Making sense of discourse

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion – hanging it all together

Coherence – getting the message across (including pragmatic function)

A: that’s the telephone. B: I’m in the bath. A: Ok

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Psycholinguistics reading skills are not invariant. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. We shall need to economize if we are to save money.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Psycholinguistics reading skills are not invariant. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. We shall need to economize if we are to save money.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

coherent texts are distinguished from random sentences by the existence of text-forming, cohesive devices.

cohesion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the creation of coherent discourse

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

In some cases, it is possible to construct a context in which these pieces of language could conceivably have taken place. When an extended context is provided, they are readily seen as coherent.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

construct a contextA: Education, particularly literacy, is extremely important.B: True. Take our situation here in Singapore. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop.A. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. Would you say this has been due to the educational system?B. I certainly would!

Cohesion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the establishment of coherence (Widdowson, 1978)

We are able to recognize this text as coherent by creating a context and then identifying the functions that each utterance fulfils within that context.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Most native speakers would create a domestic, situational context in which the following functions arc assigned to each utterance:

UTTERANCE FUNCTIONA: That's the telephone. requestB. I'm in the bath. excuseA. Ok acceptance of excuse

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

In creating a meaningful context and identifying the functions of each utterance, coherence is established. As a result, the missing bits of conversation, which would make it cohesive as well as coherent, could be restored. Such a cohesive conversation might run as follows:

A: That is the telephone. Can you answer it, please?B: No. I’m sorry, I can't answer it because I’m in the bathA: OK, I'll answer it then.

In creating a meaningful context and identifying the functions of each utterance, coherence is established. As a result, the missing bits of conversation, which would make it cohesive as well as coherent, could be restored. Such a cohesive conversation might run as follows:

A: That is the telephone. Can you answer it, please?

B: No. I’m sorry, I can't answer it because I’m in the bath

A: OK, I'll answer it then.

the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows.

(A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.)A: Are you wearing gloves?B: No.A: What about the spiders?B: They're not wearing gloves either.

the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows.

(A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.)A: Are you wearing gloves?B: No.A: What about the spiders?B: They're not wearing gloves either.

the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows.

(A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.)A: Are you wearing gloves?B: No.A: What about the children?B: They're not wearing gloves either.

the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows.

(A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.)A: Are you wearing gloves?B: No.A: What about the nails?B: They're not wearing gloves either.

it is difficult to create non-texts from random sentences because some sort of context can generally be created which will give coherence to any set of sentences.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Are these two sentences coherent or incoherent?

We will have guests for lunch.

Calderon was a great writer.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Are these two sentences coherent or incoherent?

We will have guests for lunch.

Calderon was a great writer.

Can you find a causal link between them?

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Edmonson et al. argues that the following context can lend coherence to these two sentences:

A: Did you know Calderon died exactly one hundred years ago? B: Good heavens! I'd forgotten. The occasion shall not pass unnoticed. A: We will have guests for lunch. Calderon was a great Spanish writer. I shall invite Professor Wilson and Senor Castellano right away …. (Edmonson 1981:13)

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion does not ‘create’ coherence. Perceptionof the propositions must either precede or occur simultaneously with the recognition of functions.

Interpreting discourse, and thus establishing coherence, is a matter of readers/listeners using their linguistic knowledge to relate the discourse world to people, objects, events and states of affairs beyond the text itself.

Discourse Cohesion and Coherence

Speech Acts

Conventional Sentence Types

Declarative. (Assertion)◦ I seem to have forgotten my umbrella.

Interrogative. (Question)◦ Where did I leave it?

Imperative. (Order/Request)◦ Go find my umbrella!

[ Optative. (Wish) ]◦ If only I had my umbrella!

Speech Acts & Language Functions

Pragmatics Not only language structure is rule governed – language

use is, too Rules of language use are social: ”Is saying this

”possible?” / ”feasible?” / ”appropriate?” / ”done?” (Dell Hymes)

Speech Acts & Language Functions

“There is a policeman at the corner.”

could be … a warning, an assurance, a dare, a hint, a reminder to go and take your car out of the

handicapped space you are parked in.

Speech Acts & Language Functions

“I promise I’ll be there tomorrow.”

could be … a promise, a threat depending on whether his presence tomorrow is a

disadvantage or an advantage to the listener. Contrast with:“If you don’t behave yourself, I promise you there’s going

to be trouble.” This sentence says it’s a “promise,” but it’s a “threat.”

(Searle Speech Acts 58)

Speech Acts & Language Functions

Language As Action

Speech Act Theory was developed from the basic belief that language is used to perform actions. (meaning and action are related to language)

Speech acts = actions performed via utterances (apology, complaint, compliment, etc.)

They apply to the speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance.

The speaker expects that his/her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer.

Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the context = speech events.

Speech Acts & Language Functions

Speech act theory proposed by John . L. Austin has been developed by J. R. Searle. They believe that language is not only used to inform or

to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.

Speech Acts & Language Functions

when using language, we not only make propositional statements about objects, entities, states of affairs and so

on, but we also fulfil functions such as requesting, denying, introducing, apologizing etc.

Speech Acts

Austin suggests three kinds of acts

a. locutionary act b. illocutionary act c. perlocutinary act (illocutionary force )

Illocutionary Acts

a. Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance

b. illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning

c. perlocutionary act (illocutionary force ): the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.

Illocutionary Acts

The locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “There isn’t enough fresh air in here”.

The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window.

The perlocutinary act can be the hearer’s opening the window or his refusal to do so.

In fact, we might utter “There isn’t enough fresh air in here” to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance.

Speech Acts

A: There's no answer at the front door. Shall I try the back?

B: I shouldn't, if I were you. There's a Rhodesian ridgeback in the garden.

Speech Acts

A: There's no answer at the front door. Shall I try the back?

B: I shouldn't, if I were you. There's a Rhodesian ridgeback in the garden.

Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach.

3jLiz: Do you like jazz, Tom?Tom: No, I don't like it very much. Do you?Liz: It's OK. What kind of music do you like?Tom: Well, I like rock a lot.Liz: U2. How about you? Do you like them?Tom: No, I don't. I can't stand them.

(Richards et al. 1990: 23)

Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach.

3kDave: There's a jazz concert at the Blue Note on Friday.

Would you like to go?Joan: Yeah, that sounds good! What time is the concert?Dave: It's at 10 o'clock.Joan: Great! Let's go.

(Richards et al. 1990: 25)

Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach.

3lCarolyn: Excuse me - are you Mrs. Baxter?Mrs. Baxter: Yes, I am.Carolyn: I'm Carolyn Duval.Mrs. Baxter: Nice to meet you, Ms. Duval.

(Warshawsky 1992: A2)

Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach.3mA: (Dials number) Rrring, rrring.B: Directory Assistance.A: I'd like the number of Jane Schaefer.B: Could you spell the last name, please?A: S-C-H-A-E-F-E-RB: The number is 555-5275.A: Thank you.B: You're welcome.

(Warshawsky 1992: A17)

Background knowledge

Background knowledge

The things we know about the world assist us in the interpretation of discourse.

Background knowledge

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carrysince everything would be too far away from the correct floor. Aclosed window would prevent the sound from carrying, sincemost buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the wholeoperation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in themiddle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, thefellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough tocarry that far. An additional problem is that a wire could breakon the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to themessage. It is clear that the best situation would involve lessdistance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. Withface-to-face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Background knowledge

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carrysince everything would be too far away from the correct floor. Aclosed window would prevent the sound from carrying, sincemost buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the wholeoperation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in themiddle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, thefellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough tocarry that far. An additional problem is that a wire could breakon the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to themessage. It is clear that the best situation would involve lessdistance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. Withface-to-face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Background knowledgeIf the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't beable to carry since everything would be toofar away from the correct floor. A closedwindow would prevent the sound fromcarrying, since most buildings tend to be wellinsulated. Since the whole operation dependson a steady flow of electricity, a break in themiddle of the wire would also causeproblems. Of course, the fellow could shout,but the human voice is not loud enough tocarry that far. An additional problem is that awire could break on the instrument. Thenthere could be no accompaniment to themessage. It is clear that the best situationwould involve less distance. Then there wouldbe fewer potential problems. With face-to-face contact, the least number of things couldgo wrong.

Background knowledge

This interaction between the world of the text and the world outside the text is exploited by writers in many different ways.

For example, some writers often create humorous or satirical effects by juxtaposing the real and imaginary worlds.

Background knowledge

To someone unfamiliar with events in the former Soviet Union, the text would make as little sense as the 'serenade' text.

Background knowledge

3oThe former Comrade Chairman of the former Communist Party, former president of the former empire and former photo opportunity, slogged up the last six flights of stairs to his office. The stairs were well worn, particularly in the centre of each step where two deep grooves commemorated the heel-marks of generations of politically incorrect thinkers who had been dragged to the basement by men with no necks. Later, they had been released as politically correct mulch. Somewhere in the basement was a room full of their hats, sorted and labelled. The former Comrade Chairman wondered what had happened to them. The former re-education staff had probably opened a shop, he decided. There wasn't much call for trained interrogators who could correct political error while forcing the miscreants' kneecaps down their throats, outside the more progressive Western universities. He hoped the shop was doing well. Everyone needed a hat, if only to gather up stray potatoes down at the shunting yards, and it was just the kind of entrepreneurial spirit he knew lurked beneath the coarse woollen exterior of the former Soviet people, even the horrible ones.

(Cook 1991; 194)

Background knowledge

3oThe former Comrade Chairman of the former Communist Party, former president of the former empire and former photo opportunity, slogged up the last six flights of stairs to his office. The stairs were well worn, particularly in the centre of each step where two deep grooves commemorated the heel-marks of generations of politically incorrect thinkers who had been dragged to the basement by men with no necks. Later, they had been released as politically correct mulch. Somewhere in the basement was a room full of their hats, sorted and labelled. The former Comrade Chairman wondered what had happened to them. The former re-education staff had probably opened a shop, he decided. There wasn't much call for trained interrogators who could correct political error while forcing the miscreants' kneecaps down their throats, outside the more progressive Western universities. He hoped the shop was doing well. Everyone needed a hat, if only to gather up stray potatoes down at the shunting yards, and it was just the kind of entrepreneurial spirit he knew lurked beneath the coarse woollen exterior of the former Soviet people, even the horrible ones.

(Cook 1991; 194)

Using Background Knowledge; Propositional Level

there is more to comprehending discoursethan knowing the words on the page,

attempts to provide theoretical models thatcan explain the ways in which ourknowledge of the world guides our effortsto comprehend discourse..

work has been carried out by researchers inthe field of artificial intelligence todevelop programs that will enablecomputers to comprehend and producenatural discourse.

Frame theory

Human memory consists of sets of stereotypicalsituations, or 'frames‘, which are constructed out of ourpast experiences.

These provide a framework which we use to make sense of new experiences.

e.g. _ going to the doctor_ buying a car_ planning a wedding party

One major problem is that it provides no explanation of why one frame might be selected rather than another.

Frame theory

3pRecession or no recession, retailers were preparingyesterday for the expected onslaught of thousands ofbargain hunters. Shops around the country were gettingready to open their doors for the first day of traditionalafter-Christmas clearance sales, with one large retailchain already predicting record trading levels.

(The Australian, Friday 27 December 1991)

a 'recession' frame, ? a 'Christmas' frame, ? an 'economy' frame, ? a 'shopping' frame, ?

Frame theory

the more text one has, the greater the chance of selecting the appropriate frame, and often, as listener or reader, we have to reserve judgement for some time until we have enough information to make a choice.

Schema theory

the knowledge we carry around in our heads is organized into interrelated patterns.

These interrelated patterns are constructed from all our previous experiences and they enable us to make predictions about future experience.

Schema theory

meaning does not come neatly pre-packaged in aural and written texts.

texts are little more than elaborate 'signposts' to the speaker or writer's original meanings,

the reader or listener must use his or her linguistic and content knowledge to reconstruct the original meanings of the creator of the discourse.

Schema theory

two dimensions or levels to any given discourse:

1. Systematic level: includes the reader or listener's linguistic knowledge

2. Schematic level: relates to background content knowledge

In making sense of a given piece of discourse, we try and match our own schematic knowledge with that of the writer or speaker.

Schema theory

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.

The case of cohesive devices

references

[antecedent] [reference]

I saw John yesterday. He gave me his hat.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

3q

Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman saw it there and connected in to a petrol pump.He was wearing silk pyjamas at the time. They were oldand dusty.

it Statistical probability there teapot He postman

NO DIFFICULTY

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

3r

Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman saw it[1] and connected it[2] to a petrol pump. It[3]

was old and dusty.

1. it Statistical probability , teapot2. it teapot, Statistical probability, a petrol pump 3. it teapot, a petrol pump

MOREDIFFICULT

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

3r

Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman rinsed it[1] out. He has no idea what it[2] was ofcourse.

1. it teapot2. It Statistical probability

NODIFFICULT

appeal to our knowledge of the world

Using background knowledgefunctional level

When studying functions, the question is not 'what is the speaker/writer trying to tell us about events and things in the world?' but' 'what is the speaker/ writer trying to achieve through language?'

Using background knowledge functional level

3uo A: I have two tickets to the theatre tonight. o B: My examination is tomorrow. o A: Pity.

According to Widdowson, there are implicit assumptions on both sides that A‘s first statement is an invitation. B's response, which, on the surface, has little to do with A's statement, is taken as a refusal of the invitation. This is recognized in A's final remark.

Using background knowledge functional level

Consider the following exchange, in which A's opening gambit is intended as an invitation.

Using background knowledge functional level

o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight.o B: Good for you. What are you going to see?o A: Measure for Measure.o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it.

The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy.

o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight.o B: Good for you. What are you going to see?o A: Measure for Measure.o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it.

The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy.o A: Look, are you free tonight?o B: I'm not sure, why?

The message is still not getting across, so he tries again.

o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight.o B: Good for you. What are you going to see?o A: Measure for Measure.o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it.

The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy.o A: Look, are you free tonight?o B: I'm not sure, why?

The message is still not getting across, so he tries again.o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with

me.o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow.

o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight.o B: Good for you. What are you going to see?o A: Measure for Measure.o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it.

The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy.o A: Look, are you free tonight?o B: I'm not sure, why?

The message is still not getting across, so he tries again.o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with

me.o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow.

Now Widdowson allows A to be obtuse.o A: I know, so is mine. What's that got to do with it?

o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight.o B: Good for you. What are you going to see?o A: Measure for Measure.o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it.

o A: Look, are you free tonight?o B: I'm not sure, why?

o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with me.

o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow.

o A: I know, so is mine. What's that got to do with it?

these negotiating procedures depend crucially on the participants knowing what each utterance stands for functionally (that is, 'invitation', 'polite refusal' etc.).

ACTIVITYStudy the following text from Tok Pisin (from New Guinea) and answer these questions. As you do the task, make a mental note of the strategies you use to make sense of the text.— How many words can you make out?— What type of text do you think it is?— What do you think the text is about?— What do you think is the purpose of the text?— What language is the text written in?

Using background knowledge functional level

TOK BILOG GA VMANSipos yu painim sompela Japan i les long pait, yu gifim dispela pas. Sipos i savi wakabaut, i kan kam ontaim yupela nau painim soldia bilong yumi. Im i sik tumas, orait, yu brinim tok.Tok im gut, mipela nokan kilim ol, kalabus dasol, nau salim ol iko long Astralia, na weitim pait ipinis.WOK BILOG GA VMA N.I GAT PEL

Using background knowledge functional level

TOK BILOG GA VMANSipos yu painim sompela Japan i les long pait, yu gifim dispela pas. Sipos i savi wakabaut, i kan kam ontaim yupela nau painim soldia bilong yumi. Im i sik tumas, orait, yu brinim tok.Tok im gut, mipela nokan kilim ol, kalabus dasol, nau salim ol iko long Astralia, na weitim pait ipinis.WOK BILOG GA VMA N.I GAT PEL

Using background knowledge functional level

o The following extract (3w, page 75-76)is a conversation between two individuals who attempted to decode the Tok Pisin text.

o In the extract they are discussing the strategies they used to make sense of the decontextualized text.

o Make a list of these strategies. What are the similarities and differences between their strategies and the one which you used?

o How reasonable do you find their interpretation?

Using background knowledge functional level

Using background knowledge functional level

The context

The original text is printed on a piece of paper which isaccompanied by two illustrations. The first of these shows aNew Guinea highlander in a jungle setting peering around atree at a wounded Japanese soldier who is holding up a pieceof paper. The second illustration shows the highlander, thepiece of paper in his hand, leading three Australian soldiers,one of whom carries a first aid kit, through the jungle. On thereverse of the paper is a message in Japanese.

Using background knowledge functional level

The context

the leaflet should be used by wounded Japanese soldiers togive to natives, who would lead Australian soldiers to thewounded Japanese soldier.

Using background knowledge functional level

Using background knowledge functional level

Using background knowledge functional level

Using background knowledge functional level