maintenance of instruments & systems (free chapter download)

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Maintenance of Instruments & Systems 2nd Edition Lawrence D. Goettsche, Editor Practical Guides for Measurement and Control

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Maintenance of Instruments & Systems is ISA's best-selling maintenance handbook that covers fundamental principles, vocabulary, symbolism, standards and safety. In addition, it spotlights today's fast-emerging trends and advances. You can purchase this book at the following link: https://www.isa.org/store/products/product-detail/?productId=116166

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Page 1: Maintenance of Instruments & Systems (free chapter download)

Maintenance ofInstruments & Systems

2nd Edition

Lawrence D. Goettsche, Editor

Practical Guidesfor Measurement and Control

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Table of Contents

About the Editor and Contributors xi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1Overview 1History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance 1Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering 6

Chapter 2 Fundamental Principles 9Overview 9Electronic Field Instrumentation 9Why Maintain? 10Maintenance vs. Troubleshooting 19Calibration and Reasons to Calibrate 20Troubleshooting 21Basic Troubleshooting Techniques 22Designed with Maintenance in Mind 25

Chapter 3 Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications 31Overview 31Process (Piping) & Instrumentation Diagram 31Instrument Loop Diagrams 32Logic Diagrams 39Highway Drawings 49Specifications 51Instrument Symbols 54Instrument Symbols 58

Chapter 4 Maintenance Personnel 73Overview 73Multi-Disciplined 74Continuous Training 74Training of Maintenance Workers 74Multicraft/Multiskilled, Multi-Disciplined 78Knowledge Factors 80Skills 85Job Titles and Descriptions 88Credentialing 91Certification 94

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Chapter 5 Maintenance Management and Engineering 97Overview 97The Need for Maintenance Management 98Maintenance Philosophy 98Maintenance Management Organization 99Basic Requirements for a Maintenance Department 100Planning and Scheduling 102Work Order System 102MTTF, MTTR, and Availability 104Training Maintenance Workers 107Preparing Functional Specifications 109Computerized Maintenance Management Systems 110Office/Shop Layout 115Centralized/Decentralized Shops 118

Chapter 6 Pressure and Flow Instruments 121Overview 121Pressure Transmitters 121Differential Pressure Technology 132Level Transmitters 138Flow Transmitters 143Magnetic Flowmeters 146Mass Flowmeters 151Turbine Flowmeters 156Open Channel Flowmeters 158Vortex Shedding Flowmeter 161Vortex Shedding Meters 161Positive Displacement Flowmeters 162Positive Displacement Meters 164Target Flowmeters 164Thermal Mass Flowmeters 166Ultrasonic Flowmeters 167Variable Area Flowmeters 168Insertion (Sampling) Flowmeters 170

Chapter 7 Maintenance Engineering 171Overview 171Engineering Assistance 173Maintenance Involvement in New Projects 174Successful Maintenance 177The High Maintenance System 178Documentation Control 179Alternative Methods of Maintenance 180Service/Contract Maintenance 180In-House Maintenance versus Contract Maintenance 181New Systems Installations and Checkout 184Preventive Maintenance 185Power, Grounding, and Isolation Requirements 186Instrument Air Requirements 196Communication Requirements 197Heating, Ventilating, Cooling, and Air Conditioning Systems 198

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Chapter 8 Temperature Devices 201Overview 201Thermocouples 206Resistance Temperature Devices 213Thermistors 217Integrated Circuit Temperature Transducer 218Infrared Temperature Transducers 218Optical Fiber Thermometry 220Thermometers 220

Chapter 9 Panel and Transmitting Instruments 233Overview 233Panel and Behind-Panel Instruments 233Panel Meters 241Discrete Switches 241Potentiometers 242Recorders 242Transducers 242Smart Transmitters 244

Chapter 10 Analytical Instruments 259Overview 259Field Analytical Instrument Systems 259Field Analytical Instruments 260Organization 262Personnel 262Maintenance Approaches 263Service Factor 263Maintenance Work Load 264Spare Parts 265Vendor Support 265Application Unique Issues 265Installation Issues 266

Chapter 11 Primary Elements and Final Control Devices 267Overview 267Temperature 267Primary Elements 273Primary Element Location 276Control Valves 277Troubleshooting Guide 283

Chapter 12 Pneumatic Instruments 287Overview 287Instrument Air Requirements 287Pneumatic Field Instruments 288

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Chapter 13 Calibration 299Overview 299Field Calibration 300Calibrating in Hazardous Locations 313In-Shop Calibration 324Other Aspects of Calibration 328

Chapter 14 Tuning 337Overview 337Loop Classification by Control Function 337Control Algorithms 339Loop Tuning 347Flow Loops 351

Chapter 15 Distributed Control Systems 353Overview 353Distributed Control System Maintenance 353Maintenance Goals and Objectives 353Programmable Logic Controllers 368

Chapter 16 Software and Network Maintenance 373Overview 373Computer Operating Environment 37421st Century Maintenance Technology 383

Chapter 17 Safety 389Overview 389Electrical Hazards 390Hazardous Areas 392Contamination 398Pressures and Vacuums 399High Voltage 400Moving and Rotating Machinery 401High and Low Temperatures 401Gases and Chemicals 402Heights and Confined Spaces 403Program Changes, Software Control 404Process Considerations 406Communication 406Cryogenic Considerations 406Nuclear Plants 409Ergonomics 412Acknowledgment 413Standards and Recommended Practices 413

Chapter 18 Fiber Optics 417Overview 417Construction 418Classification 418Sensing Modes 418Advantages 419

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Disadvantages 419Applications 420Analog Input/Output Modules 423Sensors 423

Appendix A Glossary of Terms 427

Appendix B Bibliography 441

Index 447

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1Introduction

OverviewThe Maintenance volume is key to the Practical Guides Series and certainly a

key to the profitability of companies through ensuring that the control system is maintained so the plant can produce its products. This volume includes some his-tory and speculates about future advances of instrumentation and control (I&C) system maintenance; it also covers some of the fundamental principles, vocabu-lary, symbolism, standards, and safety. It suggests the necessary basic knowledge required of I&C technicians and the interaction of maintenance in the retrofitting and start-up of control systems.

History of Instrumentation and Control MaintenanceFrom pneumatic instrumentation to computer-controlled systems — what a

change! Is a seasoned instrument mechanic expected to troubleshoot a state-of-the-art computer-controlled system? Should a new instrument technician be ex-pected to maintain pneumatic instrumentation? This volume documents expe-riences in the older types of systems as well as in the newer, state-of-the-art systems.

1930sDistributed control is not new. In 1938, when Chemical Processing published

its first issue, mechanisms for control were indeed distributed throughout the plant. Process control consisted of operator adjustments to hand valves that were based on direct readings of local gages. Control room instrumentation has taken some dramatic turns along the way — from large-scale pneumatic recorders to miniature analog electronic controllers to microprocessor-based digital systems.

Chemical and petroleum plants were among the first to use control systems for their processes. Pneumatic instrumentation became the leader in automatic control because of its safety. Pipe fitters were asked to perform maintenance on these early pneumatic instruments. In many cases, outmoded control room hard-ware is still operating effectively today — a tribute to the worldwide manufactur-ers of process control instrumentation.

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, operators relied on local instrument gages to monitor production processes. Control panels that did exist were located in the field near process sensing points. Typically, only a handful of indicators, record-ers, and controllers were mounted on a local panel. Often, the process fluids were piped directly into control panels.

Where fill fluids were needed, mercury was commonly used. Control panels served as a convenient means for improving control coordination by allowing op-erators to adjust valves in response to visual instrument readings.

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1940sIn the 1940s the use of pneumatic proportional controllers was increasing, so

the early pipe fitters had to understand more of the theory of process and control. New words such as integral, derivative, sensors, and final control elements were added to their vocabularies.

By the late 1940s, a trend toward the concentration of controls in centralized locations had begun.

1950sIn the 1950s, operating unit control rooms were built to centralize operations

and to accommodate operators assigned to monitor control boards on a full-time basis. With the growing number and complexity of the indicators, recorders, and controllers and the “need” to operate the plant remotely from these panels, the in-strument mechanic was specialized to maintain the pneumatic control systems.

By the mid 1950s, electronic analog instrumentation had been formally intro-duced but did not win industry acceptance until the late 1950s and early 1960s. With the exception of chemical and petroleum plants, most new plants used elec-tronic analog instrumentation because of the greater cost of tubing work between pneumatic transmitters and controllers and the expensive pneumatic auxiliaries, such as air compressors, filters, and dryers.

Increasing plant complexity necessitated increasing amounts of accurate, up-to-date operating information.

Now the instrument mechanic needed to know electronics and electricity in addition to pneumatics. Larger plants formed Electrical and Instrument (E&I), In-strument and Electronic (I&E), or Electrical and Control (E&C) groups; some formed an Instrument and Control (I&C) Group and had both instrument mechan-ics and instrument technicians. The knowledge required by I&C mechanics and technicians meant training was necessary, so vendors provided training on the equipment they sold.

1960sDigital computers began to appear in control rooms in the 1960s. The com-

puter’s initial role was essentially that of a data logging device from which paper printouts could be obtained. However, the concept of direct digital control (DDC) gained notoriety in the 1960s.

1970sBy the mid 1970s, the drawbacks to DDC had become apparent. The central

computer approach depended on the availability of a single large computer. Highly trained computer personnel were needed to maintain the computer hard-ware and to deal with the high-level software languages.

Single-loop analog control continued to flourish during the early 1970s. Thousands of electronic signal wires crisscrossed central control rooms, adding complexity to the pursuit of improved coordination. Recognizing multiple func-tions inherent in panel instruments, split architecture systems were introduced. Analog display stations were segregated from rack-mounted printed circuit cards in the quest for functional modularity.

I&C groups flourished, everyone was retrofitting and updating plants, and new plants provided more and more instrumentation requirements. Instrumenta-tion vendors were training the instrument mechanics and electricians to maintain their equipment.

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Standards for instrumentation were being developed, and manufacturers started listening to ISA when developing their new instruments.

A marriage between single-loop electronic analog control and pneumatic con-trol developed because of the need for powerful control valve actuators.

The simplicity and accuracy of electronic controllers, recorders, and indicators made them the choice for instrument panels.

Current-to-pneumatic converters and pneumatic-to-current converters linked electronic instruments to pneumatic instruments and sensors and actuators. Chem-ical plants used pneumatic instruments in the hazardous areas along with signal wires to transmit the signals to central control rooms in safe areas.

Most plants built after the mid 1970s used electronic rather than pneumatic in-strumentation. Pneumatic valves, however, are still used almost exclusively for throttling control and even on-off control. About the same time in this period Honeywell® and Yokogawa® introduced the first distributed digital control sys-tems (DDCS), now called the distributed control system (DCS). Multiple mini-computers, geographically and functionally distributed, performed monitoring and control tasks that had been previously handled by the central DDC computer. Each microprocessor-based controller was shared by up to eight control loops. Se-rial bit communication over coaxial cable linked individual system devices.

As these distributed control systems became the standard for newer chemical and petroleum plants and the older single-loop pneumatic and electronic control-lers were replaced, the I&C groups were trained on the new DCS. This was the first introduction of computers to the I&C technicians, and DCS manufacturers designed their systems to be configured and maintained by I&C groups — not highly trained computer personnel. As a technological breakthrough, the micro-processor accelerated advances in control system design. At the operator interface level, distributed control contributed to an unforeseen development. For the first time, CRT display consoles gained acceptance as the primary operator interface, and conventional single-loop analog stations were reduced to an emergency backup role at many early distributed control system installation sites. Long, floor-to-ceiling panelboards were replaced with low-profile CRT workstation consoles. Keyboards, CRTs and printers served as modern tools for seated control room operators.

By the end of the 1970s, control system innovations had advanced beyond in-dustry’s capacity to keep pace. Most plant sites contained an assortment of control technologies that spanned three decades. Instrumentation and control specialists (mechanics, technicians, and engineers) were commonplace in industry. Special I&C groups were established, as shown in the organizational chart of Figure 1-1.

1980sDCS operator interfaces were refined in the 1980s (see Figure 1-2). Intelligent

CRT stations utilized multiple-display formats to condense and organize exten-sive operating information. Hierarchical arrangements of plant-, area-, group-, and loop-level displays simplified on-screen database presentation. Real-time color graphics added further comprehensive overviews of unit operations.

Most microprocessor-based control systems had a vast array of alarms and di-agnostics to help operators and maintenance personnel determine if there were any problems. Distributed control systems had many on-line and off-line diagnos-tics, including process and input alarms, reportable events, error messages, and hardware and software failure reporting.

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1990sTrends for the 1990s were computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) and

management information systems (MIS). These interfaced the real-time devices (field devices at the machinery/process level) through distributed controllers to multiple-station coordination, then on to scheduling, production, and management information to the plant level for overall planning, execution, and control. Further development of artificial intelligence and expert systems gave advanced control new meaning.

With the introduction of computers and databases, maintenance management systems (MMS) helped maintenance and management personnel determine repair frequency and spare parts availability and made decisions on when to replace ob-solete equipment.

Distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLC), computer control systems (CCS), supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and smart field devices were the norm. A digital signal was superim-posed on the 4-20 mA signal for ranging and calibrating field devices. The Interna-tional Organization for Standardization (ISO) Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and interconnection of devices made by different manufactures has opened systems architecture, replacing proprietary communications among devices.

2000sHistorically, factory floor maintenance methods and practices have been de-

veloped across a wide range of vertical industries, where the focus was to keep the assembly lines and processes running rather than preserving assets. Today, manu-facturers are focused on the long-term benefits of factory floor support practices

Figure 1-1. Typical 1970s I & C Group Organization Chart.

PROCESSENGINEERING

FACILITYENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ELECTRICALSTORES

MILLWRIGHTWAREHOUSE

PIPEFITTERSHIP/REC

LABORERSBUYERS

SHIFT 2I&C

SHIFT 3ELECTRONICS

OPERATORS

SHIFT 1ELECTRICAL PROCESSMECHANICAL

CHEMICALELECTRICAL

QUALITYI&C

OPERATIONSMANAGER

XYZ COMPANY

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that incorporate methods and procedures which ensure production lines are opera-tional and preserve capital assets.

Skids and modular systems became the norm in the design of new plants. New gas electrical generating plants have been built from start to operational within a two year period. These plants are designed to be operated with a skeleton crew of 25 to 30 personnel, including operators, maintenance crew, and supervisors.

A crew of three operate and maintain in 12 hour shifts. Major overhaul peri-ods are contracted to the system manufacturer, and contract maintenance is re-sponsible for calibration. Knowledge of the complete plant, including operations and systems, are learned by all crews and supervision. Each crew member special-izes in two or three systems.

A newer gas fired electrical generating plant organization chart is shown in Figure 1-3 which differentiates between maintenance and production. Because modern automation systems are installed, three units can be maintained and oper-ated with 30 employees. Old coal-fired plants needed up to 200 people to operate them.

With the concept of skeleton crews to operate the plant, contractor type main-tenance programs are becoming the norm. Many of the instrumentation tasks are completed by contract personnel. Work in the plant is becoming multi-disciplined.

Figure 1-2. Multiple-Display Distributed Control System.

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Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering

“Maintenance of instrumentation and process control systems from simple gages to complex distributed control systems is essential for the continuation of our industry.” Statements such as this have been repeated thousands of times by company presidents, manufacturing directors, and production superintendents.

Maintenance personnel should be involved with new installations and upgrad-ing older installations. They should ensure that the system is ergonomically easy to repair and well documented. Training should be done before a new system ar-rives so the maintenance department can help in installing and checking it out.

Equipment manufacturers provide engineering and start-up assistance. So the majority of the new opportunities to work in the I&C field is through original equipment manufacturers or service contract employees.

Because of the equipment’s complexity, assistance is needed from the original equipment manufacturer. Configuration of control systems and instruments should be done by those very familiar with the system requirements and system/instrument capabilities.

Instrumentation tells us the process parameters in which we are operating. A simple gage tells the temperature or pressure; the more complex instrumentation

Figure 1-3. Typical Gas Fired Electrical Generating Plant Organization Chart.

PskdjkjdidP

MAINTENANCE

MANAGER

PLANT

ENGINEER

PRODUCTION

MANAGER

ENVIRONMENTAL

AND HEALTH

(CHEMIST)

WELDER

ELECTRICIAN

I&C

MACHINIST

(M-F 8 hrs)

SHIFT

SUPERVISORS

WATER/LAB TECH.

AUX. OPERATOR

(Outside)

CONTROL

OPERATOR 12 hr shift

Rotating 24/7

PLANT

MANAGER

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tells much more about the process. Proper operation of all equipment is required to make a quality product and to do it safely.

The technological advances of the past few years and the trends for more technical and specialized equipment require better trained and educated mainte-nance personnel. The types of equipment in control systems cover many disci-plines: mechanical, electrical, electronic, computer science, chemical, and environmental, among others.

The instrumentation and control field is more than electronics — it is a systemsexperience. It is necessary to know the physics of heat, light, noise, and mechani-cal advantage, as well as to have mechanical dexterity and aptitude, logical

thought, computer literacy, process knowledge, and the ability to work with others in dif-ferent disciplines.

Because of the many different knowledge factors, the individual crafts (elec-trician, mechanic, pipe fitter, etc.) have to work together, and finger pointing will sometimes occur. Electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical engineers, and process engineers must understand each other and determine where their re-sponsibilities start and stop.

The field has grown with the application of computers, artificial intelligence, self-tuning, computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and so on. Larger companies train pipe fitters to be instrument mechanics in pneumatic plants and electricians to be instrument technicians in electronic plants. Knowledge of the process is needed to design new systems; therefore, all engineering disciplines get involved with the instrumentation and control system. Those who were fortunate to get involved in early instrumentation and control systems have become the I&C maintenance personnel and the control systems engineers of today.

The complexity of control loops and systems requires specialists. The systems concept requires more varied knowledge and the overall concept of control rather than component troubleshooting and replacement.

When the control system doesn't work, the plant doesn't produce. The control system design can determine the profitability of a company. If it is maintainable and the mechanics, technicians, and engineers are trained, the production output of the plant will be high.

Corrective, preventive, and operational maintenance must be performed by qualified and experienced I&C maintenance personnel.

Because of the complexity of existing control systems that utilize many fields of expertise, several maintenance backgrounds are also required. This group is now required to maintain, troubleshoot, and calibrate pneumatic, electrical, elec-tronic, and computerized instruments and systems. The systems approach, which looks at the whole picture to gain an understanding of the process, is the special attribute of I&C maintenance personnel.

When assistance is needed, I&C personnel must have someone to go to for help. In the past, maintenance supervisors had a broad knowledge of most of the equipment and could make decisions on how to repair, when to repair, and so on. A few years ago, many supervisors were instrument mechanics, but contemporary maintenance supervisors are managers who know very little about the operation and maintenance of the wide variety of instruments and control systems used to-day, since most have never been instrument mechanics or technicians. In fact, many of them know very little about pneumatics, electronics, or computers. To-day, knowledge of the process, knowledge of the overall system, and knowledge of the expertise of their employees is far more important than knowledge of how to repair an individual instrument.

Who should the maintenance supervisors and managers go to for expert ad-vice on the control system? Instrumentation and control system engineers or maintenance engineers with an I&C background. Instrumentation and control sys-tem engineers assist the mechanics and technicians and keep the supervisors and

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managers informed. They need to be a part of the design and start-up of the con-trol systems.

Much money is being spent for training, fault tolerant systems, redundancy, and new techniques. One simple but essential area that may be neglected is the ex-perience of the past and what that may teach about the present.

We learn from our past experiences. Being involved in the problems we en-countered and the solutions that were found yesterday helps us make better deci-sions today. The learning technology that produces greater retention levels uses the most senses, such as hearing, seeing, and feeling. The applications of older systems should be used as the basis for designing newer and generally faster con-trol systems. New problems are encountered in newer systems, but past applica-tion experience will help solve the new problems.

Don’t neglect the knowledge and experience gained in the past.

Good maintenance saves money. With the equipment working properly, the process quality and production will be high. When equipment fails, production normally stops, and many production personnel cannot do their jobs. With good maintenance management, spare parts are available quickly to reduce the mean time to repair (MTTR). When the equipment is repaired properly, the mean time between failures (MTBF) is extended. The proper frequencies of preventive main-tenance should provide less down time, and the down time that occurs can be scheduled. We can become pro-active instead of reactive.