major paradigms-social science

8/7/2019 major paradigms-social science

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think sociologically: WHAT ARE THECHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE MAJORSOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS?8efore I ever knew anything about sociology, I had a worldview. Beingborn in tile United States to a religious, working-class family, myparents' teachings shaped my point of view. Had I been born In China,Chad, or Chile, I would likely think differently about the world. How doyou view the world? What personal beliefs or ideas do you value most?It might be difficult to respond to these questions, but I bet you havesome pretty definitive answers. When sociologists take in the world,they do it through a paradigm-a theoretical framework through whichscientists study tile world.

Inthe United States, most sociologists view the world through threemajor paradigms-funct ional ism, confl ict theory, and symbol ic interac-t lenisrn. Funct ional ism is a theoret ical f ramework that def ines society asa 'system of interrelated parts. This paradigm is a macro approach tosociological study because it focuses on larger social structures ratherthan individuals. When you think about functionalism, i t may be helpful tothink about the human body. The body has bui lt -in mechanisms that helpit rnalntaln a normal body temperature. If you are stranded outside infreezing temperatures, you will start shivering ill an attempt to regulateyour body temperature. Society is similar in many ways. When somethinghappens to throw a social system off-kilter, certain forces step in to helpbalance things out again.

Conf lict theory is a theoretical f ramework that views society as beingin a constant strug.gle over scarce resources. This constant struggle

> In April2008, more than200 women and.v children wereremoved from apolygamist ranchin E l DoradoTexas, because ofan alleged reportof child abuse onthe ranch. Howmight being raisedon a polygamistranch influenceone's worldview?

inevitably results in an unequal system. Similar to functionalism, conflicttheory isalso a macro approach, as this theory is concerned with variousinterested groups battling for power. Inequality of wealth and power insociety is often the focus of modern confl ict theory. For example, conf licttheorists might examine how the chasm between the rich and the pooraffects people 's opportuni ties in our society. I t's no surprise that chi ldrenwho come from privileged backgrounds can afford to receive the besteducations, participate in organized sports, and take music lessons.However, children from poorer families may not get these same opportu-ni ties, and this lack of opportuni ty puts them at a disadvantage.

Symbol ic interactionism is a theoret ical f ramework that focuses onhow individual interactions between people influences them and howthese interactions can impact society Symbolic interactionism is primarilya micro approach to sociology because it is concerned with the indi-vidual's role in creating society. The use of "symbols," such as words,gestures, body language, and facial expressions, influence how peoplecommunicate. Our actions communicate meaning. For example, ifyou'rehaving a "bad day," what does that mean? One student once told me hehad a "bad day" every time it rained. If that is the case, could such adef ini tion of real ity inf luence how you behave toward others on your job orin the classroom? How might his "bad day" influence the "days" of oth-ers? Interactionists constantly seek to understand how small interactionsinfluence the larger society.


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SQCIAL LAWS are statements of fact that are unchanging undergiven conditlons and can 'be used as grund rules fO I ' any I'


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It's hard to spot the light-colored moth in this photograph, isn't it?Themoth's coloring is probably a result of natural selection. Moths with colors

that stand out in their environment often die out, leaving behind the "best fit"

1\1\1\

members of the species.____ oo_ ... ._. ...... __ .. _

Understanding how these and other social institutions work in a societyis of great interest to functionalists. Since these parts are interrelated,each has an impact on the others. Remember my student who lost herjob? The economic system influenced the family system, which may. ifher children continue to get into trouble, interact with the cr iminal justicesystem. By this example, you can see that performing functionalanalysis can be quite complex.

Functionalism suggests that a society's values and norms providethe foundation for the rules and laws that it creates. These norms regu-late the relationships between social institutions. Therefore, generalagreement on these norms must occur for a society to achieve balance.

All of the social structures, from the minor day-to-day interactionswith friends to the complex cultural traditions and customs, worktogether to keep society running. Functionalists, however, have differingviews about how these structures cooperate with one another. Somecompare society to living, breathing organisms, others analyze theexpected and unexpected outcomes of a social event, while still otherswonder what exactly it is that holds a society together. Although it's the

oldest theoret ical approach, funct ional ism remains an important way toconsider society. On the next few pages, we'll investigate some earlyfunctionalists and you can see who these ideas come from. Early theo-rists l ike Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim contributed to the growthand development of the functionalist perspective.

HERBERT SPENCERHerbert Spencer (1820-1903) was a Bri tish Intel lectual whose ideas fur-thered the development of funct ionalism. Spencer's study of sociologywas informed by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwinargued that natural selection-a process resulting in the .evolution oforganisms best adapted to the environment-makes evolution OCCUI.Spencer viewed society as a biological organism, and as such. it canevolve, thrive, or die. For him, some societies are "more fit" than othersbecause they adapt better to changes in the environment. From Spencer' ,you can see a type of thinking often calied "social Darwinism"-a notionthat suggests strong societ ies survive and weak ones become extinct."


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Spencer's idea informs a social theory that, in essence, evaluatesthe superiority or inferiority of a society based on its ability to be strongand survive. For example, In a recent class discussion about homeless-ness, one of my students stated, "Homeless people can't follow therules that everyone else .does; their homelessness is their own fault . ..Doyou see Spencer's ideas in her comments? How do her words reflectthe idea of social Darwinism? On the macro level. do you think somesocieties are superior to others? Would you suggest that the UnitedStates reached its success due to its own merit? If so, you think a bitl ike a social Darwinist.

EMILE DURKHEIMLike Spencer, Frencll intellectual Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) alsoviewed society as an organism. You should recognize Durkheim's namefrom our discussion of suicide earlier in the chapter. Durkheim was oneof the first true sociologists, in that he used data to test theories. Hiswork provides the basis for much of functionalist thought.

Durklleim's work suggested that solidarity is a vital componentthat holds society together. Solidarity integrates, or holds societytogether, because people see themselves as unified. He points out thatthe type of society influences the type of solidarity. Durkheim dividedsolidarity into two different types, mechanical and organic. Mechanicalsolidarity refers to the state of community bonding in traditionalsocieties in which people share beliefs and values and perform commonactivities. It's this bond that works to keep soc iety running smoothly. ,.

As societies become more complex, their type of solidarity changesfrom mechanical to organic. Organic sol idarity occurs when people l iveina society with a diverse division of labor, Division of labor refers to the manydifferent jobs we have today. This forces people to depend on one anoth-er for survival. Ask yoursel f, when was the last t ime you ate something youeither grew or killed yourself? For most of us, the answer is never. Food isessential for survival , and yet most of us require a complex division of laborto feed ourselves. Truckers , grocers , and farmers all must do their par t sowe can eat." This organic connection ensures that we get the things weneed and holds society together. Beliefs remain important in a modernsociety, but what binds people together is their organic solidari ty. 17

Durklleim's ideas about solidarity are just the tip of the iceberg,though. A number of American thinkers drew inspiration from Durkheimand expanded his ideas Into.what is known as functionalis t thought

Functionalismin the United StatesAfter Albion Small created the fi rst department of sociology in 1892 at theUniversity of Chicago, a new academic discipline began to emergeacross the United States." This budding science provided social thinkersa place to study the workings of society. One of these thinkers wasTalcott Parsons.

TALCOTI PARSONSFunctionalist Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was a giant in the field ofsociology in the United States. Parsons was interested in creatinggrand theories that attempted to explain every aspect of the humanexper ience and how social systems interconnect. For Parsons, socie tywas much like a bicycle wheel, made up of independent yet interde-pendent parts. When proper ly balanced, each independent spoke con-nected to the hub keeps the wheel spinning. But if just one spokebreaks on your wheel, the ent ire wheel wi ll eventual ly fal lout of oelance.Similar ly, society is an interrelated system, and if one part fails to work,the whole system suffers."

Parsons also commented on the inertia of social systems, meaningthat they tend to remain at rest, if they are at rest. or stay in motion, ifalready In motion. Fo r example, when you go bowling, you must take abowling ball and use your own force to make it roll down the ailey. Oncethe ball starts rolling, iUends to keep rolling until the pins and the endof the alley stop it. Although the friction from the floor may slow it down,some other force must stop it. Parsons pointed out that tile socialworld acts the same way. Thus, in order to change a society, somegreat force must impact the system or it will remain unchanged. This isbecause societies naturally will find a balance. Thus change is unlikelyand often disruptive. Of course, once the' process of change starts. thesystem witl continue on that path until some counterreaction occursdue to social inertia."

ROBERT MERTONFunct ionalist Robert K. Merton (1910-2003), a contemporary of Parsons,sought to create a middle-range theory that could bridge the gap

< Amish farm commu-nities in Pennsylvaniahave mechanicalsolidarity becauseeveryone lives in muchthe same way, does thesame things, and sharesthe same values.


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between grand theories and the study of individual paris of society. Hedid this by breaking society into parts and studying them Individually tobetter understand the whole." This idea is widely acceptecl in sociologytoday, as most sociologists have an area-of expertise, be it race, gender,crime, inequality, population, or a host of other issues. It is possible tospend a career pursuing knowledge in one of these areas, seeking tocreate theories of the middle range that describe these issues and howthey influence society, Merton's work also shows how sociologists arerarely "pure" theorists in any area.

One of Merton'S greatest theoretical contributions to functionalism washis understanding that social realities have both intended and unintendedfunctions~social factors that affect people In a society. Merton ident ifiedtwo types: manifest funct ions, or factors that lead to an expected conse-quence or outcome, and latent functions, or factors that lead to anunforeseen or unexpected consequence. Merton suggested that whenlooking at any social event, SOCiologists should ask the question, "Forwhom is this functional?" By doing this, we'll do a complete analysisbecause we'll consider both manifest and latent funct ions. For example,

MECHANiCAL SOliDARITY refers to til,e state of cpll' '-munitybonding in tradi tional societ ies in which people share bel iefs andValues and perform common activit ies.ORGANIC SOLIDARIT"Y occurs when people live in a society with adivel'se division of labor.FUNCTIONS are social factors that affect people in a society.MANIFEST FUNCTIONS are functions that lead to an 'expectedconsequence or outcome,LATENT FUNCTIONS are funct ions that lead to untoreseen orunexpected consequences.

one could argue that the manifest function of outsourcing jobs is toimprove a company's profits while providing cheaper goods to consumers.However, the latent funct ion of such a system creates tension for familieswhose jobs are lost, I Il


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.BOUHG5:0ISJE l'Elfer!;!to 111( ' l 11b81 'S of tH e capltalist class,PRGLETARIAT refers to rrernbers of the p00r working class,FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS is a person's lack of understanqing qf his ortier posit'on lri' .sI1lCiety.oixss CONSGIO,USNESS is an uf;\derstardin(J of one's po;oitiQnih theclass system.

Functionalists are accused of supporting the status quo, even whenit may be harmful to do so. Consider the invention of the automobile.Certainly it has made society more mobile and provides freedom ofmovement for millions. And yet, if we fail to consider the latent oonse-quences of this invention, we do not fully understand it. Thus, support-inqthe car means supporting the air pollution, acres of parking lots, andpotential accidents that come with it

Functionalists suggest that societies will naturally find a balance pointon their own. If change occurs, it will do so slowly, and this is actually inthe best interest of society. However, if you think about certain socialproblems such as homelessness, is this something that should beaddressed slowly or quickly? Althouqh it is easy to point out that certainindiv idual trai ts may lead some to l ive in shelters, is it really good for any-one to have people.sleeping on the streets? The lack of affordable hous-ing insociety remains a problem. Although Liebow argues that the UnitedStates does not have enough cheap housing or hiqh-payinq work for allof its citizens, he points out that a lack of a decent wage drives much oftile poverty that results in hamelessness. In this way, he criticizes thefunctional argument that the balance point is fair. Thus, is the UnitedStates real ly a "land of opportuni ty" for everyone?

As you consider homelessness or other societal issues, ask your-self for whom is the system functional? Or whom does the systembenefit? Functionalists might argue that society works for the greatestnumber of people. Change will arise when problems become "bigenough." However, Critics would argue that this belief results in manyminorities being ignored. Who speaks for the homeless? What choicedid my student have about globalization and the loss of her job? Thefunctionalist perspective often fails to recognize how inequalities in: social class, race, and gender cause an irnbalarrce in our society.

The conflict theory paradigm arose as a response to some offunctionalism's weaknesses. Conflict theorists want to analyze howthese .social inequalit ies affect society as a whole.

The Conflict Theorist'sWorldviewRemember, conflict theory is a theoretical framework that views soci-etyin a struggle for scarce resources. So, what is scarce? Two mainconcerns for conflict theorists are economic wealth and power. Suchtheorists acknOwledge that we live in an unequal society. Why? Itcould be because there is not enough "stuff" to go around, or it couldbe because those with the "stuff" don't want to let go of it. In eithercase, conflict theory suggests that we're all struggling for more "stuff,"whether that "stuff" is power in.a marriage. or wealth in the world.

Conflict theorists, like functional ones, tend to focus on macroissues, viewing how society's structures contribute to the conflict.Modern conflict theorists often look at the inequality of a capitalist

economic system. Such a system breeds inequality, as it rewardssome at the expense of others, Once you have power, you wantto keep it. For this reason, the wealthy elites are more llkely tocreate advantages for themselves, even if their actions put others ata disadvantage,

In general, the essence of conflict theory suggests that a pyramidstructure of power and wealth exists in society. The elite at the top oftile pyramid determine the rules for those below them. Under such asystem, laws, insti tut ions, and tradit ions support their authority. WhenLiebow discusses the lack of adequate wages and ths shame we alldeserve because we permit homelessness to exist, he is in essencesuggestjng that those of us who are not homeless are, in part, respon-sible for those who are because we allow the system to Ignorethese people.

Many theorists who use the conflict paradigm might examinemacro conflicts between different groups of society, different coun-tries, or different social classes. The study of inequality in sociologyalways involves a consideration of conflict the.ory. Thus, you can seethe paradigm applied to social class, race, gender, marriage, religion,population, environment, and a host of other social phenomena. If youbelieve that discrimination, ageism, sexism, racism, and classisrnoccur in society because some people have the power to inflict theirdesires over others, then you think like a conflict theorist.

Modern feminist theory, or the study of IlOW gender affects theexperiences and opportunities of men and women, Often takes aconflict-oriented point of view. Women throughout the world are. stillplaced in positions subordinate to men. In some countries, this mightmean women cannot choose their husbands, while in this country itmay be more linked to opportunities afforded to women. You'd be veryhard-pressed to find women CEOs in the bigge.st companies. Of tiletop 500 companies in the. United States, women lead fewer than 20."Feminists often suggest this occur~ because men want to maintaintheir positionsof power in society and strive to keep women out. Doyou see the conflict perspective here?

A student once pointed out that women often find themselves atthe short end of the "financial stick" and powerful people take advan-tage of the poor. She was adamant about her views and refused tochange her opinion. When I labeled her views as Marxist. she immedi-ately took offense and denied my claim. However, it was evident to methat her views originated from the thoughts of Karl Marx, a founder ofconflict theory.

KARL MARXKarl Marx (1818-1883) was a German theorist, social activist, andwriter who analyzed the effects of capitalism-an economic system inwhich private individuals .own businesses and control the economy.Believing that capitalism corrupted human nature, Marx hoped for autopia in which equality reigned. At his core, Marx was not that differ-entfrom Comte because he wished to understand society to improveit for all.

Marx suggested that in a capitalist system, the bourgeoisie,or menibers of the capitalist class, own most of the wealth becausethey control the businesses. Since increasing profit is their first goal,owners pay workers as little as possible. Liebow, too, notices this whenhe encounters homeless women who actually have some form ofeniployment, but don't make enough money to afford housing.Employers generally pay these women as little as possible, and thewomen have no way to figllt the system.


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Marx called the workers in a capitalist system the proletariat, Ormembers of the poor working class. They do .all the work and the own-ers reap all the benef its. The proletariat live in an unending cycle in wll ic llthey work for low pay and then use those wages to survive. Accordingto Marx, workers will never get ahead if they do not share in the wealththey create.

Why don't workers do something to change their fate? Marxsuggested that it was because people had a false consciousness, or alack of understanding of their position in society. The workers felt thatthey were alone in their plight. Marx proposed that the workers mustdevelop class consciousness, or an understanding of one's position inthe system. Marx suggested that most workers do not truly understand110W capltalisrn enslaves them. They think if they work hard, they'll get byand perhaps thrive. Marx argued that these ideas were fantasy.

Marx believed that once workers recognized their positions, theywould unite to end their tyranny. He proposed an overthrow of the pr ivateownership of capitalism, and instead suggested socialism. In such a sys-tem, the government controls. the economicsystem, ensuring that all people share in theprofi ts generated by their own labor.

However, Marx didn't suggest that long-term government repression was necessary toenforce communism on people. He knew thatthe government would initial ly have to force thebourgeoisie to give up their wealth because ittakes force to make powerful people give uptheir power.

In 2008, Wachovia Bank's CEO KenThompson was forced to step down fromhis post after receiving pressure from thebank's board. For several months, theboard criticized Thompson's work,

sciousness to arise and replace our current system, others think he over-simplified class struggle. His simple system of social class is difficult toapply to a complex postindustrial capitalist society, and even if you try,where would you draw the line between owners and workers? My stu-dent actually owned stock in the company that let her go, so was she aworker or an owner? Seems like both.

Marxist theory clearly remains active in today's discussions ofsociology. Marx felt that economic power should be in the hands of thepeople because wealth corrupts human nature.

These ideas continue to inspire SOCiologists. Let's next look at thework of four conflict theor ists, Martineau, Du Bois, Addams, and Foster ,to s tudy how gender, race, and class affect a society.

HARRIET MARTINEAUHarriet Martineau (1802-1876), like Kar l Marx, came from a bourgeoisfamily and received the benefits and status that came with such a class

distinction. However, she hoped that capital-ism and industrialization would bl' ing greaterjust ice and opportuni ty. Martineau, one of thefi rst female sociologists, did not just examinethe inequalities in the economic system, shealso focused on tile inequality between

CYCLE OF WEALTHIN A CAPITALIST SYSTEMThe Bourgeoisie

The Proletariat

s p e n d s t h ewages inbusinessesowned by

blaming a loss of more than $700million on him. During these months,Thompson did damage control tohelp regain the confidence of investorsand the board, but his efforts failed.Thompson did not step down willingly;those on top do whatever it takes tostay there"Marx bel ieVedthe same would be true in society.However, he bel ieved that members of the capitalistclass would willingly share their wealth once theysaw the benefits of communal living. Our truehuman nature is to live in harmony, sharing every-thing equally."'

Sociologists' opinions on Marxist theory vary.While some may hope for a type of class con-

the sexes.In the book Society in America,

Martineau analyzed the impact of slavery,the position of women in SOCiety,andthe social customs within U.S. pol it i-cal and economic systems." Shepoints out out how these sys-tems favor men who hold thepower in society.

Martineau's studiesnoted hypocrisy andfavoritism in the UnitedStates. For example, only

white men could vote in theUnited States, despite tile

nation's democratic ideals.Enslaved people and women did nothave equal opportunities for political,

economic, and educational involvementMartineau pointed out that some people didnot have the same opportunities as others.She not only paved the way for other femalesociologists, but also expanded people'sthinking about the world, enlightening whatwould become the conflict paradigm"


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W.E.B. DU BOISW E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was an African American conflicttheorist who agreed with a great deal of Marx's thinking. Afterattending Fisk University, Du Bois moved on to Harvard, where hewould eventually complete both his undergraduate and graduatework. His writings are vast, but he is often credited for initiating thestudy of race in America. He was particularly interested in issues ofracial inequali ty in the United States."

In his book The Philadelphia Negro, Du Bois showed that povertyamong African Americans in the United States was primarily the resultof prejudice and dtscrirninatlon." In the book, he reviewed the historyof African Americans in Philadelphia and connected that history to theproblems his contemporaries were facing. lrnplyinq that slavery andcapital ism led to African Americans' problems, Du Bois pointed out thathistory was influential over the present. He also noted that AfricanAmericans of his time had to live in two worlds, a white one and a blackone. In one world, they were second-class citizens, while in the otherthey were equals. This idea, which Du Bois termed "double conscious-ness," created tension and conflict for African Americans. He felt thatwith greater assimilation into the mainstream culture, African Americanswould eventually lead better-quality lives.'

In many respects, Du Bois was the first and perhaps most influen-tial sociologist to study race in the United States. He was a social

~ Martineau's studies revealed inequalityv in the U.S. democratic system. Whatabout today? Is the U.S. system fair for eachperson in the photograph below?

activist, and he became more interested in working to improve life onthe African continent and less interested in life in the United States. DuBOIS eventually came to believe that African Americans would neverbe equal to whites because tile white population would not allowthis. For this reason, he left the United States and spent his remainingyears in Africa.

When Du Bois saw extreme poverty,oppressive governments, and many wars inAfrica, he realized that colonizing Europeanscaused many of these problems. Colonialismwas a primary way for European powers togenerate wealth for capitalists while doinglittle to improve the lives of the African poor.Du Bois increasingly believed that the greedof the United States and western Europe wasthe cause of war and poverty throughout theworld. To counter this, promoting economicjustice and equality helps the world beat peace."

JANE ADDAMSLaura Jane Addams (1860-1935) was born in Cedarville, Illinois.Addams's father, a businessman and polit ician who worked to elect Lincolnand strongly opposed Slavery, raised her. Jane earned a bachelor of artsdegree from Rockford Wornen's Seminary in 1882, then traveled toEurope, where she saw things that changed her l ife.

In Toynbee Hall, Addams witnessed the settlement house move-ment." The settlement house movement supported the


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THE CONFLICT THEORISTS - AT A GLANCE

idea that poverty results from ignorance and structural barriers, not fromfail ings in the moral ity of the person. The sett lement house workers actual-ly lived and worked in the slums. Jane and a friend, Ellen Gates Starr, decid-ed to create a settlement house in Chicago. In 1889, they opened Hull-House with these three principles:1 -: Workers would l ivein the slums to bet ter understand the problems there.2. Every person has dignity and worth regardless of raceiethhicity,

gender, or social class.3. Dedication, education, and service can overcome ignorance, disease,

and other problems often associated with poverty.Offering services from medical to educational, Addams also used her posi-tion at Hull-House to wr ite articles and books on a variety of topics like therights of women and the poor. In many ways, Hull-House becamea laboratory for the application of sociological principles. In 1931,Jane Addams won the Nobel PeacePrizefor her li fetime of service and ded-ication to peace."Through her teaching, wr iting, and action, Jane Addams embodiedthe best of sociology principles. Along with Albion Small, she helpedfound the American Sociological Association and often guest lectured insociology classes at the University of Chicago. In order to understand thepoor, Addams felt that she must live among them. Once she compre-hended this situation, she wrote about it to inform others. These theoriesimpacted her work at HUll-House. These are the steps you will take inlearning to think l ike a sociologist .

JANE ADDAMS

W.E.B. DU BOIS

JOHN BELLAMY FOSTERJohn Bellamy Foster, a contemporary professor of sociology, often writesusing a contlct paradigm. His work is pr imarily concerned with the nega-tive effects of capitalism on society and the planet as whole. In hisarticle, "The End of Rational Capitalism," he points out that purelycapitalist economies, or economies in which markets are totally f ree, aredisappearing throughout the world.

In free-market capitalism, businesses seek short- term rewards byworking to expand markets. They do not care about long-term conse-quences. As a resul t, Foster argues that businesses' pursuit of weal th hascreated environmental and global problems, including the existence ofextreme global poverty and inequality.

Foster argues that markets cannot "solve problems" because thereare no profits to be had from such an endeavor. Often, people suggestthat the United States is the wealthiest country in the world because wehave worked harder and used the capitalist system to give opportunityand incentive to people. Foster reminds us that such a perspectiveignores important parts of history, namely the period after World War IIwhen most of the "industrialized world" was destroyed (except the UnitedStates), and the expansion of the U.S. economy was largely related tobui lding up these devastated countrtes. This had very little to do with thesuperiority of the American capitalist system. Issues such as the fall ofthe USSR and the privatizat ion of the Chinese economy seem to indicatethat capitalism has won and is "superior" to socialism. However, totally


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f ree-market capital ism wil l result in the destruction of the environmentand the exploitation of workers throughout the world." The long andshort of it is that capitalism cannot continue to expand because we arereaching a stagnant point according to Foster.

CRITICISMS OF CONFLICT THEORYCritics of conflict theory often accuse it of being too radical. This paradigmoftfn becomes synonymous with the idea that powerful people oppressthe weak. However, most people seem to agree that the roles and rules ofsociety "make sense." For example, even after we discussed globalizationand the depletion of factory jobs in the United States, my student who losther job still felt that the U.S. system was "fair." She said, "it still makessense to me, even though I'm being hurt by it." This illustrates the realitythat most people in society tend to agree with the status quo. Certainly,some are victimized by racism, sexism, and other prejudices, but mostmembers of society seem to agree that things are generally f ine.

A simple reading of conflict theory can also seem to make the notionof conflict seem like a "bad" thing. However, doesn't competition breedexcellence? When I played baseball, I never worked harder than whenmy team got a new member, a young man who also played secondbase. I worked even harder to maintain my spot on the roster. Startingpositions are rare, and the "conf lic t" actually improved my play.

After examining the works of functionalists and contlict theorists you'reprobably thinking in a macro manner. Whether you're using functionalismor conflict theory, you are thinking like many sociologists. Yet one more par-adigm remains. If you bel ieve that the way to change the world is throughthe individual, you might find symbolic interactionism appealing.

< This is a collage of flags frommany of the world's mostpopulous and powerful nations.Do any of these flags have meaningto you?

The Symbolic Interactionist'sWorldviewSymbolic interactlonism focuses on how communication influ-ences the way people's interactions with each other create thesocial world in which we live. Symbolic interactionists believe thatthe root of society cernes f rom its symbols. They suggest that thesymbols we use are arbitrary, meaning that they vary from cultureto culture.

Do you write with a pen or la pluma?Neither is r ng; one is a label inEnglish, the other in panish, As long asyou arewith other people who speak thesame language, you can interact.

A long time ago, I enrolled in a language school In Mexico. Ilived with a family who spoke no English, and my teachers onlyspoke to us in Spanish. At first, I was totally lost. I clung to themembers of the family with whom I lived as if I were a littlechild. However, I soon began to learn the language. It IS amazinghow our need to communicate with others helps us learn. Althoughthe words or accents sound different, communication is central toall human interactions.Of course, words are not the only symbols. Consider the photo-graph of flags from countries around the world. The flag that proba-bly has meaning for you is the U.S. flag. However, people fromChina, Brazil, Belgium, or the United Kingdom probably feel thesame way about their flags as you do about yours. These symbolsrepresent entire nations, and yet you cannot identify many of themand they probably don't hold much interest to you. This is becausethe importance of a symbol is rooted in the culture from which itcomes. Just as language varies between people, so, too, do theirsymbol systems.

As you can see then, for interactionists, society is fluid thing.It is always in a process of change because how we use symbolsand what they mean to us is constantly changing. For example,when I was in school, teachers might tell ethnic jokes, such as"Polack" jokes. Of course, now most of you have not ever heardthese jokes. Why? Because people began to define such humoras unacceptable.

You can see then, that our definition of what has value depends 011our understanding of it . Context and setting affects our understandingof a social event. You certainly behave differently in church than you doin a bar or on a golf course. Social order results when the members ofsociety share common defini tions of what is appropr iate.


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Disputes arise when we do not share tile same definitions. Thinkabout an argument you've had with someone recently. Did the fight stemfrom a different interpretation of meaning? For example, ifyour roommateeats your food without asking your permission, you might interpret thatbehavior as disrespectful and rude. However, he might feel that hisbehavior shows that the two of you are friends and share everything withone another.

Symbolic Interaction ism is the most micro of sociological approaches,as it often studies the activlt les of individuals and then draws connections tolarger society from these. Studies of relationships, race, deviance, and evensocial movements can all use a symbolic interactionist approach.Interactionists argue that individuals have the power to co-createthe world, to 'make it what they want it to be. People develop stan-dards and norms through a process of interacting with others. Thisway, we learn what is "normal" and acceptable behavior. Widespreadsocial acceptance of a behavior is the main criterion in declaring itto be "normal," and we quickly learn that different situations allowfor different behaviors. For example, if you're dating someone, kiss-ing good night Is a perfectly acceptable behavior. However, trying tokiss a co-worker good-bye eould result in your being charged withsexual harassment.

Symbolic interactionism is a distinctly American way of looking atthe world. In many ways it blends sociology and psychology. Let's take alook at the work of its founder, George Herbert Mead.GEORGE HERBERT MEADSymbolic interactlonism was the brainchild of George Herbert Mead(1863-1931), an American sociologist from the University of Chicago.After his death in 1931, Mead's former students were so committed tohim that they combined his. articles, notes, and lectures into the bookMind, Self, and Society. This book introduced a new theory called sym-bolic interactionism."

In his book Mind, Self, and Society, Mead suggests. that the root ofsociety is. the symbols that teach us to understand the world. We thenuse these symbols to develop a sense of self, or identity. It is this identi-ty that we then take into the world and interact with other identities. tocreate society. Thus, the building blocks of society start with our minds,the place we interpret symbols.

How do you learn to interpret symbols? Mead suggests that we'tlo this through the micro interactions we have every .day. When 1was born, my parents named me John. Wilen I got older, if someone

SELF rerersto a person's identity and Wl1ijl makes that person differerltfrom others.

called, "John," I turned my head. Eventually, I learned nuances of thesymbol John. For example, if my mother yelled my name, I knew Iwas In trouble. Mead argues that all these various symbols enterour minds, where their meaning is interpreted and we are toldhow to react. Mead suggests that this process is. never-ending;therefore, we have a fluid sense of who we are. Our selves canchange, and they do change based on how we interpret the symbolsthrown our way.

In this way, your self develops. Self is. your identity. It's whatmakes you who you are and separates you from others, According toMead, you couldn't have a self without symbols or without someoneto pass those symbols to you, In other words, you learn who you arethrouqh others.

In midcle.school, did you ever feel embarrassed by your parents?Do you feel the same level of embarrassment today? The answer toboth questions is probably yes and no. When I ask this in class, mostof my students report that they don't find their parents nearly as embar-rassing as they used to. Why does this occur? It is because whenyou're young, you don't have a well-developed sense of self. You areanxious, taking your cue from others as to what is "cool" or acceptable.You worry that your parents' actions. might reflect upon you. As. yougrow older, you've experienced thousands of interactions that havetaught you who you are. This is why, the older you get, the less embar-rassing your parents seem. You know yourself much better now thanyou did In middle school.

Mead proposed that s.ymbols build.society. Symbols have meaning,and meaning directs our lives. The symbols a society uses helpus understand the people in that society. In the United States, wehave accepted that we need the word "homeless" to discuss peoplewho cannot afford housing. Symbols help us. define a situation anddetermine what we should do about it. For example, Uebow finds thatpeople often assign labels, such as "addict," "alcohol ic," or "mental ly i ii, "to the homeless, but not as often to people who have jobs. Someeven use addiction as an excuse not to help the homeless-Oh, he orshe is.just an addict . I f potent ial employers believe in these labels, thenthey will be less likely to hire homeless people, perpetuating a sys.temthat keeps them homeless.

~~~GO GL~BALHomeless LabelsAround the World

in to prevent such negative stereotyping. In Criminal, etconolic, immoral-tllese areChina and India, people connect homeless- only a handful of labels that exist for theness with a lack of governmental registration, homeless around the world. As Liebowwhich means that the homeless aren't seen noted, negative labels make it even moreAssigning negative labels to the homeless

occurs not only in the United States, butalso in countries all over the world. InFinland during the 1980s, homeiessnessbecame associated with alcoholism,People related the two ideas so closelythat the government in Finland had to step

difficul t for homeless Indiv iduals to rise.

above their Situation'_I_f_p_e_o_p_le_W_'_h_0_a_r_e__ J 1homeless are given an opportunity andadequate support, they can be Just assuccessful and stable as any othermembers. of society.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -as true citizens. In Peru, children living on thestreet are called piranitas, or little piranhas,which implies that they are dangerous andlikely to resort to criminal behavior. People inBangladesh equate homelessness with havinga lack of morals."


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HERBERT BLUMERSymbol ic interactionist Herbert Blumer (1900-1987), a disciple of GeorgeHerbert Mead and former chair of the University of California, Berkeleysociology department, established three basic premises that define thesymbolic interactionist perspective:1, Human beings behave toward things on the basis of the meanings

they ascribe to those things:2. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the

social interaction that one has with 0111ersand society.3. These meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretiveprocess used by the person in dealing with the things he or

she encounters"

What does he mean? First, we all react to situationsand people based on how we perceive them. Have you ever noticed thatyou can "dis" your mom, but ifsomeone else does, you get defen-sive? This is because you ascribemeaning to the act of dissing thatit's OK for someone in the family,but when outsiders join in, you circlethe wagons and defend the group.

different setting. Last football season, our college team was losing animportant game. A man In the stands became extremely distraught:four-letter words came from his mouth like steam out of Old Faithful.The stands Were filled not with sailors, but with men, women, and chil-dren, and I'm sure this man would never have behaved this way at aPTA meeting. So why did this happen? Blumer would suggest that itwas the result of collective excitement, an Intense emotional behaviorthat makes it hard for us to think and act rationally. This is what Blumercalls contagion, a rapid, irrational mode in which people do not thinkrationally or clearly. In such a setting, they "lose thelr heads" and reactemotionally, not rationally. Inthis way, you can see that individual inter-actions can create social realities. I was thankful that at that game Ihad not taken my youngest child, but a man in the crowd eventuallytold the man to watch his mouth because there were children around.Initially, the foul-mouthed man seemed angry to be scolded in public,but he quickly "cooled down" as he noticed that a number of people

around him were watching hisbehavior closely. How do wereact when others are watching?Sociologist Erving Goffmandeveloped a theory about this.

Goffman's primary insight is thatwe are constantly trying to managethe impressions that others have of

How did yourfeelings emerge?They probably occurred from themany years in which your mothercared for you. While she may driveyou crazy sometimes, she certainlyfed you, tucked you in at night. andnurtured you when you were sick.In.other words. t ile social interac-tions you had with her support themeaning you ascribe to who canand cannot dis her .

Blumer proposed that the pr i-mary focus of the interactionistapproach involves studying individ-ual interactions with symbols. This~icro focus places great impor-tance on the idea that symbolshave great power to affect societyas a whole. The way we talk about something creates the way we dealwith it. Consider this example: In the 1950s, many whites spoke usingracial slurs. Today, such language is socially unacceptable, Has thischange eliminated racism? Certainly not, but the level of racism in theUnited States has certainly declined. Are these two factors connected?Blumer would suggest that they are. Words convey meaning and mean-ing creates reality . Eliminating racist language moves society closer toeliminating racism.

Normally, people interpret tile words and actions of those aroundthem and determine their behavior based on this interpretation. Thisresults in rational behavior , meaning that we tailor our responses to thesetting after we've interpreted the reactions. However, in a group set-t ing our behaviors are somewhat dif ferent. General ly, Blumer suggeststhat in a group setting we react without tile same degree of thought weuse in an individual decision. At some point, people stop thinkingrationally and act in ways that they might not consider acceptable in a

ERVING GOFFMANus. Impression management is the Canadian sociologist ErvingGoffman (1922-1982) developed atheory he called dramaturgy, atheory of interaction in which all l ifeis like acting. Goffman uses thistheory to compare daily socialinteractions to the gestures ofactors on a stage. People are con-stantly"acting" in order to convincepeople of the character that theywish to portray to the outsideworld. Not to say that people arealways "faking it." but rather thatpeople are concerned about whatthe rest of the world will think ofthem, and they adjust their socialinteractions accordingly.

Frequently, we alter ourbehavior without much deliberate

thought. For example, if you are on a firs t date, do you behave different-ly than the. way you do with an old friend? Usually, on a first date youdress differently, talk dif ferently, and eat carefully. You may be nervous,but you will also, without thinking about it, change your behavior. Why?Because you are taking extra care to make a good first impression, evenif it means not being completely yourself. Goffman points out that man-aging Impressions involves a complex series of actions and reactions.As a person gets older and has more "practice" in socializing, he or shemay be better equipped to gauge the reactions that their actions willreceive." Chapter 4 provides more detail on dramaturgy.

action we use to control what othersthink of us. When the angry man atthe football game "calmed down,"it was probably because he was aseason ticket-holder and he knewthat we'd all see him again nextweek. He didn't want to come offas the "jerk who cusses."

HOWARD BECKERHoward Becker, a sociologist from Chicago, suggests that human actionis related to the labels attached to it . Inhis book, Outsiders: Studies in theSociology of Deviance, Becker suggests that a label is attached to a


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certain behavior when a group with powerful social status labels it deviant.He suggests that deviance Is rooted in the reactions and responsesof others to an individual's acts.

The label of deviant, or conformist for thatmatter, is applied when people see our behav-ior and react to it. This sets up a self-fulfillingprophecy for behavior as people seek an iden-tity that will match up to the expectations thatothers hold of them. Becker applied theseideas to the study of deviant behavior butthe idea of labeling theory applies to allidentity issues, including gender, sexualorientation, and personal identity.

CONTAGION is a rapid, ir rational mode in which peqj1lledo not thinkrationally or clearly.DRAMATURGY is a theory of mteractlon in which all lifeis lil~eacting.

Consicer tile example of a five-year-old girl who has been labeleda "good girl." The theory would suggest that somewhere along the line,she did what others expected of her and that these people had powerover her. Her parents asked her to take a bath and she did. She receiveda positive reward, "she's a good girl," and through repeated eventsthroughout her life, she developed that sense of self whereby she neverdoes anything remotely "danqsrous" or out of line and always takesa bath. However, if this "good girl" becomes a "terrible teen" and herparents label her as a delinquent. she might stop bathing and start smok-ing. Becker would suggest that tile label we ascribe to people has amajor influence on their behavior.

THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS - AT A GLANCE

GEORGE HERBERTMEAD HERBERT BLUMER


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CRITICISMS OF SYMBOLICINTERACTIONISMCritics of symbolic Interact ion ism suggest that this perspective ignoresthe coercive effects of social structure, focusing too much on the powerof the individual to co-create his or her world. If, for example, you're aslave, it doesn't matter whether or not you reject the ownership symbolor not. If you try to leave, you'll be punished.

Of course, we are all born into a culture and social setting. We don'tcreate them as we go along. As a result, your parents, neighborhood,and nation of birth all influence how you see things. Had you been bornin a different time or in a different culture, you might have believedtotally different things.

The Three Paradigms-How Are They Interrelated?in the sports arena, we tend to associate phenomenal players with the.teams on which they play. Tile player's name and the team namebecome synonymous. Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bul ls. Tom Bradyand the New England Patriots. Derek Jeter and the New York Yankees.You get the idea. The same Is true of sociologists-we associate the the-orist with the paradigm that he or she favored or had a hand in develop-ing. For example, Marx is a symbol of confl ict theory, whereas Comte andfunctionalism go hand in hand. However, sometimes it can be tricky toconfine sociologists to such a tight box because they might use parts ofeach paradigm in their analyses. In fact, I know of no colleague of minewho Is a "pur ist" in anything. That 's because no single paradigm perfect-ly fi ts every si tuation. To get a complete picture, many sociologists use all

three paradigms. In this way, tile three paradigms are interrelated andwork together to help us figure out why society is the way it is.

Think about sociologist Robert Merton and his concept of latent andmanifest consequences. He takes a functionalist stance, but adds to itthe notion that intended and unintended results can arise. TllUS, weshould ask, for whom is this functional? Can you see a bit of conflicttheory here? Like Merton, symbolic interactionist Howard Becker alsoblurs the lines between the paradigms.

Becker's labeling theory can be linked to conflict theory because thelabeling tradition suggests that those with power determine what is andis not labeled as deviant or criminal. III other words, the power of thelabel Infiuences the outcome of the individual, but people with the abi lityto get what they want done put the label on us. Like a conflict theorist,Becker acknowledges that a system of inequality exists within oursociety. Consider this question: Why are cigarettes legal, while marijuanais i llegal? Labeling theorists would argue that this is because people withpower smoke .cigarettes, but not pot. If powerful people ever startedsmoking pot, the practice would become legal.

We've seen how conflict theory overlaps with both functionalismand symbolic interaction ism, but does functionalism ever overlap withsymbolic lmeractionisrn? When Emile Durkheim suggests that valuesunify people, he sounds a bit like George Herbert Mead. The solidarity ofa society for Durkheim is related to what it values, and he acknowledgesthat values change as societ ies become more modern.

The point for you as a student of sociology is to beware that justbecause a sociologist is classif ied as a funct ionalist, conflict theor ist , orsymbolic interactionist , that doesn't mean that he or she won't use otherpoints of view in making an analysis of the world. In fact, at times, a the-orist's point of view can be so eclectic that he can't be pinned down intoa Single category. This sentiment is especially true of socioloqiet MaxWeber (1864-1920).

OVERLAPPING THEORIES

Functionalism Conflict Theory

Inequality existsin the social worldbecause ofdifferences betweendifferent groups'wealth and power.

SymbolicInteraction ism


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Max Weber - TheoristWho Transcends CategorizationTo me, Max Weber (1864-1920) is tile German counterpart of EmileDurkheim because.he wrote about a great var iety of topics, used datain 11isanalysis, and laid the foundations for high-quality sociologicalresearch. In his work, students often see a variety of ideas that seem toblend different schools of thought. Yet, he wrote at a time before manyof these "schools" were clearly ciefined or established.

Because Weber wrote partly as a response to some of Karl Marx'sideas, many consicier him a confl ict theorist. Weber accepted that socialclasses influence our outcomes; however, 11e felt Marx's social classsystem was too simple. He proposed that all people have economic,political, and cultural conflicts that are related to their relative socialposition. As a result, being an owner does not necessarily make youImportant in society. Wealth is important. but political power and socialstanding are also important.

In other ways. Weber appeared to take a more functional approach,par ticularly when he discussed how bureaucracies function in society.Bureaucracies, which will be discussed In depth in Chapter 6, are formalorganizat ions that are organized into a hierarchy of smaller departments.You might think of a large corporation or a government agency as abureaucracy. Weber proposed that rational and ieleal bureaucraciesnaturally occur because we need them. They provide clear lines ofauthority, divide tasks so that workers can specialize , and clearly definerules and expectations. Under such a type of leadership, societies andlarge organizat ions function smoothly and improve the function of society,Although Weber was well aware that few perfect bureaucracies existed,he argued that responsible leadership will tend toward the ideal becauseWestern society is increasingly focused on achieving goals, and a rationalbureaucracy is an eff ic ient way to achieve those goals."

Other co lleagues of mine have suggested that Weber's ideas seemto lay the foundation for the symbolic interactionist school of thought.

> Is Max Weber (pronounced VAY-bur) a conflict theorist? A functionalist?A symbolic interactionist? Or is he allthree? Sociologists everywhere disagreeon how to classify Weber. That's becausehis views are so varied that he almostdefies categorization.

1 /1VVWhy? Because he pointed out how values influence our goals andaffect our behaviors, In his book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit ofCapitalism, Weber clear ly linked a person's relig ious value to the soci-etal creation of a capitalist economy. For him. capitalism arose in theWestern world primarily because a religious value system that he cal led"the Protestant Ethic" emphasizes the accumulation of wealth as amarker of God's favor on a person.Furthermore, Weber also discussed how values are important tothe study of socio logy. For example, he understood that sociologistsare at risk of approaching their profession with personal values thatmight influence the outcome of their study. Weber stressed that soci-ology should be value- free, In either words, sociologis ts should studysociety as it is, not as they would like it to be. They should put theirbiases aside when analyzing a topic. He implied that personal valuesmay impaot social research, and therefore sociologists must str ive toput such values aside when they make their analyses.

So, where does your professor put Weber? The more you readabout social theorists, the more you will find that most of them blendideas from all schools of thought.

1\1\

APPLYING SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIESNow it 's time to think like a sociologist. Thinking l ike a sociologist meansthat you understand the topic, and you examine it from one or more of

the three sociological theories covered in this section. Consider the prob-lem of homeiessness in a society. How might a functionalist view home-lessness? How might a confl ict theorist view it? A symbolic interactionist?


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WRAP YOUR MIND AROUND THE THEORY

Functionalists look for the function of anyissue. Food banks, functionalists argue,make a dysfunctional system like home-lessness function in a society .

. " , , , . r ~ .FUNCT,IONALISM

Functionalists suggest society works as an interre-lated system. Communitarians understand that ifsociety is

to run smoothly. the 'government, ti le local community, and thebusiness sector must all work toqather for the well-being of all . The root of

society isthe local community; i t anchors this societal t ree. The government car-ries the will of the people to the economic system, thereby functioninqas the trunk ofthis tree. The leaves Ofa tree make the sugar that allows tile entire plant to live. Of

course, leaves without roots blow over, and roots without leaves die.,/ . . . .~.-'.

f CONFLICT!THEORY! Conflict theorists would viewi homelessness as a sign ofi inequality in society. Conflictl theorists fcous on social class-\ es and their drastic differences .'.\ in wealth, power, and prestige. \\\ They believe that the upper \.:.....\,..c~ans~r~~~~~~~:~~i~t~;p~~t:lt~e '-":::::::::::::::::::.\. lower class. If the upper class shared""" its wealth, conflict theorists argue,\" then homelessness would be cut......down dramatically.

Theinequality ofwealth in aSOCiety is aleading cause

of homelessness.

SYMBOL.IIG \INTERACTIONISM \

Because symbolic interactionists ';. view things on a smaller scale, \

. ~ they would explore h.ow home-I lessness affects the way individ-i uals act toward one another./ These theorists would ask: How

do individuals behave toward.... .: -:. : one another? Whatlabels do indi-viduals assign to homeless ness?How do non-homeless people interact

with homeless people?

", .~ . - . ,r : .

look at eachpicture, How doyou think each pair

of people is actingtoward each other? Do

you think there aredifferences between pairs?


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discover sociology in action: WHY ISCOMMUNITY LEARNING IMPORTANT TO A SOCIETY?Getting Involved inSocloloqy->Community Learning

COMMUNITY LEARNING occurs when individuals and groups work toidentify and address issue-sof public concern.

In Tefl Them Who f Am: The Lives of Homeless Women, Elliot Liebowdiscusses. how he often "loaned" money to many homeless women whohad absolutely none. He was always careful to consider the moneya "loan" because he knew that sim-ply giving it to them would show thathe thought of them as nothing morethan panhandlers. Liebow figured hewouldn't get the money back, but hedidn't mind." His goal was to treatthe women with digni ty and earn theirtrust. Uebow was practicing commu-nity learning. Community learningoccurs when indiv iduals and groupswork to identify and address issuesof public concern.

It's easy for people to believe thatsocial problems are so widespreadthat there Is nothing we can do aboutthem. Often, we feel so out of touch

Liebow's study of the homeless showed him that homelessness isa widespread problem, and there is plenty of blame to go around.

There are too many people whodon't understand the problem, justignore it, or both. When I workedat a local day shelter during myundergraduate days, I realized Ihad a lot to learn. One day, whileserving lunch, I noticed that one ofthe patrons became quite irri tated."Hot dogs again!" 11escreamed. Inshock, I thought that he had noright to complain when he could beeating nothing for lunch. An olderand more experienced volunteermust have noticed my facebecause she said to me,"Sometimes, so many people look

past them, that they just have to yell so you'll know they're there."That sobering comment brought me back to my senses. When youactually take a minute to view the world from someone else's per-spective, you'll find it hard to just sit mound and do nothing.

lit -

. . . . . . .

with the world around us that we do not vote, we do not know our neigh-bors, and we cannot name our town council members. Community learn-ing, however, can help you see things with fresh eyes Working in thecommunity expands your understanding of sociology and your world.

Classroom to Community Helping the Hotn~I~~$::-.'- . . . . . ' . ~ ~ ' ~ , ' " . _ _ ,

"Homeless people are justa bunch of drug addicts)aren't they?"I wasn't surprised when Theo, one of my first-year sociology students, made this commentduring a lecture. However, I was disappointedbecause I knew that many people around the.world share this view. After a lively debate onthe subject, I real ized I hadn't changed Theo'smind, so I challenged him to volunteer at alocal homeless shelter.

Day after day, Theo worked with thefamil ies at the shelter- feeding, clothing, and

talking with them. While at the shelter, he met ahomeless mother who had been the victim ofdomestic violence.

"\VhenIlooked into thatmother's face and the faceof her children, Irealizedhow narrow Illy viewpointhad been, Thea remarked to me later."How did Iever think youcould label an entiregroup of people?"

At the end of Thea's volunteer period, hewrote a paper for class reveal ing how much hehad learned about tile homeless. He even decid-ed to continue working at the shelter Volunteeringmade him feel l ikehe was making a difference inthe l ives of the people he encountered, and heknew they were making a difference in his, Theo'sexperiences helped him realizethat the people atthe shelter were just like him. The only differencewas that they had fal len on some bad luck.

Theo's story shows how moving out of theclassroom and Into the cornmmlty helps peo-ple gain a new perspective. They can get out oftheir individual boxes and view the world as asociologist would.

major paradigms-social science

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