malaria h2012 protozoan disease 108 countries 3 billion people 1 million deaths each year
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MalariaH2012
Protozoan Disease
108 countries
3 billion people
1 million deaths each year
In the late twentieth : Eliminated
United States, Canada, Europe, Russia
Prevalence rose in many parts of the tropics
Resurgence
Increases in the drug resistance of the parasite
Insecticide resistance of its vectors
Human travel and migration
EtiologyFive species of the genus Plasmodium cause
nearly all malarial infections in humans.
Falciparum
Vivax
Ovale
Malariae
Knowlesi(in Southeast Asia—the monkey malaria parasite )
Almost all Deaths
Falciparum
Female Anopheline Mosquito Sporozoites
Liver
Asexual Reproduction
Single Sporozoite eventually 10,000 to >30,000 Daughter Merozoites
Liver cell eventually bursts
100 million parasites in the blood of an adult, the symptomatic stage of the infection begins
Vivax and Ovale
Intrahepatic forms
Dormant(Hypnozoites) for a period ranging from 3 weeks to a year or longer before reproduction
begins
Relapses
Duration of Erythrocytic Cycle (hours)
Falciparum 48 h
Vivax 48 h
Ovale 50 h
Malariae 72 h
Red Cell PreferenceFalciparum
Younger cells (but can invade cells of all ages)
Vivax
Reticulocytes and cells up to 2 weeks old
Ovale
Reticulocytes
Malariae
Older cells
Morphology
FalciparumUsually only ring forms; Banana-shaped gametocytes
VivaxIrregularly shaped large rings and trophozoites; enlarged
erythrocytes; Schüffner's dotsOvale
Infected erythrocytes, enlarged and oval with tufted ends; Schüffner's dots
MalariaeBand or rectangular forms of trophozoites common
Relapses
Vivax , Ovale :Yes
Falciparum , Malariae : No
Parasitemias of >2% are suggestive of Falciparum
infection
Vivax
Duffy blood-group antigen Fya or Fyb
Most West Africans and people with origins in that region carry the Duffy-
negative FyFy phenotype and are therefore resistant to P. vivax
Disease
Direct effects of RBC invasion and destruction by the asexual parasite and the host's reaction
Epidemiology
Falciparum predominates in Africa, New Guinea, and Hispaniola (i.e., the Dominican
Republic and Haiti)
Vivax is more common in Central America
Malariae is found in most endemic areas
Ovale is relatively unusual outside of Africa
Endemicity
Parasitemia rates or palpable-Spleen rates in children 2–9 years
Hypoendemic (<10%)
Mesoendemic (11–50%)
Hyperendemic (51–75%)
Holoendemic (>75%)
Holo- and Hyperendemic areas
(e.g., certain regions of tropical Africa or coastal New Guinea) where there is intense Falciparum
transmission, people may sustain more than one infectious mosquito bite per day and are
infected repeatedly throughout their lives
Morbidity and Mortality during early Childhood
Adulthood, most infections are Asymptomatic
Stable Transmission
Constant
Frequent
Year-round infection
Unstable Transmission
Transmission is low, Erratic, or Focal, full protective immunity is
not acquired, and symptomatic disease may occur at All Ages
Usually exists in Hypoendemic
An Epidemic
Changes in Environmental, Economic, or Social conditions, such as heavy rains or
migrations (usually of Refugees or Workers) from a nonmalarious region to an area of high transmission; a breakdown in malaria control
and prevention service
All Age Groups
Anophelines
>400 can transmit malaria, and the 40 considerably in their efficiency as malaria
vectors
Life cycle within the mosquito—from gametocyte ingestion to subsequent
inoculation (sporogony)—lasts 8–30 days
mosquito must survive for >7
Sporogony
Is not completed at cooler temperatures <16°C for P. vivax and < 21°C for
Falciparum;
transmission does not occur below
The most effective mosquito vectors
such as Anopheles gambiae in Africa, which are long-lived, occur
in high densities in tropical climates, breed readily, and bite humans in preference to other
animals
Entomologic Inoculation Rate (EIR)
the number of sporozoite-positive mosquito bites per person per
year is the most common measure of malaria transmission and varies from <1 in some parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia to >300
in parts of tropical Africa.
Erythrocyte Changes
Consumes and degrades intracellular proteins
principally hemoglobin
Alters the RBC membrane by changing its transport properties, exposing cryptic surface antigens, and inserting new parasite-derived proteins. The RBC becomes more irregular
in shape, more antigenic, and less deformable.
Severe malaria is also associated with reduced deformability of the uninfected erythrocytes, which
compromises their passage through the partially obstructed
capillaries and venules and shortens RBC survival.
In the other three ("benign") human malarias, sequestration does not occur, and all stages of
the parasite's development are evident on peripheral-blood smears. Whereas Vivax,
Ovale, and Malariae show a marked predilection for either young RBCs (Vivax, Ovale) or old cells (Malariae) and produce a
level of parasitemia that is seldom >2%, Falciparum can invade erythrocytes of all ages and may be associated with very high
levels of parasitemia.
Host ResponseInitially, nonspecific defense mechanisms
Splenic immunologic and filtrative clearance
Removal of both parasitized and uninfected erythrocytes
Strain-specific immune response then controls the infection
Exposure to sufficient strains confers protection from high-level parasitemia and disease but not from
infection
Infection without illness ,asymptomatic parasitemia is common among adults and older children living in regions with stable and intense transmission (holo- or
hyperendemic areas).
Immunity is mainly specific for both the species and the strain of infecting malarial parasite. Both humoral
immunity and cellular immunity are necessary for protection
Passively transferred IgG from immune adults has been shown to reduce levels of
parasitemia in children; although parasitemia in very young infants can
occur, passive transfer of maternal antibody contributes to the relative (but not complete) protection of infants from severe malaria in the first months of life
Immunity to disease declines when a person lives outside an endemic area for several months or longer.
Parasites may persist in the blood for months (or, in the case of P.
malariae, for many years)
Temperatures of 40°C damage mature parasites
Tertian, every 2 days; Quartan, every 3 days) are seldom seen today
Geographic Distributions
Sickle Cell disease Hemoglobins C and E
Hereditary OvalocytosisThalassemias
G6PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenas edeficiency )
closely resemble that of falciparum malaria before the introduction of control measures. This similarity
suggests that these genetic disorders confer protection against death from falciparum
Clinical FeaturesFirst symptoms of malaria are nonspecific
Lack of a sense of well-being
Headache
Fatigue
Abdominal discomfort
Muscle aches
followed by Fever
similar to the symptoms of a minor viral illness
Headache
Chest pain
Abdominal pain
Arthralgia
Myalgia
Diarrhea
Common
Nausea
Vomiting
Orthostatic hypotension
Classic malarial paroxysms
Fever spikes
Chills and rigors
occur at regular intervals, are relatively unusual and suggest
infection with P. Vivax or P. Ovale
Fever
Irregular at first (that of falciparum
malaria may never become regular); the temperature of nonimmune
individuals and children often rises above 40°C in conjunction with
Tachycardia and sometimes Delirium.
Childhood Febrile Convulsions may occur with any of the
malarias, generalized seizures are specifically associated with
falciparum malaria
Physical Findings
Fever
Malaise
Mild Anemia
Palpable Spleen (in some cases)
Anemia
Common among young children living in areas with
stable transmission
Slight enlargement of the liver
Common, particularly among Young Children
Mild jaundice
Common among adults; it may develop in patients with
otherwise uncomplicated malaria and usually resolves over 1–3
weeks
Malaria is not associated with a rash
Petechial hemorrhages in the skin or mucous develop only rarely in severe falciparum
malaria
Severe Falciparum Malaria
Appropriately and promptly treated, uncomplicated falciparum malaria (i.e., the patient can swallow medicines and
food)
Mortality rate of 0.1%
Severe Falciparum MalariaCerebral malaria/convulsion
Acidemia/acidosisSevere normochromic, normocytic anemia
Renal failurePulmonary edema/adult respiratory distress
syndromeHypoglycemia
Hypotension/shockBleeding/disseminated intravascular coagulation
Hemoglobinuria
HypoglycemiaImportant and common complication of severe
malaria, is associated with a poor prognosis and is particularly problematic in Children
and Pregnant women.
Hepatic Gluconeogenesis
Increase in the consumption of glucose by both host and, to a much lesser extent, the
malaria parasites
Quinine ,Quinidine
JaundiceMild hemolytic jaundice is common in malaria
Severe jaundice is associated with P. falciparum; is more common among adults and results from:
Hemolysis
Hepatocyte injury
Cholestasis
Other
HIV/AIDS predisposes to more severe malaria in nonimmune individuals
Worsened by intestinal helminths, Hookworm in particular
Septicemia may complicate severe malaria, particularly in children(specifically
Salmonella bacteremia )
Aspiration Pneumonia
شایعتر ها بچه در
Anemia
Convulsions
Hypoglycemia
شایعتر بالغین در
Jaundice
Renal failure
Pulmonary edema
Pregnancy
Stable transmission area:
Mothers Asymptomatic
Falciparum malaria in primi- and secundigravid women is associated with Low
Birth Weight
Increased infant and childhood mortality
Maternal HIV infection predisposes newborns to congenital malarial
PregnancyUnstable Transmission
Mother:
High-level parasitemia
Anemia
Hypoglycemia
Acute pulmonary edema
Fetal distress, premature labor, and stillbirth or low birth weight are common
Pregnancy
Congenital malaria occurs in <5% of newborns
P. Vivax malaria in pregnancy is also associated with a reduction in birth weight
but, in contrast to the situation in falciparum malaria, this effect is more
pronounced in Multigravid
Transfusion Blood Transfusion
Needle-Stick Injury
IVDU
Organ Transplantation
Incubation period in these settings is often short because there is no preerythrocytic stage
Clinical features and management are the same as for naturally acquired infections.
Primaquine is unnecessary for transfusion-transmitted P. vivax and P. ovale infections.
Tropical Splenomegaly (Hyperreactive Malarial Splenomegaly)
Chronic or repeated
in some cases malarial parasites cannot be found in peripheral-blood smears
Massive Splenomegaly, Hepatomegaly
Hypergammaglobulinemia; normochromic, normocytic anemia
Antimalarial chemoprophylaxis; results usually good
Quartan Malarial Nephropathy
Chronic or repeated infections with P. Malariae (and possibly with other
malarial species
soluble immune-complex
Nephrotic Syndrome
Burkitt's Lymphoma
Strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus
The prevalence of this childhood tumor is high in malarious areas of Africa.
Diagnosis
AsexualGiemsa (preferred)
Field's
Wright's
Leishman's stain
Both thin and thick
RDTs
Rapid, simple, sensitive, and specific antibody-based diagnostic stick or card tests that detect P.
falciparum–specific, in finger-prick blood samples are now being used widely in control programs
RDTs are replacing microscopy in many areas because of their simplicity and speed, but they are
relatively expensive and do not quantify parasitemia.
PCR
Antibody and PCR tests have NO role in the diagnosis of malaria except that PCR is increasingly
used for genotyping and speciation in mixed infections
Gametocytemia may persist for days or
weeks after clearance of asexual parasites
Phagocytosed malarial Pigment is sometimes seen inside peripheral-blood
Monocytes or Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and may provide a clue to
recent infection if malaria parasites are not detectable
Laboratory FindingsNormochromic, Normocytic Anemia is usual
WBC count is generally normal, although it may be raised in very severe infections
Monocytosis, Lymphopenia, and Eosinopenia, with reactive Lymphocytosis and Eosinophilia in the
weeks after the acute infection
ESR,CRP High
Severe infections may be accompanied by prolonged PT and partial thromboplastin times and
by more severe Thrombocytopenia
Treatment
Repeat blood smears
at least every 12–24 h for 2 days
Alternatively, a rapid antigen detection card or stick test
Any doubt about the resistance, it should be considered resistant
Antimalarial drug susceptibility testing can be performed but is
rarely available, has poor predictive value in an individual
case, and yields results too slowly to influence the choice of treatment
Chloroquine
Choice for the non-falciparum malarias
Vivax
Ovale
Malariae
Knowlesi
except in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, where high levels of resistance in P. vivax are
prevalent.
Chloroquine-Sensitive
Vivax
Malariae
Ovale,
Knowlesi
Falciparuma
Chloroquine (10 mg of base/kg stat followed by 5 mg/kg at 12, 24, and 36 h or by
10 mg/kg at 24 h and 5 mg/kg at 48 h)
or
Amodiaquine (10–12 mg of base/kg qd for 3 days)
Radical Treatment Vivax or Ovale
Primaquine (0.5 mg of base/kg qd) should be given for
14 days to prevent relapse.
In mild G6PD deficiency, 0.75 mg of base/kg should be given once weekly for 6–8
weeks.
Not be given in severe G6PD deficiency
FalciparumArtesunatec (3 days)
+
Sulfadoxine/Pyrimethamine as a single dose
or
Artesunatec (3 days) +
Amodiaquine (3 days)
Multidrug-resistant Falciparum
Artemether-Lumefantrinec (bid for 3 days with food)
or
Artesunatec (3 days)
+
Mefloquine (3 days )
Second-line treatment/treatment of imported
Artesunatec (7 days) or Quinine (tid for 7 days)
plus 1 of the following 3:
1. Tetracycline (qid for 7 days)
2. Doxycycline (qd for 7 days)
3. Clindamycin (bid for 7 days)
or
Atovaquone-Proguanil (qd for 3 days with food)
Severe Falciparum Artesunatec (IV followed by at 12 and 24 h and then daily if necessary)
or, if unavailable, one of the following:
Artemetherc (IM followed by qd)
or
Quinine dihydrochloride (infused over 4 h, followed infused over 2–8 h q8h)
or
Quinidine (infused over 1–2 h, followed by houriwith electrocardiographic monitoring)
Very few areas now have chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum
Tetracycline and Doxycycline should not be given to pregnant women or to children <8 years of age
Oral treatment should be substituted as soon as the patient recovers sufficiently to take fluids by mouth
WHO now recommends Artemisinin-based
combinations as first-line treatment for uncomplicated
Falciparum
Quinine, Quinidine
Common: Hypoglycemia
Chloroquine
Acute: Hypotensive shock (parenteral), cardiac arrhythmias, neuropsychiatric
reactions
Chronic: Retinopathy (cumulative dose, >100 g), skeletal and cardiac myopathy
Primaquine
Massive hemolysis in subjects with severe G6PD deficiency
Severe Malaria
Uncomplicated Malaria
…..If there is any doubt as to the identity of the
infecting malarial species, treatment for falciparum malaria should be given
Nonimmune patients receiving treatment ,daily parasite counts performed until the thick films are negative. If the level of parasitemia does not fall below 25% of the admission value in
48 h or if parasitemia has not cleared by 7 days (and adherence is assured), drug resistance is
likely and the regimen should be changed
Radical Treatment
Primaquine (0.5 mg of base/kg, adult dose) should be given daily for 14 days to patients
with P. vivax or P. ovale infections after laboratory tests for G6PD deficiency have
proved negative. If the patient has a mild variant of G6PD deficiency, primaquine can be given in a dose of 0.75 mg of base/kg (45 mg maximum)
once weekly for 6 weeks.
Radical Treatment
Pregnant women with vivax or ovale malaria should not be given
Primaquine but should receive suppressive prophylaxis with
Chloroquine (5 mg of base/kg per week) until delivery, after which radical treatment can be given.
ComplicationsAcute Renal Failure
Acute Pulmonary Edema (Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome)
Hypoglycemia
Spontaneous Bleeding
Convulsions
Aspiration pneumonia
Bacterial Sepsis
Prevention
no safe, effective, long-lasting vaccine is likely to be available
for general use in the near future
Personal Protection Against Avoidance of exposure to mosquitoes at their peak
feeding times (usually dusk to dawn)
Insect repellents containing 10–35% DEET (or, if DEET is unacceptable, 7% Picaridin),
Suitable Clothing
Insecticide-impregnated bed nets or other materials. Widespread use of bed nets treated with residual
Pyrethroids reduces the incidence of malaria in areas where vectors bite indoors at night
Chemoprophylaxis
Chemoprophylaxis is never entirely reliable
Chloroquine phosphate
Atovaquone-Proguanil (Malarone)
Doxycycline
Mefloquine
است قديمي بسيار انگلي بيماري يك ماالريا بيماريدر مسيح ميالد از قبل سال هفتصد هزارو در كه
. نيز سقراط است شده ياد آن از ها چيني هاي نوشته . آن در است داده توضيح را بيماري اين خود آثار درمي هوائي و آب بد شرايط را بيماري علت زمان
( باتالق ( بد هواي ماالريا نام به دليل همين به دانستندبا . كه بودند قومي اولين باستان مصريان شد ناميده
كردند كنترل را بيماري راكد آبهاي كردن .خشك
نوبه تب به متناوب لرز و تب علت به قديم ايران دراست بوده معروف نيز . هم
فالسیپاروم پالسمودیومبدخیم یک سه ماالریای عامل
ویواکس پالسمودیومیکخوش سه ماالریای عامل
خیمماالریه پالسمودیوم
یک چهار ماالریای عاملاوال پالسمودیوم
اوال ماالریای عامل
:) لرز ) اول لرز مرحلهحتي كه است شديد بحدي
ميخورد . تكان هم بيمار تختخوابپوست انتهاي وخشكي كبودي
اين اختصاصات از پاها و دست . ولي نبضسريع است مرحله . است ممكن نيست پر چندان
و تهوع حالت سردرد دچار بيمار . مرحله اين شود Vاستفراغ معموال
طول 15 به يكساعت تا دقيقهانجامد .
كالسيك ماالریا حمله(Paroxysm)
91
كالسيك ماالریا حمله(Paroxysm)
:) تب ) دوم تب مرحله دچار بيمار لرز، قطع پسازتا . است ممكن تب مينمايد احساسحرارت و 41شدهآن با همراه و يابد افزايش باالتر يا سانتيگراد درجهتند، نبض ، پوست خشكي چشم، و صورت سرخي
. اين ميشود ديده استفراغ گاه و ،تهوع عطش سردرد،حدود .6تا 2مرحله انجامد مي طول به ساعت
92
سوم مرحله :) به تعریق) بيمار
تعريق دچار سرعت . تعريق ميگردد شديد
دستها و صورت از ابتدااز سپس و ميشود شروع
انجام بدن منافذ كليهبه كه روطميگيرد، ي
خيسو ملحفه و لباسها . اين ميشود مرطوبمعمول بطور تا 2مرحله
مي 4 بطول ساعتانجامد .
كالسيك ماالریا حمله(Paroxysm)
93
حمالت بين ماالریا عالئمو كم بيمار مرحله اين در
عادي حالت به بيشو و برگشته كار به ميل
. مينمايد عادي زندگي انجامپريده رنگ تاحدي بيماربنظر ناراحت و ضعيف
او . اشتهاي شده ميرسد كم. است
94
بدخيم ماالرياي عالئم
در ناتوانيو نشستنو ايستادندر ناتوانيو خوردنآشاميدن
استفراغ مكرر
رنگ تيره در ادرار مشكلتنفس
باالي ) ل ركتا باال 40تبباالي بغل زير يا و درجه
5/39)
و عروقي كالپسشوك
95
پیشگیری های روشماالریا
•: آنوفل الرو با مبارزهها – باتالق خشکاندنراکد – های آب کردن جارینفت – مثل کشها الرو از استفاده– : باکتری از استفاده بیولوژیک روشهای
خاص های ماهی و ها
96