17 6 6
CULTURAL MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6 Participating in ceremonies 93 89 4
7 Caring for country 68 61 33
8 Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
45 38 22
9 Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
20 11 3
10 Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee 34 27 20
APPLIED CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
11 Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food 96 85 5
12 Making design 21 10 6
13 Providing tourism services 21 19 19
14 Providing health services 14 10 6
15 Making medicine or cosmetics 37 26 11
Looking further in Table 12, we note that nearly three in five Yolngu performing artists are currently
practising. Within cultural maintenance activities, more than half of Yolngu cultural practitioners
experienced in archiving/record-keeping and four in five practitioners involved in cultural governance
are practising. Nine in ten with experience in environmental resource management are engaged in this
work, and among those with experience in translation/interpretation and cultural consulting, four in
five are also currently involved in this work. About nine in ten practitioners with experience in
providing Yolngu tourism services are currently engaged in tourism, while seven in ten practitioners
21
with experience in Yolngu health and making Yolngu medicine or cosmetics also continue their
practice.
Importantly, there is a significant pool of experienced art and cultural workers in East Arnhem Land
who are currently not engaged in work, as Table 12 demonstrates. This is particularly true for Yolngu
music composers, writers and storytellers, film/video/animation/TV or radio program makers and
designers – more than half of the Yolngu with experience in these activities are currently not engaged
in them.
Not all Yolngu who are currently involved in cultural work are paid for it. While nearly everyone
involved in provision of Yolngu tourism services, and in film, video, animation, TV and radio program-
making are paid, the situation is different in other cultural-economic activities in the region. Fewer
than half of those involved in Yolngu writing/storytelling, archiving/record-keeping, and making
Yolngu medicine or cosmetics receive payment for their work. Nearly nine in ten Yolngu visual artists
and composers are paid, with the rest doing their work without being paid. Relatively higher numbers
of designers, performers and those engaged in Yolngu cultural governance are paid – two-thirds of
designers and performers and nearly three quarters of those involved in Yolngu cultural governance
are paid. Only very few cultural practitioners receive payment for Yolngu ceremonies or fishing,
hunting, gathering or preparing bush food, as we have noted earlier.
Table 12. Proportion of practising and paid cultural practitioners (percent of those who
have ever done the activity and those who are currently doing the activity)
Proportion of those who
have ever done the activity (%)
Proportion of those who are currently doing the
activity (%)
# Cultural economic activities Currently doing the
activity
Not currently doing the
activity
Currently being paid
for the activity
Not currently
being paid for the activity
CREATIVE ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
1 Making arts or crafts 81 19 88 12
2 Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
58 42 67 33
3 Composing music 48 52 86 14
4 Writing or storytelling 40 60 47 53
5 Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio program 37 63 100 0
CULTURAL MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6 Participating in ceremonies 96 4 4 96
7 Caring for country 90 10 55 45
8 Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
83 17 57 43
9 Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
54 46 24 76
10 Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
81 19 72 28
APPLIED CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
11 Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food 88 12 6 94
12 Making design 45 55 66 34
13 Providing tourism services 90 10 97 3
14 Providing health services 70 30 58 42
15 Making medicine or cosmetics 70 30 42 58
22
9.3 TIME ALLOCATION
In this and following section we focus attention on the individual cultural activities, and we present
data for those cultural practitioners who are currently engaged in that activity. Thus the percentages
shown in these tables are the proportions of those currently engaged in the activity, not of all
respondents.
The regularity of engagement in cultural-economic activities and working time allocation strategies
deployed by the Yolngu cultural practitioners are summarised in Table 13. In some activities certain
patterns emerge. For example, the activities in which the majority of cultural practitioners engaged in
the activity are working full-time (or “nearly every day”) are film/video/animation/ radio and TV
program-making, and providing Yolngu health services.
Table 13. Time spent on cultural-economic activities (percent of those currently engaged
in the selected cultural-economic activities)
# Cultural-economic activities
Nearly every day (%)
Nearly every week (%)
Nearly every
month(%)
Every other
month (%)
Not very often/
incidentally (%)
Total
(%)
CREATIVE ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
1 Making arts or crafts 39 16 30 3 12 100
2 Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
0 0 31 28 41 100
3 Composing music 36 44 0 20 0 100
4 Writing or storytelling 28 4 34 29 4 100
5 Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio program
52 48 0 0 0 100
CULTURAL MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6 Participating in ceremonies 3 4 41 41 12 100
7 Caring for country 72 5 12 5 7 100
8 Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
44 10 14 14 18 100
9 Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
26 9 65 0 0 100
10 Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
16 10 53 7 14 100
APPLIED CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
11 Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food
21 55 16 2 7 100
12 Making design 46 20 10 0 24 100
13 Providing tourism services 5 10 11 62 12 100
14 Providing health services 58 12 24 0 5 100
15 Making medicine or cosmetics 29 9 19 0 43 100
23
Part-time and casual work is also important for some activities. The majority of Yolngu cultural
practitioners fish, hunt, gather or prepare bush food on a “nearly every week” basis (equivalent of part-
time). Activities where cultural practitioners work predominantly on a casual basis, such as those done
“nearly every month” or “every other month”, are archiving/ record-keeping and being on a Yolngu
cultural board, committee or council. Three in five of the Yolngu cultural practitioners involved in
tourism are also engaged casually on an “every other month” basis, reflecting the seasonality of the
industry. Likewise cultural practitioners are also regularly engaged in ceremonies, with four in five
spending between “nearly every month” and “every other month” on ceremonies.
The majority of Yolngu writers and storytellers as well as performing artists work on a casual basis;
however, more than a quarter of the Yolngu writers/ storytellers are engaged full-time and two in five
of performers perform only incidentally. The Yolngu working in the visual arts, music composing,
design, interpretation/ translation and cultural consulting, as well as in making Yolngu medicine and
cosmetics, do not seem to have any particular pattern in their allocation of working time, with some
working full-time, some part-time and some only being engaged occasionally in these activities.
9.4 INCOME FROM CULTURAL PRODUCTION
We saw in Table 12 that the great majority (well over 80 percent) of cultural practitioners currently
engaged in making art and craft, composing music or providing tourism services were being paid for
their activity. But this does not mean that these activities provided the main income of these
practitioners. Table 14 shows the importance of each activity as an income source for those currently
being paid for it. It can be seen that in fact only a quarter of composers, about a third of visual artists
and only 5 percent of those working in tourism see payments from these activities as their main
income. For seven in ten of Yolngu working in tourism, the industry provides only incidental income.
Those activities that provide the main income for the largest proportion of practitioners are: making
film/video/animation/TV or radio programs; environmental resource management (such as ranger
work); providing health services; and making medicine and cosmetics. For three in five of the small
number of those who receive payment from fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food, this is
also their main income. For four in five Yolngu paid for their involvement in cultural governance, this
work provides only extra income. The majority of Yolngu performing artists who receive payment for
their work see this income as incidental, with only one in five seeing this income as their main income.
Participating in ceremonies is another low-income activity in the region.
In the survey respondents who had received payment for the various cultural activities were asked how
payment was received – was it from salary or wages? an hourly rate? a fixed sum payment? and so on.
Most of the practitioners engaged in the creative arts were paid on a fixed sum basis, e.g. on the sale of
artworks, or as a performer at tourist events. The same applied to those serving on boards who
received a fixed payment for their participation. In some activities cultural practitioners were
employed full- or part-time and as such received their income from these activities in the form of
salaries and wages, for example, those engaged as rangers or translators/interpreters. Responses to a
question as to the sources of payments indicated the importance of not-for-profit organisations or
community-controlled Aboriginal corporations such as art centres in providing income for cultural
practitioners in the region.
24
Table 14. Type of income earned from cultural-economic activities (percent of those
currently engaged in the selected cultural-economic activities)
# Cultural-economic activities Main
income (%)
Extra income
(%)
Incidental income
(%)
Total
(%)
CREATIVE ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
1 Making arts or crafts 35 36 29 100
2 Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
20 28 52 100
3 Composing music 25 35 40 100
4 Writing or storytelling 31 43 26 100
5 Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio program
100 0 0 100
CULTURAL MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6 Participating in ceremonies 0 0 100 100
7 Caring for country 70 9 21 100
8 Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
30 39 31 100
9 Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
42 38 20 100
10 Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
10 82 8 100
APPLIED CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
11 Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food
63 26 11 100
12 Making design 37 15 48 100
13 Providing tourism services 5 24 70 100
14 Providing health services 84 0 16 100
15 Making medicine or cosmetics 70 0 30 100
9.5 CAREER PATTERNS
Looking back over their working lives earning money from cultural production, respondents were
asked when they started out, i.e. how long they had been engaged in the various activities for payment.
Table 15 shows the career patterns for the six most prominent activities. It is clear that the creative arts
activities have been a possible source of income for Yolngu artists for some time, with the majority
having been doing these activities for payment for most or all of their lives. The more recent
availability of activities such as interpreting/translating, board membership, or engagement with the
tourist industry is broadly indicated by the data. Caring for country is an interesting anomaly. Most of
the Yolngu have been engaged in this activity for a long period, but being paid for it is a more recent
phenomenon – only one quarter of them currently being paid for it have been receiving payment for
most or all of their adult lives, and most of these are relatively young.
25
Table 15. Length of time activities have been done for payment (percent of those
currently paid in each activity)
Cultural economic activities Just started in
the last year (%)
Doing it for a few years
(%)
Most or all of (adult) life
(%)
Total
(%)
Making arts or crafts 34 27 39 100
Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
10 - 90 100
Caring for country 33 42 25 100
Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
7 60 33 100
Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
7 50 43 100
Providing tourism services 36 50 14 100
Survey respondents being paid for cultural work were asked whether they would like to take on more
or less such work, or whether they were happy with their current level of engagement. Table 16 shows
the proportions favouring these different alternatives in the six most prominent activities. Although
there is some variation between the activities, the predominant view across the six activities is a
preference for the status quo. Nevertheless there are significant numbers who would prefer more;
around half of visual artists, for example, would like to undertake more work in their particular
cultural activity.
When those cultural practitioners who would like to extend their work in activities for which they are
currently receiving payment were asked what stopped them from doing so, the main reasons
nominated by creative artists had to do with time availability – family obligations, the demands of
other work, and so on. For example about one-third of visual artists in this category nominated “no
time” or “family obligations” as the obstacle to their taking on more work, even though they had a
preference for doing so. It is noteworthy that a number of visual artists said that they didn’t know how
to contact people who would pay for their work; presumably these are artists who pursue opportunities
outside the art centre system.
In other categories of cultural activity, it appears that work not being available is a barrier to cultural
practitioners wishing to take on more. This problem affects cultural practitioners wanting to take on
more work in the tourism industry, as well as those wishing for more caring-for-country work.
As we have seen in earlier sections, a number of Yolngu cultural practitioners engage in cultural
activities without being paid. The main reasons indicated by respondents as to why they undertook
these unpaid activities had to do with cultural obligations, family responsibilities, passing on
knowledge to others, and feelings related to identity and commitment to others. These reasons were
particularly prominent in explaining unpaid participation in ceremonies, caring for country, and
fishing, hunting and food gathering. In the latter case, the simple fact of enjoyment was cited by many
as sufficient reason for engaging in this activity.
Some Yolngu cultural practitioners have stopped working in an activity in which they have been active
in earlier years. Almost always the reason given is the lack of time and demands of other work. Such
other work in some cases is a different cultural activity; so, for example, a practitioner who once
composed music may have moved to film making, or someone who once served on a board may now
have moved to a creative practice. In other cases, work that is not directly related to cultural practice is
a reason for cultural practitioners to stop their cultural activity. This also demonstrates the diversity of
26
employment strategies that people in the region deploy in order to cope with seasonality, market
changes and changes on government policies and associated funding.
Table 16. Preferences for more or less paid work (percent of those currently paid in each
activity)
Cultural economic activities Prefer more
(%)
Prefer about the same
(%)
Prefer less
(%)
Total
(%)
Making arts or crafts 52 43 5 100
Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
27 55 18 100
Caring for country 30 61 9 100
Interpreting or translating from/ to languages or cultural consulting
27 73 - 100
Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
47 38 15 100
Providing tourism services 46 54 - 100
9.6 NON-CULTURAL WORK
Finally, respondents were asked whether in the last year they had other paid work, i.e. outside the
cultural sector. About one-third of respondents had had another paid job last year in areas including
teaching, labouring, working in a shop, community and social services, and so on. This work was
undertaken nearly every day and comprised the main income for these people. Roughly two-thirds of
them received this income as a full-time salary, the remainder being paid on an hourly, casual or part-
time basis.
10. CONCLUSIONS
In this report we have discussed the rationale for undertaking a survey of cultural practitioners in East
Arnhem Land, we have described in detail the conduct of the research, and we have presented the
principal results. The raw data that are tabulated in this report are being analysed and the implications
of our findings will be discussed in subsequent publications. For now we can simply conclude by
outlining the overall picture that emerges from this study.
It is clear that the rich endowment of cultural capital, both tangible and intangible, that exists in the
East Arnhem Land region is the basis for a very wide range of cultural activity that yields both cultural
and economic value. The 2002 NATSISS data allow for estimation of a population of over one
thousand cultural practitioners in the region, or about one-quarter of the Indigenous adult population.
These cultural practitioners engage in a variety of forms of cultural activity including the production of
artistic goods and services, cultural maintenance and various applied cultural activities. Most of these
activities have yielded monetary reward in one form or another, although there appears to be scope for
improvement in the economic circumstances in which cultural production takes place, especially in
regard to the levels and regularity of incomes that cultural practitioners receive.
Throughout this work the strength of the cultural foundations upon which Yolngu society is built has
been emphasised. We have noted the fundamental role played by intergenerational cultural
transmission, not only in endowing cultural practitioners with the knowledge and skills that they draw
upon in their work, but also in motivating them in allocating their time between their cultural
responsibilities and obligations and their production of work for the market. It is clear that art and
cultural production does indeed offer considerable potential for contributing to the regional economy
in a manner that also enhances cultural sustainability and resilience.
27
REFERENCES
Acker, Tim and Alice Woodhead (2015a). Remote Australia Online Art Atlas: Art Financials. Online
dataset.
http://nintione.com.au/sites/default/files/resource/atlas/Art_Atlas_Financials/atlas.html (14
April 2015).
Acker, Tim and Alice Woodhead (2015b). Remote Australia Online Art Atlas: Artworks and Artists.
Online dataset.
http://nintione.com.au/sites/default/files/resource/atlas/Art_Atlas_Artworks/atlas.html (14 April
2015).
Altman, Jon, (1982), “Maningrida outstations: A preliminary economic overview” in E.A. Young and
E.K. Fisk (eds), Small Rural Communities. Canberra: Australian National University, Development
Studies Centre, pp. 1–42.
Altman, Jon (1989). The Aboriginal Arts and Crafts Industry, Canberra: Australian Government
Publishing Service.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2006). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians:
Involvement in Arts and Culture, 2001 and 2002. Cat. no. 4721.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2015). National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social
Survey (NATSISS). http://www.abs.gov.au/NATSISS (9 March 2015).
Berndt, Ronald and Catherine Berndt (1954). Arnhem Land: its history and its people. Melbourne:
Cheshire.
Cooperative Research Centre for Remote Economic Participation (CRC-REP) (2015). Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Art Economies Project outputs and publications. http://crc-
rep.com/research/enterprise-development/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-art-
economies/project-outputs (28 April 2015).
Morphy, Howard (2005). “Mutual conversion — the Methodist Church and the Yolngu with particular
reference to Yirrkala.” Humanities Research 12(1): 41-53.
Morphy, Howard (2007). Becoming Art: Exploring Cross-cultural Categories. Oxford: Berg.
Morphy, Howard and David Throsby (2015). “Cultural Assets and Economic Opportunity in Aboriginal
Tourism: the Case of the Yolngu People in East Arnhem Land” unpublished paper.
Morphy, Frances (2011). Hunters and Collectors: Data Gathering in North East Arnhem Land with a
Yolngu Workforce. (Report to the Australian Bureau of Statistics for the ABS523 North East
Arnhem Population Project). Canberra: Australian National University, Centre for Aboriginal
Economic Policy Research.
Morphy, Frances (2012). The Yolŋu in Place: Designing a Population Survey for North East Arnhem
Land. Canberra: Australian National University, Agreements, Treaties and Negotiated Settlements
Project
Ngurra Kuju Walyja — One Country One People — The Canning Stock Route Project. Project official
website. http://www.canningstockrouteproject.com/ (6 December 2014).
Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations (ORIC). (2012). At the Heart of Art and the Art
Centre Story: A Snapshot of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Corporations in the Visual Arts
Sector. Woden: Commonwealth of Australia.
Throsby, David and Anita Zednik (2010). Do You Really Expect to Get Paid? An Economic Study of
Professional Artists in Australia. Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts.
28
APPENDIX 1: CONSENT FORM
I have read, or had the information sheet explained to me, and I fully understand the nature of The
Remote Aboriginal Cultural Practitioners Survey and its likely outcomes. I have chosen to participate
with full consent.
a) I understand that participation is voluntary and that I can withdraw any time during the interview. I
understand that if I withdraw, I can ask researchers not to use anything I have contributed to this
survey.
b) I understand that because the information is unidentifiable, after completing the interview and
submitting it, I would not be able to withhold my permission to use the information I provided in the
survey.
c) I acknowledge that the researchers have explained to me how my information may be used in the
survey. I give consent for my information to be used in the survey: (Yes/No)
29
APPENDIX 2: GARMA FESTIVAL
In 2014, the Garma Festival was held between 1st and 4th of August, at Gurkula (approximately 30
kilometres from Nhulunbuy), which is its usual location. The research team were collecting interviews
at Gurkula from Thursday July 31st until Tuesday August 5th. We liaised with the Festival organisers
well in advance of the festival to obtain permission from the festival to conduct the survey during
Garma. The research team also had a Garma Expo stall and had an opportunity to present the survey
project to the Garma guests as part of the festival program. A one-page flyer about the survey in
English was also produced specifically for the festival to spread information during the festival (see
Figure 2.1).
Fig. 2.1: Garma Festival 2015 Remote Indigenous Cultural Practitioners Survey flyer
30
The social geography of Garma site is socially complex. The major encampment of local Yolngu
includes those who are engaged in cultural workshops and dance performance, and of some groups
from further afield who are also there as performers. Somewhat separated from the main encampment
is the area where the members of the landowning clan and their families have their camp. Local
Yolngu, visiting community performers and paying guests from elsewhere in Australia and overseas all
intermingle. This makes the task of identifying the target population difficult. Moreover, the festival
takes place over a short period of time, thus, opportunities for counting are limited. Local Yolngu also
come and leave the festival site during the day or sometimes stay over one or two nights with relatives
who are camping there for the duration. Most people were away from their tents for most of the day
and in the evening most of them were engaged in performance (either participating or being the
audience). All these also reduced opportunities for conducting the interviews.
31
APPENDIX 3: YOLNGU CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
CONCORDANCE BETWEEN YOLNGU CULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW
ZEALAND STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION (ANZSIC)
Yolngu cultural activities
Division – Subdivision Group - Class
CREATIVE ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
Making arts or crafts R Arts and Recreation Services - 90 Creative and Performing Arts Activities
900 Creative and Performing Arts Activities - 9002 Creative Artists, Musicians, Writers and Performers
Composing music R Arts and Recreation Services - 90 Creative and Performing Arts Activities
900 Creative and Performing Arts Activities - 9002 Creative Artists, Musicians, Writers and Performers
Writing or storytelling R Arts and Recreation Services - 90 Creative and Performing Arts Activities
900 Creative and Performing Arts Activities - 9002 Creative Artists, Musicians, Writers and Performers
Performing music or dance/ performing in theatre or film/ choreographing dance
R Arts and Recreation Services - 90 Creative and Performing Arts Activities
900 Creative and Performing Arts Activities - 9002 Creative Artists, Musicians, Writers and Performers
Making a film, video, animation, TV or radio programme
J Information Media and Telecommunications – 55 Motion Picture and Sound Recording Activities
551 Motion Picture and Video Activities – 5511 Motion Picture and Video Production; 5514 Post-production Services and Other Motion Picture and Video Activities 552 Sound Recording and Music Publishing – 5521 Music Publishing; 5522 Music and Other Sound Recording Activities
CULTURAL MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
Participating in ceremonies
S Other Services - 95 Personal and Other Services
954 Religious Services - 9540 Religious Services
Archiving or record-keeping of stories or historical materials
J Information Media and Telecommunications – 60 Library and Other Information Services R Arts and Recreation Services - 89 Heritage Activities
601 Libraries and Archives - Libraries and Archives; 891 Museum Operation - 8910 Museum Operation
Being a member of a cultural board, council or committee
O Public Administration and Safety - 75 Public Administration12
751 Central Government Administration – 7510 Central Government Administration; 752 State Government Administration - 7520 State Government Administration; 753 Local Government Administration – 7530 Local Government Administration
Interpreting or translating from/ to Yolngu languages or cultural consulting
M Professional, Scientific and Technical Services - 69 Professional, Scientific And Technical Services (Except Computer System Design And Related Services)
699 Other Professional, Scientific and Technical Services - 6999 Other Professional, Scientific and Technical Services n.e.c.
12 Excluding the management of commercial and business activities or activities other than central, state or local government administration are included in the classes appropriate to these activities.
32
Yolngu cultural activities
Division – Subdivision Group - Class
APPLIED CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
Fishing, hunting, gathering or preparing bush food
A Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing - 04 Fishing, Hunting and Trapping
041 Fishing; 042 Hunting and Trapping
Caring for country R Arts and Recreation Services Subdivision - 89 Heritage Activities
892 Parks and Gardens Operations - 8922 Nature Reserves and Conservation Parks Operation
Providing tourism services
N Administrative and Support Services - 72 Administrative Services
722 Travel Agency and Tour Arrangement Services - 7220 Travel Agency and Tour Arrangement Services
Providing health services Q Health Care and Social Assistance - 85 Medical and Other Health Care Services
851 Medical Services – 8512 Specialist Medical Services 859 Other Health Care Services – 8599 Other Health Care Services n.e.c.
Making medicine or cosmetics
C Manufacturing - 18 Basic Chemical and Chemical Product Manufacturing
184 Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing – 1841 Human Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing
Making design M Professional, Scientific and Technical Services - 69 Professional, Scientific And Technical Services (Except Computer System Design And Related Services)
692 Architectural, Engineering and Technical Services - 6924 Other Specialised Design Services
33
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the collaboration throughout this project of our colleagues from the Australian
National University, Professor Howard Morphy and Dr Marianne Riphagen. We also greatly
appreciate the energy, time and advice contributed by Frances Morphy in assisting us in the design
and implementation of the survey.
We would like to thank our core team of Yolngu consultants - Dhanggal Gurruwiwi, Joseph Neparrnga
Gumbula, Yananymul Mununggurr and Waka Mununggurr - who provided us with invaluable insights
about the regional art and cultural production and helped us in cross-cultural interpretation of the
survey concepts.
We also acknowledge the work of our team of survey interviewers and translators/interpreters -
Rarriwuy Marika, Wayalwanga Marika and Phillip Marika.
In addition, we express our gratitude to the following people for their support at different stages of the
project:
Will Stubbs, Kade McDonald, Wukun Wanambi and Randjupi Yunupingu from the Buku
Larrnggay Mulka Art Centre
Joseph Brady, Ishmael Marika and Bec Charlesworth from the Mulka Project
Dave Preece from Yirralka Rangers
Steve Roeger and Greg Wearne from Dhimurru Rangers
Matt Grooby, Waka Mununggurr and Djawa (Timmy) Burarrwanga from Lirrwi Tourism
Djawa Yunupingu from the Yothu Yindi Foundation
Christina Davidson from the Association of Northern, Kimberley and Arnhem Aboriginal Artists
Denise Bowden from the Garma Festival
Djapirri Mununggirritj, Maryclaire Milikins and Anne Enchong from the Department of the
Prime Minister and Cabinet, Yirrkala
Sarah Bentley and Jeremy Kee from the Miwatj Employment Project
Dhalulu Ganambarr-Stubbs from the Yirrkala School
Leon White from the Yirrkala Homelands School
Staff members of the Laynhapuy Homelands Aboriginal Corporation.
Finally, we would like to thank all the Yolngu participants who took part in the survey interviews and
the pilot testing in 2014. Their patience and willingness to contribute to telling the story of Yolŋu Rom
Djäma or cultural production in East Arnhem Land is greatly appreciated.
Work published in the Macquarie Economics Research Papers series is written by members or
affilitates of the Department of Economics, Macquarie University. Although not refereed, the papers
are under the review and supervision of an editorial board.
Editorial Board
David Throsby (Chair)
Tony Bryant
Chris Heaton
Roselyne Joyeux
Sean Turnell
Editorial Assistant
Laura Billington
Views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Department of Economics, Macquarie University.