DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 050 023 SP 004 854

AUTHCE Wong, Francis, Ed.TITLE Curriculum Evaluaticn in Teacher Education in S.E.

Asia, ICET-FEUM Conference Proceedings (Malaysia,Aug. 3-7, 1S7C).

INSTITUTICN International Ccuncil on Education fcr Teaching,Washington, D.C.; Malaya Univ., Kuala Lumpur(Malaysia) .

PUB DATE 70NOTE 147p.AVAILABLE FECM International Ccuncil on Education for Teaching, One

Dupcnt Circle, Suite 610, Washington, D.C. 20036($2.00)

EDES PRICE'DESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT

EDES Price MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58*Curriculum Evaluation, Educational Objectives,Microteaching, Preservice Education, SecondarySchool Teachers, *Teacher Education, *TeacherEducation CurriculumIndonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,*Southeast Asia, Thailand

This report contains the following papers presentedat the conference: 1) "Evaluating the Needs of Teacher Education inSoutheast Asia"; 2) "Studies in Microteaching: A Pedagogical Model";3) "Teacher Training in Indonesia as a National Problem "; 4)

"Secondary School Teacher Education in Indonesia"; 5) "CurriculumEvaluation in Teacher Education in Malaysia"; 6) "Evaluation ofTeacher Education Curricula"; 7) "Curriculum Evaluaticn in TeacherEducation in the Philippines"; 8) "Objectives in Teacher Education: APre-Evaluaticn Task"; 9) "Relevance of Piagetian Theory to theEvaluation of Teacher Education Curricula"; 10) "CurriculumEvaluation in Teacher Education in Singapore"; 11) "Curriculum'Evaluatiop in Teacher Education in Thailand." In addition there areshcrt reports cn five panel discussions and three group discussions.The three group discussions focused on the education of languageteachers, science teachers, and social studies teachers,respectively. (ET)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDLI,CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

CONFERENCE

PROCEEDINGS

CURRICULUM

EVALUATION

IN TEACHER

EDUCATION

IN &USIA

AUGUST 3-7, 1970

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCEORGANIZED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL

ON EDUCATION FOR TEACHING (ICET)

AND THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION,UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA, (FEUM),3rd-7th AUGUST, 1970

Editor: Francis Wong

3

CONTENTS

DR. RUTH H.K. WONG

DR. SIM WONG K001

DR. WINARNO SURACHMADDR. H.A.R. TILLAR

DR. R. VIVEKANANDA, &DR. SIM WONG K001

DR. HARRY S. BROUDY

DR. PAZ G. RAMOS &DR. JULIETTA SAVELLANO

DR. F. JOHN HUNT

DR. CLIFFORD J.ANASTASIOU

MR. CHAN KAI YAU

DR. LAMAIMAS SARADATTA,DR. POJ SAPIANCHAIY &

DR. WICHIT SRISA-AN

DR. CHAI HON CHAN

1 Address by Dr. Sim Wong Kooi,Dean,Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

4 Address by Dr. Frank H. Klassen,Executive Director,ICET

6 Address by Y.B. Tan Sri Haji Mohd. GhazaliJawi, Acting Minister ofEducation, Malaysia.

8

30

Evaluating the Needs of Teacher Educationin South-east Asian.

Studies in microteaching. I. A PedagogicalModel.

Teacher Training in Indonesia as a NationalProblem &

The Secondary School Teacher Educationin Indonesia.

40 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Educationin Malaysia: (Officiated by Tuan HajiHamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, Chief Educa-tion Advisor on his behalf).

51 Evaluation of Teacher Education Curricula.

59 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Educationin the Philippines.

68 Objectives in Teacher Education: A Pre-evaluation Task.

74 Relevance of Piagetian Theory to theEvaluation of Teacher EducationCurricula.

79 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Educationin Singapore.

86 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Educationin Thailand.

92 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education:Perspectives & Problems in DevelopmentStudies (Position Paper for PanelDiscussion I).

4

PROFESSOR J.E. LYNCH 97

DR. FRANCIS WONG 102

MR. A.L. McGREGOR

DR. LIM KIAT BOEY &DR. PAUL PEDERSEN

REPORTS OF PANEL &GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education:Psychological Dimensions (Position Paperfor Panel Discussion II).

Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education:Perspectives & Problems in ComparativeStudies (Position Paper for PanelDiscussion III).

109 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education:Pedagogical Perspective (Position Paperfor Panel Discussion IV)

119 Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education:Sociological Perspec've (Position Paperfor Panel Discussion V).

PANEL I 125

MR. D.R. DANIELA.C.S., KLANG

DR. CHAI HON CHANFEUM

MR. GOH KEE MENGEPRD, MINISTRY OF

EDUCATION

MR. CLEMENT Y.M. HOND.A.U., PRIME MINISTER'S

DEPARTMENT

STUDENT REPRESENTATIVEFEUM

MR. EE TIANG HONGFEUM

PANEL II 128

ENCHE AHMAD TAIBMIT

DR. K.THEIVANANTHAMPILLAI

FE UM

PROFESSOR TAN ENG SEONGDEPARTMENT OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDICINE,U.M.

DR. ROBERT CLEARYETS, U.S.A.

Chairman

Members

Rapporteur

Chairman

Members

STUDENT REPRESENTATIVEFEUM

))

DR. KANKA MALLICK RapporteurFEUM

PANEL III 129

SISTER ANNECONVENT TEACHERS

COLLEGE

BUKIT NANAS

Chairman

DR. FRANCIS WONG )FEUM )

)MR. PAUL CHANG )

CENTRE FOR )EDUCATIONAL SERVICES, )UNIVERSITY OF PENANG )

)MR. NGUI THIAN KHOON ) MembersCOCHRANE ROAD SCHOOL, )

K.L. ))

MR. LAWRENCE T. FORMAN )ASIA FOUNDATION, K.L. )

)DR. WINARNO )SURACHAMAD )

NATIONAL EVALUATION OF )EDUCATIONAL PROJECT )DJAKARTA, INDONESIA )

MRS. SARJIT SINGH RapporteurFEUM

PANEL IV 131

MR. T. BOLERBBBS., P.J.

MR. A.L. McGREGOR )FEUM )

)DEAN DWIGHT NEWELL )

Chairman

SAN FRANCISCO COLLEGE, )U.S.A. )

)MR. K. JEGADEVA ) Members

TTTC, CHERAS ))

MISS AU SOOK MENG )COCHRANE ROAD SCHOOL, )

K.L. )

6

STUDENT REPRESENTATIVEFEUM

MR. LAU KAM CHEONGFEUM

PANEL V

BROTHER DAMIAN OLIVERST. ANTHONY'S SCHOOL,

T.A.

DR. LIM KIAT BOEYFEUM

DR. AGOES SALIMDEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL

UNITY

MRS. MONA SEDKYFULBRIGHT HOUSE, K.L.

DR. PAUL PEDERSENLUTHERAN CHURCH, K.L.

STUDENT REPRESENTATIVEFEUM

MR. T. MARIMUTHUFEUM

))

134

GROUP A 136

MR. B. OWENRELC, SINGAPORE

ENCHE AMIR BIN AWANGFEUM

GROUP B" 138

PROFESSOR RICHARDSALINGER

US PEACE CORPS

MISS SUNDRAKANAGASABAI

FEUM

GROUP C 139

MR. PAUL CHANGCENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL

SERVICES, UNIVERSITYOF PENANG

MR. J.P. DORAISAMYFEUM

7

Rapporteur

Chairman

Members

Rapporteur

Chairman of Group Discussion A on:"Curriculum Evaluation in LanguageTeacher Education."

Rapporteur

Chairman of Group Discussion B on:"Curriculum Evaluation in ScienceTeacher Education."

Rapporteur

Chairman of Group Discussion C on:"Curriculum Evaluation in Social StudiesTeacher Education."

Rapporteur

Yang Berbahagia, Tuan Haji Hamdan binSheikh Tahir, Chief Education Advisor, Dr.Frank Klassen, Executive Director- ofI.C.E.T., distinguished participants,ladies and gentlemen,

We are indeed sorry to announce thatthe Acting Minister of Education, YangBerhormat Tan Sri Ghazali has suddenlybeen taken in Ipoh and is unable to bewith us this afternoon. We are howeverfortunate to have the Chief EducationAdvisor, Yang Berbahagia Tuan HajiHamdan, stand in on behalf of the Honour-able Minister in addressing us and inofficiating the Opening of the Conference.We are glad too that our rather nebuloustheme for the Conference has apparentlynot deterred too many from attending. Itis a great pleasure and honour for me toextend to you, on behalf of the Facultyof Education, a warm welcome and toexpress our sincere thanks for your interestin this our first International Conferenceorganised jointly by the Faculty and theInternational Council for Education onTeaching, or I.C.E.T.

Prior to this day I have been approachedby quite a few people who seemed to beintrigued by the title of the Conference, for,whereas the terms "curriculum evaluation"and "teacher education" have attainedpopular currency, their juxtaposition appearsto be no less strange than the thought ofthe big powers signing a peace treaty. Infact, each of the terms "curriculum,""evaluation," "teacher" and "education"have assumed protean meanings and it is tobe hoped that their conjoint relationshipwould not produce a kind of "rojak" thatis not readily or clearly explicable. In thisConference, there will be opportunities toexplore the problems of curriculumevaluation in teacher education from avariety of angles. In the first place, it ishoped that the theoretical papers would besuggestive of models or paradigms that maybe applicable in the South-East Asiancontext. The country case reports shouldprovide insights into attempts at evaluating

ADDRESS BY DR. SIM WONG KOOIDEAN, F.E.U.M.

teather education curricula that are perhapsmore relevant to our individual needs, sincewe share more similar constraints than withthe Western world, where this area ofresearch and development is probably muchbetter documented.

The panel discussions will consider thetopics from five different perspectivescomparative, development, pedagogical,psychological and sociological, whichcorrespond to the five Divisions of theFaculty of Education. By having panelistsfrom various sectors associated eitherdirectly or indirectly with teacher education,including student representatives, it is hopedthat, although some overlaps are inevitable,each discussion session would attain adistinctive character, thereby providingsome evidence for the viability of ourdivisional sturcture. We have also found itexpedient to group the various disciplinesinto larger areas, such as language, scienceand social studies. It is therefore to behoped that the group discussions on theevaluation of language, science and socialstudies teacher education curricula would bemeaningful and interesting. Above all, it isto be hoped that some clarity concerningwhat we mean by "Curriculum evaluationin teacher education" would emerge fromall our deliberations.

Those of us who are teacher educatorshave far too long advocated the need toevaluate the curricula in schools withoutseriously tidying up our own house so tospeak. Perhaps we need to think throughmore thoroughly why and how we are doingwhat we are doing. For illustrative purposes,let us take a number of so-called three-stagephenomena that are likely to be included incurriculum evaluation. First and foremost,consider the systems analytical specificationinto (1) clarifying objectives in terms ofterminal behaviours, (2) specifying pedagogi-cal procedures and conditions appropriateto the attainment of these objectives, and(3) assessing the extent to which theseobjectives have been attained. Some of thequestions we need to ask ourselves are: Are

81

we clear about what we expect our studentsto be able to do as a result of following ourcourses of study? Within the usual time andother limitations, what do we consider tobe crucial and what do we consider ofsecondary importance that could withoutserious repercussions be given only scanttreatment? Are we sure that the pedagogicaltechniques we employ are effective andefficient? Are we really producing a changeand, if so, is it for the better? Is it amythical assumption that the students wehave at teacher education institutions aremore independent and mature and hencecapable of benefitting more from lecturesthan from individual instruction? Have webeen systematically and continuouslyevaluating what we have been able toaccomplish? Against what criteria?

Another three-stage phenomenon consistsof the three types of evaluation which Ihave called presage, process and productevaluations. By presage evaluation, I meanthe anticipatory processes of examiningexisting curricular practices for strengthsand weaknesses apd of scrutinising availablenew curricula or proposals and plans fornew curricula to see the extent to whichthe new curricula would preserve thestrengths or introduce new strengths anddiminish the weaknesses of existing curricula.This preliminary evaluation may involvethe formulation or reformulation of goalsand priorities and of deciding whether thecost of a change in curriculum is justifiableor not in terms of the likely benefits thatwould accrue. By process evaluation, I amreferring to the collection of informationfor purposes of improving the curriculumwhich is in the process of being tried out.The feedback obtained will be used to revisethe materials and methods by adapting themto the needs and predispositions of theusers (e.g. teachers and students). Productevaluation would refer to the gathering ofinformation about a particular package ofmaterials and methods so as to guidepotential users. in making decision regardingits possible adoption and effective use. Thelast two types of evaluation correspond towhat Michael Soriven refers to as"formative" and "sumative" evaluationsrespectively. There have been needlessarguments over the relative merits of these

2

types of evaluation in the literature, for itis conceivable that the three types ofevaluation could be envisaged as threephases of evaluation over time with onetype of evaluation assuming greater im-portance duirng certain times in the cyclicprocess. The question then is not whetherone type of evaluation is more important butrather when and how we are employingsuch types of evaluation.

Finally, let us consider the three-stagephenomenon suggested by Robert Stake whodistinguishe between antecedent, trans-action, and outcome data. An antecedent isany condition existing prior to being exposedto the curri ulum, and includes student andteacher characteristics, curricular materials,environmen al conditions, etc. Transactionsare the countless encounters among students,teachers, etc. which comprise theprocess of education. Examples are thesequences o events, classroom interactions,etc. Finally, outcomes are the consequencesof exposure to the curriculum short-termand long-term, cognitive and conative,personal and social. Apart from traditionaloutcomes like student abilities, attainments,attitudes and aspirations, other examplesinclude effects on teachers and institutionaleffects. In many situations, the teachereducation institution exerts little, or no,control over the antecedent or outcome data

in Malaysia at least there is very littlecontrol over selection and the supervision ofstudents once they are out of our grasp, soto speak. The question then is whether weshould continue to stand idly by and focusour attention on obtaining transactions dataonly? Apart from agitation for some say inselection and future supervision, should wenot actively carry out predictive studiesbased on input data and follow-up studiesbased on the output data?

It has been customary in conferences toraise questions and por vide no answers. Thishas not been my intent in posing some ofthe questions earlier on. In throwing offthese questions I was hoping to highlightthe crucial importance of a comprehensive,concerted and coordinated attack on theproblem of curriculum evaluation in teachereducation. I am hopeful that this Conferencemight offer some tangible solutions. Perhaps

at this stage, these "solutions" may takethe form of classification of concepts anddelineation of directions for future research.Perhaps too, it may be possible to envisagethe setting up a South-East Asian Centrefor Research and Evaluation in TeacherEducation.

The associated acronym for the Centre(SEACRETE) may be more fortuituousthan we think, for arising from research andevaluation in teacher education, we must beequally committed to shedding redundancyin our programmes in a continuous andsystematic fashion. If and when we do setup such a Centre, it should also representour willingness to change and to bring aboutchange. It is true that it is difficult andmost unwise to try to shed entirely ourcultural heritage or colonial past so that inforging ahead we should take cognisanceof history and the lessons of history. Inthis respect, we in South-East Asia have agreat deal to learn from one another. Forone thing, since our audience is generallyless technical or sophisticated than thatwhich obtains in Western countries, specialcare needs to be exercised in exploring theneed for, and the findings from, curriculumevaluation in teacher edcuation. Aside from

having to reduce the extent of jargonising,we may find it necessary to use less refinedbut more readily understood measures thanto employ highly reliable and valid techni-quep that are meaningless to the decision-maker. More important, arising from theincreasing tendency for us to be infusedor suffused with new ideas from varioussources, is the need to focus attention on aproblem which ',as so aptly been expressedby Ralph Tyler in hisstatement:

"The accelerating development ofresearch in the area of educationalevaluation has created a collection ofconcepts, facts, generalisations, andresearch instruments and methods thatrepresent many inconsistencies andcontradictions because new problems,new conditions, and new assumptionsare introduced without reviewing thechanges they create in the relevanceand logic of the older structure."

Now that I have given you an overdoseof wishful thinking, may I call upon TuanHaji Hamdan, the Chief Education Advisor,to prescribe a more down -to -earth remedyand to delcare open the Conference.

Thank you.

ADDRESS BY DR. FRANK H. KLASSEN,EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, ICET.

Distinguished speakers, guests and partici-pants, on behalf of the President and theExecutive Committee of the InternationalCouncil on Education for Teaching, I wouldlike to welcome you to this Southeast Asianregional conference on Teacher Education.I think this conference comes at a rathersignificant time in history and deals withthe topic that is crucial to the success offuture educational endeavours here and inother parts of the world. The significancein historical terms is because of the state ofdislocation characterisk of many of man'ssocial institutions at this time and thecompression of problems at a time whencommunication and transportation put eachman in the backyard of his neighbour. Andthe events of the day in Bangkok or inKuala Lumpur or in Chicago immediatelyhave reverberations in Washington, in Bonnand in Cairo. And all of this has in theopinion of one writer created a new inter-national neurosis known as "future shock"and this he says is "the dizzying disorienta-tion brought on by the premature arrival ofthe future" and that is what we all representin non-anatomical terms. Although cultureshock is a very common experience formany of us in this role, future shock maybecome "the most important disease oftomorrow", and quite seriously has broughton a range of "social change that has becomeso fast to be impossible for most humanbeings to assimilate." I live today, threehours ago because I took a plane thathappened to cross a date-line and so I

stand before you ready to brush my teethin the morning or as I am now speakingin the late afternoon.

Well, this "malaise, mass neurosis,irrationality and (the much more serious)free-floating violence already apparent incontemporary life are merely a foretaste ofwhat may lie ahead unless we come tounderstand it and to treat this disease." Ithas been said that no longer can we becontent with democracy but we have to becontent with adhocracy, to be able toswitch and change and shift and be preparedfor the next step, to cope with pressures

4

which we do not and are not able to foretell.Now, one of these social institutions, educa-tion, faces constant interrogation andanalysis by all elements of society. I knowof no social system that has so manyadherents and so litany critics. Faculty, thestudents, the parents and the media, thenewspapers, the man-in-the-street, everyone,has an interest, everyone is an expert, andeveryone is a critic. And who stands in themiddle? The teacher, trying to serve as abridge, as a link, between a number of veryimportant sections and values in our society.

Now critics are saying in words and indeeds that the last place any of us canexpect to learn anything about the realitiesof today is in the classroom. It is very dif-ficult to learn about the reality of thecontemporary world in a rectangular box.It is very difficult to prepare a teacher whois expected to go out and to prepare thechildren of our nation and your nation toface future shock with the prescribedcurriculum and a prescribed space in whichto operate. Now, if this is the case, and itsounds like a rather pessimistic view, mostof us here today should be engaged inseeking other occupations and maybe afterthe conference there will be a great exodusfrom this profession. However the pessimismthat I have expressed must be countered,I think, by a more realistic appraisal of theskills and the concepts that are relevant,to be talked and to be experienced, in thisnuclear space-age. Future shock has to becountered by present creativity. Thisconference is dedicated to just such anobjective, present creativity directed towardsthe education of teachers who are the van-guard of the forces confronting the future.When one thinks that the teacher is ex-pected after three or four years of educationto represent the profession and to followits mandates one can think of no otherprofession that demands as much of anindividual. Rarely would we place a scalpelinto the hands of a person who had studiedonly for as little as a teacher has and yet weplace in the hands of the teacher somethingfar more deadly, i.e. the brains and the

minds and the future of everyone who walksoutside.

Now the necessity for looking at thecurriculum. As I listen to the curriculumbeing defined I hear it as being far more thanthe syllabus, far more than the course butthat whole environment in which thestudent and the teacher and the educationalsystem operate and hopefully flourish. Thenecessity for such a conference then stemsfrom this pivotal position of the teachingprofession and those who profess to educatethe teacher. Because the profession standsas a rather crucial link and it stands as alink between several institutions of highereducation and the schools, the Universityof Malaya the University of Chulalongkongor Washington University their socialrelevance is transmitted through the teacherto society and the school. The teacherserves as the link between higher educationand the school. He also serves as a linkbetween the schools and the public. Theparents and those who have aspirations fortheir children and the various sectors ofthe public and the economy look to theschools to train people for them, and thisschool, in this particular conference herestands as a further link, as a link betweenthe public of any nation and the public ofother nations. The extension of educationfrom the University to the school to thepublic to the rest of the world is theobjective of ICET, the International Councilon Education for Teaching, formed some17 years ago. We have found that ex-periences and porblems are common, thatpollution whether it is of the mind orcontainers is something that one finds

everywhere and that the solutions in manycases can also be common even if viewedfrom different perspectives.

The International Council on Educationfor Teaching is but a forum which enablesthose who are concerned with the prepara-tion of teachers to come together to viewthe problem, to examine it, and if possibleto arrive at solutions. Co-operative activityis a very important aspect of this organiza-tion. We have represented in this conferencetoday participants from Singapore, Thailand,Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, theUnited States and if I have forgotten anyothers, you must excuse me; let us saySoutheast Asia. This kind of co-operativeshared activity is one basis for looking atthese common problems. The focus happensto be curriculum evaluation in teachereducation and it is hoped that in the futurethe International Council on Education forTeaching can serve to bring about forums ofthis type on other problems which affectthe preparation of teaching personnel. Ithopes that it can transcend some of thenational and local concerns and to providean international look at problems. I wouldhope that national agencies for teachereducation would be formed so that ICETcould represent the international concerns,the cooperative concerns and ti:e commonconcerns.

The executive committee and I speakingfor them at this time wish the confereesthe best of success. To the University ofMalaya our thanks for providing the planningand the thinking for this conference.

q2

Thank you.

5

ADDRESS BY Y.B. TAN SRI HAJI MOHD. GHAZALI JAWI,ACTING MINISTER OF EDUCATION, MALAYSIA1

Ladies and Gentlemen,

I feel greatly honoured to have beeninvited to participate in this openingceremony. If my information is correct thisis the first International Conference oncurriculum evaluation in teacher educationto be held in Kuala Lumpur with the focuson problems pertaining to teacher-educationin the South-East Asian region.

I feel this conference is most timelybecause, during the last decade or two, themain concern in most of the countries inthis region, had been to cope with the greatincrease in the demand for education, inproviding more schools and more teachers.In Malaysia, for instance, whilst our effortsand energies were directed towards thequantitative improvement of education wehad barely time to give thought to thequalitative improvement of education.

To my mind the quality of educationdepends to a great extent on the quality ofteachers that we have. The most up-to-datecurricula or the most modem schoolbuildings will not be of much use if theteachers, who teach the curricula, and thestaff of the school are not of the desiredquality. For poor teachers will produce poorstudents who in turn will become poorteachers, and so the vicious circle goes onand on.

The responsibility of the teacher to-dayis more than just furnishing the childrenwith facts. If this were the only responsibili-ty expected of teachers than perhaps theuse of teaching machines would be moreeffective and more economical. However,teachers are responsible to society forpreparing the future members of society to.live a full and meaningful life. To this end,teachers have the duty of providing theproper experiences and environment whichwill help towards the development of thoseattitudes and skills essential for the attain-ment of the objectives of education in anyparticular society. In this context, I feelteachers will have to promote in the children

6

the belief of the worth of the individual.This respect of the individual is, I believe,the basic principle of democracy. Althoughthe worth of the individual must be res-pected and the growth of the individualmust be encouraged, it is just as importantthat these individuals learn the art of co-operative living. This then is the second taskwhich I think the modern teacher has toaccomplish. Thirdly, the teacher's task willbe to help the children to develop a propersense of values because, "Values are theguides men live by" Fourthly, I believeteachers must foster in the children theskill of evaluating what they learn or do.Evaluation is a lifelong process and itsimportance can never be over-emphasised.

I am sure you all in your deliberationsduring the next few days will be able toidentify many more skills and attitudeswhich teachers need to know and be able toimpart, and which as teacher educators, youwill want to see incorporated into thecurriculum for teacher education. My fear,however, is that often what is conceived atyour level, the academic level, seldom seepsthrough to the other levels. I would urgefor a greater degree of collaboration andco-operation between the Universities andthe other agencies responsible for teacher-education. Only by such close co-operation,by frequent exchanges of information canone expect meaningful changes to be made.In Malaysia for instance, teacher-educationis carried out both by the Ministry ofEducation and the University of Malaya,the former concerned with the training ofteachers for the lower secondary andprimary schools and the latter with teachersfor the upper secondary schools. Thougheach is performing a definite role in teachereducation yet their roles are not conflictingbut arecomplementary to one another. Inaddition to the role, I think the Universityof Malaya can also play a role in improvingthe quality of teacher-education. For onething, it can be the arbiter of standards.For another, with its expertise, it could for

example:-

carry out, jointly with the relevantagencies of the Ministry of Educa-tion, researches on common pro-blem areas;

conduct in-service courses for theup-grading of teachers and dis-seminate information on teacher-education through its publications.

By these actions I believe the Universitycan contribute a great deal towards im-proving the quality of teacher-education.

During the conference you will have theopportunity to listen to, and to discuss notonly theoretical papers prepared by eminentscholars in teacher-eudcation but also actualcountry reports, which I am sure will throwlight on the experiences of the respectivecountries in this field of teacher-education.By sharing your experiences and exchanginginformation and ideas, I am certain you willbe able to avoid pitfalls and improve your

future plans. Perhaps I may even venture tosay that of one of the outcomes of theconference will be to cause us to haveanother good look at our own teachereducation programme and if necessary ordesirable improvements should be made.

An international conference of this naturerequires a great deal of planning and effort,and in this regard I wish to congratulatethose who have been responsible forbringing together all the eminent teacher-educators from the various countries inthe South-east Asian region to KualaLumpur to share their thoughts and ex-periences. In particular, I congratulate theInternational Council on Education forTeacher (IECT) and the Faculty ofEducation, University of Malaya, the co-organisers of the Conferences. I sincerelywish that you all will have a very successfulconference.

Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with thegreatest of pleasure that I declarethe conference open.

1 Speech read by Tuan Haji Hamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran, Malaysia.

14

EVALUATING THE NEEDS OF TEACHER EDUCATION INSOUTH-EAST ASIA

EDITORIAL NOTE:

Since the above paper was unavailable, onlya report of the speech delivered by Dr.Wong, who will be referred to as "RW','will be given in what follows. Should therebe gross errors in reporting, we tenderour apologies.

RW began by drawing a distinction bet-ween evaluating the needs of teachereducation and evaluating the needs forteacher education. To her, education forwould direct attention on the demand foreducation and the problem of quantitativeexpansion, but the needs of teacher educa-tion are more particularly related to thesupply of teacher education and its qualita-tive output. RW then pointed out that thepaper would focus on the needs of teachereducation.

Borrowing from the systems analyticalmodel, she delineated three stages, namelyinput, process and output, as comprising theteacher education system. According to her,whether the total system succeeds or failsas a viable whole will depend on the strengthof the qualitative components at each stageof the system. She observed that in allSouth-East Asian countries it does happenthat the input is less than desirable and theprocess has unfortunately not been properlyworked out. She however maintained thatwhat we cannot do with the input stage canbe done at the process stage in order tobring out that which will eventually helpto upgrade the whole system and preventdeterioration.

RW suggested that at the input stage,which normally consists of objectives,persons and facilities in that order, vaguenessabout what is required is more characteristicof pre-service education than of in-serviceeducation, although what condition obtainsfor one does to some extent affect theother. At the input stage of pre-service

8

Dr. Ruth. H.K. Wong,

Director of Research,Ministry of Education, Singapore.

education, objectives are seldom expressedin operational terms, nor are they specificallyregarded as important to the system. Wherethey are enunciated they are very globaland there is often a touch of the sublime.To illustrate this, RW quoted the followingwhich was stated at the' Unesco Conferenceon the Status of Teachers in Paris, 1966:

"The purpose of a teacher preparationprogramme should be to develop in eachstudent his general education and personalculture, his ability to teach and educate others,an awareness of the principles .which underliegood human relationship within and acrossthe rational boundaries and the sense ofresponsibility to contribute both by teachingand by catering to social, cultural and economicprogress."

She emphasised the need to redefine ourterms and say specifically to ourselves whatshould we do when we educate teachers.For instance, it may sound very nice to saylet them understand and have an awarenessof things; but understanding and awarenessare conditioned by certain norms, at, is trueof the nine countries which were the mainconcern of RW's paper, namely Burma,Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia,Philippines, Thailand, Singapore and SouthVietnam.

RW indicated that such countries as thePhilippines and Thailand have gone a littlefurther ahead in stating their objectives,but they reflected the Unesco globalvagueness, with here and there a little glimpseof practical lucidity. On the other hand,with countries like Singapore and Malaysia,the statement of objectives is seldom madeexplicit and they are conspicuous by theirabsence in their manifest aims. In her view,the form of teacher education has notundergone very much change since it wasintroduced in colonial times, although theform has occassionally been modified indegree, the over-riding factor being one of

meeting quantitative demands. She pointedout that at the present time of need inSingapore, the trainee teachers have toteach a full day and then go back in theafternoons for part-time courses. In otherwords, the ploy was to increase the burdenof the teachers without looking at thespecific objectives of teacher training.

RW went on to say that the objectivesof in-service training are frequently statedin somewhat more practical terms. Citingfrom the Report of the Regional Symposiumon In-service Training of Primary SchoolTeachers in Asia, RW compared, forexample, the Indonesian aim "to enablequalified teachers and talented teachers tobecome head teachers and for supervisorsto become inspectors" with the Laotianaim "to select suitable candidates to fill thepost of principals." She felt that attemptsat upgrading people through in-servicetraining did not seem to her to be verylogical, for it would appear as though it istaken for granted that the inspectors knowa little more than principals, principalsknow a little more than secondary schoolteachers and so on down the line, so that aperson who does not need to know verymuch is the primary school teacher. Inorder to boost the image of primary schoolteachers, Singapore has recently started amassive retraining programme to upgradethese teachers. In order to illustrate herpoint about the greater importance of theprimary school, RW suggested that herreading of the latest research seems toindicate that when we establish in childrena good reading ability during their first fewyears, then they may not even need anyteachers as long as they are kept suppliedwith good books. Thus, according to her,students at the Faculty of Education whoare honours graduates have not beentested and tried if they have not experiencedteaching in the primary schools.

RW then elaborated on what she meantby the three components of in-serviceeducation, namely remedial education,re-education and continuing education. Shepointed out that qualitatively the solutionsto problems in South-East Asia did notdiffer much from those in other countries.This is a direct consequence of borrowing

RUTH WONG

models of teacher education from colonialcults without much examination as to theirrelevance. The situation has, according toRW, been further aggravated by the factthat Unceso itself has tended to give worldsolutions and in lumping diverse regionsin South-East Asia, it always ended up withthe same vague, generalised statements.

Another component of the input stageinvolves persons. The vagaries of the currentIndochina war have according to RW,aggravated the present shortage of teachersin countries like South Vietnam, Cambodia,Laos and Thailand. The Report of theUnesco International Conference of PublicEducation in Geneva, 1963, illustrates theincreasing demands after the second WorldWar and the inability of these countries tomeet these quantitative demands.

In countries like Singapore, Malaysia andthe Philippines where there seemed a likeli-hood of stabilisation of teacher supply,other factors have intruded to upset theequilibrium. Thus, RW observed that inSingapore, successful industrialisation andnational defense have in the last two yearsdepleted the teaching rank. In Malaysia, achange in the Medium of instruction hascreated a shortage of specialised teachersof such subjects like Science and Mathema-tics. In the Philippines, the poor inducementsoffered by the teaching service has createdan accute shortage of men teachers, asshown in Appendix I. RW expressed herconcern over the imbalance in the teachingservice, especially at the secondary level,where, according to her, adolescent boysneed certain types of guidance that womencannot give. Since Indonesia has been ableto supply teachers to Malaysia, RW con-cluded that her problem was akin to that ofthe Philippines, where there is no lack ofteachers but rather of good teachers.

Considering the first group of countries,RW felt that since the academic qualifica-tions and minimum age of entry varyconsiderably, as shown in Appendix II,different types of courses must be madeavailable. For other countries wherestabilisation of supply is likely to be or hasbeen attained, standardisation of acceptablelevels of admission to professional trainingas well as of acceptable levels of achievement

9

needs to obtain if, according to RW,professionalism is to be attained.

The least important component of theinput stage, in RW's opinion, concerns theavailable facilities, which range fromsituations where only bare classrooms areavailable to the presence of languagelaboratories, special facilities for videotapingand other equipment in keeping with modernadvances in educational technology as occursin Singapore and Malaysia. The facilitiesare considered least important because theydo not make a significant dent to thequality of education, so long as teachereducators appreciate the essentials ofteaching as an art and can exemplify goodteaching. Unfortunately though, there hasbeen a tendency to emphasise facilitiesand teaching I become a harsh affair towhich no outsider may be admitted.

Dealing with the process stage of teachereducation, RW observed that instead ofspecifying what teachers may be expectedto do within the limited time availableduring teacher training, society tends to laydown the expectations and teacher educatorsaccommodate to them. She hastened tosay that she expects teacher educationinstitutions to fulfil certain expectationsof society as long as these are not limitlessdemands.

RW then delineated three roles ofteachers as applied to the process stage,namely that teachers are expected to:

1. teach given subjects to given numberof pupils;

2. be rational agents of change in orderto facilitate and accelerate economicand social developments;

3. supply models of acceptable moralconduct.

In respect of the first role, variousacademic and professional courses areoffered in pre-service teacher education.RW observed that while academic courserequirements are multiplied in inverseproportion to the years of academic prepara-tion prior to admission to teacher education,professional courses are multiplied in directproportion to the demands of society. Thus,

10

17

primary school teachers carry a heavyacademic load during pre-service training,whereas secondary graduate teachers arenot expected to study academic subjectsper se except to study the special methodsassociated with these subjects. There havealso been a multiplication of professionalcourses such as child psychology, anthropo-logy, sociolcgy, guidance and counselling,educational technology, testing and measure-ment, etc. RW was however disappointedthat in educational philosophy, we oftentalk of Plato and Aristotles but not whatTagore, Confucius or the Gurus have to say.

And because of the second function,such courses as economics of education,development education, ethnics of educa-tion, etc. have as pointed out by RW beenadded to the already overcrowded teachereducation curricula. As a consequence, eitherthe courses make but a shallow impressionon the student or he suffers from animbalance of treatment between what herequires as general versus professionaleducation, between what is academic versusprofessional, between what is theory versuspractice, and so on. Referring to sometables in a book by Pires on a Survey ofPrimary Teacher Education in Asia, RWillustrated the variables in the time.allocationfor theory versus practice. She pointed outthat in one institution, only 3% of the timewas developed to practice teaching, therest given to talk and chalk. There werealso correspondence courses where thetrainees go through no teaching at all andthis was compared by RW to teachingswimming by correspondence.

RW then posed a number of questionswhich need to be answered at the processstage. Firstly, how may a trained teacherbe identified? By his skills, specificallydefined, by times spent in training, byexposure to specific programmes, by acombination of these criteria, or by someother criteria? Second, are levels of trainingto be judged on the academic attainmentof specific groups of trainees or are theyto be assoicated with a hierarchy of teachingskills? Do teachers undergo a series oftraining starting from para-professionaltraining and ultimately returning for variousspecialisations as in the case of doctors, or

are they being turned into all kinds ofteachers by some strange feats of meta-morphosis? Finally, can a trained teacherclaim to have acquired a knowledge of histask which makes him supervisor to theuntrained when put in the classroom?Is it because of our inability to say that atrained teacher is superior to one wfio isuntrained that enables parents, administra-tors and politicans to tell us what to do,that we have put ourselves in their grip bysheer lack of definition? RW pointed outthat at this point South-East Asia has noanswer to give, but she hoped that the morcadvanced countries might be able to offersome solutions.

In terms of in-service education, RWdismissed remedial education and re-trainingas viable long-term concerns. To her,continuing education offers a ray of hope,especially when we are prepared to conceiveof education courses as occuring at differentlevels. Citing Israel Sheffler's remark on theparadigmatic uses of the word "teach,"RW felt that he was reminding us of theneed to be as precise as possible as to theaim in teacher education, that if teaching isour purpose, then it is also our purposeto teach students why something is suchand such, or to teach students why to dosuch and such, or teach students why howto do such and such. Thus if it is ourpurpose to teach students why how to teach,then the teaching skills should be listed.RW stressed that at the first level of teachereducation, it may be best to concentrateon norm acquisitions, or perfecting thetechniques in the classroom (the science ofteaching) and teaching the norms (theart of teaching). According to her, there isno need at the first level of teacher educationto give the teacher all kinds of courses,like measurement. Instead it would be muchbetter that the teacher should understandwhat the demands of duties are, how he

RUTH WONG

should work in classrooms and what it isthat he hopes the nation to achievethrough him.

in providing opportunities for continuousgrowth individual differences will come tothe surface. Hitherto pupil differences tendto be overemphasised. In her research onpupils' learning in the U.S.A., RW foundthat she could not point her finger on anyone school teacher as ideal. Thus, the childfrom a strict home preferred the conservativeteacher, the child from the home that hadno rules somehow went for the disciplinarianand the child that was bright preferred todo everything himself. Hence, after levelone courses and after having experiencedteaching in classrooms different teachersare likely to return for specialised courses,as part of the programme for the continuingeducation of teachers.

RW finally pointed three observations ofimportance in evaluating the needs ofteacher education in South-East Asia. First,we cannot have the same meaning andcontent in all the various countries andeven in the same country. Second, thequality of educational output is a productnot merely of the formal educational systembut also of the informal system whichincludes the home, community and all theother out-of-school influences like all theprofessional cultural organisations,television, radio, libraries and museums.Third, the causes of poor quality are notpeculiar to the developing countries, butthe discontent with what has been achievedin quality serves as a motive for programmes.

RW concluded by pointing to the possiblecyclic nature of input, process and outputstages, for at some point the output canbecome the input, and urged that if thiscycle is to continue spiralling, then it istime for us to rethink the needs of teachereducation in our own countries.

1811

APPENDIX I

Percentage Distribution of Full-time Teachers by Sex*

Survey Primary SecondaryCountry Year Male Female Male Female

% % % %

Burma 1961 66.6 33.2 57.3 42.7

Cambodia

Indonesia 1959 . . . 79.7 20.3

Laos 1957 63.1 36.9

Malaysia: Malaya 1960 66.8 33.2

Singapore 1962 47.4 52.6 65.7 34.3

Philippines 1960 25.7 74.3 36.7 53.3

Thailand 1962 66.2 33.8 57.7 42.3

Viet-Nam, Rep. of 1959 65.3 34.7 84.7 15.3

*Source: Education in Asia, Ministry of Education, Japan 1964, p. 81.

Percentage Distribution of Full-time Teachers by Qualification*

CountrySurvey Primary Secondary

Year Qualified Non-qualified Qualified Non-qualified

Burma

Ceylon

China, Rep. ofIndia

Japan

Korea, Rep. ofMalayisa : Singapore

Pakistan

Philippines(4)

Thailand

1961

1962

1962

1960

1962

1960

1962

1960

1960

1961

57.2%

67.4(1)

(2)64.1

98.0

98.5

43.0(2)

69.5

98.6

54.0

42.8%

32.61)

(3)35.9

2.0

1.5

(3)57.0

30.5

1.4

46.0

85.6%

98.3(2)(5)

65.4

98.9

91.4

69.5

99.0(5)

64.0

14.4%

13(3) (5)

34.6

1.1

8.6

30.5

. . .

1.0(5)

36.0

12

(1) Including secondary school teachers(2) Trained(3) Untrained(4) Public school teachers only(5) General secondary teachers only

*Source: Education in Asia, Ministry of Education, Japan 1964, p. 81.

19

RUTH WONG

Establishing Body, Conditions of Admission and Duration of Course forPrimary Teacher Training*

CountryEstablishing

body

Conditioning of admission Duration

of full-timecourse (inyears)

Minimum Previous studiesage required

Burma Central 16 General educationof 9 to 10 years

1-2

Indoneisa Central 11 6 year primaryeducation

4

Laos Central 14 6 year primaryeducation

4

Malaysia: Malaya Federal 18 Lower certificateof educationexamination

3

Singapore Central 17 7 year primaryeducation in a Malay

3(part-time

SchoolCambridge Oversea 2School Certificate orGovernment SeniorMiddle Certificate ofSpecified standard

22 3(part-time

Philippines Central 16 Completion of primary 4and Secondary education(10 years)

Thailand Central 17 Completion of 10th grade 2(general)

Completion of 10th 3

grade (vocational)

Viet-Nam, Rep. of Central 17 9 year general 1 (foreducation grades 1-3)

3(forgrades 34 and 5)

*Source: Education in Asia, Ministry of Education, Japan 1964, p. 132.

13

20

STUDIES IN MICROTEACHING. I. A PEDAGOGICAL MODEL

1.0 IntroductionThat the teaching-learning situation

is indeed complex and multivariatein nature is demonstrated by increasingattempts to reduce it to managableproportions by the use of models. Asdefined by Maccia,

14

"A model is an object or a charac-terisation used either to represent orto be represented. When an object oncharacterisation is used to represent,it is a model of; when used to berepresented, a model for."1

Most pedagogical models are models ofthe teaching-learning encounter.

In reviewing research dealing withthe assessment of teacher behaviourand instruction, Ryans observed that:

"An overview of the reportssuggested that investigations have beenpiecemeal and fragmentary for themost part, only occasional attemptshave been made to conduct coor-dinated programmatic research or torelate studies to some theoreticalmodel." 2

More recent researches 3 have tendednot only to be systematic but alsoto be closely associated with sometheoretical model, thereby emphasisingthe fact that conducting "coordinatedprogramatic research" and relating"studies to some theoretical model",should be conjunctive rather thandisjunctive is implied by Ryans' state-ment. However, even these recentstudies have tended to follow thetrend towards focusing upon morenarrow concerns, as observed by Gage,who, in reviewing paradigms forresearch on teaching, pointed out thegrowing transition from the moregeneral "criterior-of-effectiveness"

.21

Sim Wong Kooi

paradigms to the more specific"teaching process" paradigms.4

What is needed is not a modelwhich pretends to be comprehensiveand panoramic, nor one which isdetailed and specific. Rather, a basicmodel, in which the essential com-ponents and their relationships areencapsulated and from which sub-models and super-models may begenerated, is what the writer considersmost desirable. This paper will there-fore attempt to describe a pedagogicalmodel which was developed to dealmore meaningfully not only withordinary classroom (macroteaching)situations but with scaleddownteaching-learning (microteaching)encounters.

2.0 The model (as shown in Fig. I)highlights the interactions of fiveomnipresent elements of the pedagogi-cal encounter, namely the teacher (T),the Pupil(s) (P), the Content (C), theObjectives (0) and the Environmentor Ecology (E). T is taken to includenot only regular classroom teachers,but also student teachers, teachingaids, guidance counsellors and suchenlivened mechanisms as teachingmachines, textbooks and televisionprogrammes which take on instruction-al roles, (etc. P would represent thetarget of the instructional processwhich is aimed at optimising andmaximising the learning of C by Pin E with 0 in mind. C includes notonly subject matter content, but alsoadjunctive content, such as instruct-ional aids which provide P with desirededucational experiences. 0 incorporatenot only intended objectives but alsoactual or manifest objectives. Finally,E represents the Cultural, Organisa-tional, Socioeconomic and Temporalaspects of the Environment that exert

facilitating or constraining influenceupon the pedagogical encounter.

Each element of the model (A say)influences another element (B say) ina specifiable manner and the nature ofinfluences (i say) is of several types.According to the scheme:

A > B

i = e represents the effect of non-human elements (C & 0) onhuman elements (T & P).

= m represents the manipulation,or method of dealing with,content or educational ex-periences.

i = r represents the reaction ofhuman elements to objectivesof instruction.

i = c represents the correlation

SIM

in between objectives andcontent.

i = a represents the affective im-pact of teacher on pupils andvice versa.

2.1 Some InteractionsThere are 5C2 or 10 possible dyadic

relationships or first-order interactionsamong the five elements. Each of thesewould represent an area of concernwhich need to be taken into considera-tion in pedagogical research and whichmay become foci for research in theirown rights. For purposes of illustra-tion, consider, for example, thedifferent aspects of the environment.Each of these aspects can in turninteract with the remaining 4 elementsof the model to provide areas whichmay be worthwhile investigating.Examples of such interactions areshown in the Table overleaf.

FIG. 1 A PEDAGOGICAL MODEL

15

2 2

E P T 0 C

Cultural: Peer culture Teachers'Code ofethics

RukunNegara

Britishinfluence onCurriculum.

Organisational: HomogeneousGrouping.

TeamTeaching

Bloom'staxonomy

Logical vspsychologicalstructure.

Socioeconomic: Rural vsUrban envi-ronment ofchild.

ProfessionalStatus ofteacher.

Communityobjectivesof school.

Vocationalvs. academicsyllabuses.

Temporal: CognitiveDevelopment

Preservicevs Inserviceteachereducation.

Pre & Postmerdekanationalaims.

Trialsyllabuses.

16

Important triadic relationships mayalso be generated from the model.Taking only the four elements, T, P,C & 0, we have four very importantprocesses, namely:

(a) Preparation for Instruction byTeacher (T, 0 & C).

(b) Planning for Learning byPupils (P, 0 & C).

(c) Approaches to Content (C, T& P), and

(d) Evaluation of Objectives (0,T & P).

These relationships are shown in Fig.2. In preparing to teach,the teacher isprincipally concerned with structuringand sequencing of units of Contentvis-a-vis the intended Objectives and inrelation to the perceived attributesof the teacher. In planning for learningby pupils, one considers how given thetype of pupils, the Content can begeared to the possible attainment ofthe Objectives. Approaches to Contentis a joint venture, involving bothTeacher and Pupils. Sometimes it isa more direct approach where; forexam*, concepts are prescribed bythe teacher for pupils to assimilate or

,..

accommodate while at other times it isa more indirect approach where, forexample, pupils are induced or guidedto "discover" concepts for themselves.Ideally, Evaluation of Objectives shouldnot only involve both Teacher andPupils, but should also comprehen-sively incorporate not only teacherEvaluation but also pupil self-evaluation.

It is conceivable that different levelsof approach and of evaluation may beenvisaged, as shown in Fig. 3. Forinstance, for the more direct approach,the least desirable level (I) is one inwhich the teacher merely regurgitatesContent and does not bother whetheror not it gets across to the Pupils. Aslightly higher, but still undesirable,level (H) involves the interaction ofTeacher and Content, where, forexample, the teacher restructures theContent, but without really havingthe pupils in mind. At the next twolevels (III & IV) the teacher doesattempt to put the content across tothe pupils bit is not mindful ofwhether or how the pupils interactmeaningfully with the Content, asoccurs at levels V 3c VI. It may in factbe suggested that whether or not oneemploys a more direct (e.g. expository)

..M11111111YMINIMMIINIIIIMMI

approach or a more indirect (e.g.discovery) approach is immaterial.The most desirable level of approachis associated with the maximum in-teraction between the Pupils andContent. Perhaps an even higher levelof desirable approach involves two-way interactions among all threeelements. Of particular concern wouldbe a flexibility of approach, so thata teacher would not only be able toswitch from one type of approach toanother, but also to be able to modifyobjectives extemporaneously depend-ing on the Environmental constraintsand the nature and direction of thepedagogical encounter.

In the case of the evaluation ofobjectives, it is perhaps more import-

SIM

ant to emphasise comprehensivenessof evaluation, for besides evaluationby the teacher, every encouragementshould be given to pupils' self-evalua-tion. The most (desirable level wouldinvolve the maximum interaction ofthe Pupils and the) Objectives. Itmust however be pointed out thatalthough it is conceptually useful toseparate out Evaluation fromApproach, in practice these are some-times inextricate ly inter-twined.

Other types of triadic relationships,namely those involving E, are depictedin Fig. 4. Each of these interactionscan theoretically be singled out for anin-depth study in either a macro-teaching or micro-teaching situation.

AN%0 < ) C

PREPARATION FORINSTRUCTION BY TEACHER

T/ EVALUATION OF

® OBJECTIVESAPPROACHES

® CTO CONTENT

PLANNING FORLEARNING BY PUPILS

1011

FIG. 2 TRIADIC RELATIONSHIPSWITHOUT E

17

FLEXIBILITY OF APPROACH

T\.C C

MORE DIRECT MORE INDIRECT

APPROACH APPROACH

T\ T

I C I, C

P P

T T

II C I C

P P

COMPREHENSIVENESS OF EVALUATION

T0 -> 0 4,

TEACHER PUPIL SELF-EVALUATION EVALUATION

o/T 0 I,

P P

11T

0 tP P

T\ T

III i, CirP/

cP

T T

IV 1P/CP?'

18

T\V C

PiPAC

T

VI C C

T

40\p

T

0\ 0\ IP

FIG. 3 LEVELS OF APPROACH ANDEVALUATION

25

T H E

IC

(a) Teacher selection ofenvironmentallyrelevant instructionalmaterials.

0 HE(c) Teacher perception

of objectives inrelation toenvironment.

(e) Interpersonalrelationships indifferent contexts

EH CI /I

(b) Pupil involvementin environmentallyrelevant learningexperiences.

0 H E

(d) Pupil awareness ofobjectives inrelation toenvironment.

(f) Integration ofContent andObjectives indifferent contexts.

FIG. 4 TRIADIC RELATIONSHIPSWITH E

3.0 Eight Logical Steps in LessonPlanning

The value of the model is that infocussing on the interactions amongfive intuitively crucial elements ofthe teaching-learning situation, im-portant models of other kinds ofsituations would result from thefurther elaboration of these elementsand their interactions. One such modelresult from the systems analysis ofthe steps involved in lesson planning.The steps are logical in the sense thatone leads to another in a common-sensical, but not simplistic, mannerwhen we bear in mind that theultimate goal of the pedagogical en-

26

SIM

counter is the optimisation and maxi-misation of pupils' learning.

Briefly, when someone intends toteach a lesson, the first logical questionshould be: For what purpose? And,with our stress in what the pupilsare expected to be able to do afterthe lesson, the first step in lessonplanning .is to consider the LearningGoals. These goals would not be com-plete unless we are able to identifythe pupils for when the lesson is

intended in terms of level of ability,attainment and interest. Hence thenext step is the consideration of theIdentity of Pupils. Having delineatedthe goals and identified the pupils,

19

an obvious question is: Whether thesegoals are appropriate to the level ofunderstanding of the majority of thepupils? To teach a lesson for whichpupils lack pre requisite knowledgeand abilities is futile and to teach alesson for which pupils have alreadymastered the concepts previously isequally pointless; thus, Viability ofGoals is the third logical step.

It is only after we are satisfied thatthe goals are viable that we can con-sider the available InstructionalMaterials. Here, we are concerned notonly with instructional aids but alsowith the subject matter content whichtogether comprise the educationalexperiences to which pupils are ex-posed. Knowing why the lesson is tobe conducted, for whom and withfailure to include Planning for Learningby Pupils and Preparation forwhat materials, we can then logicallyplan for pupils learning, which is quitedistinct from the strategy of teachingi.e., there may not be a one-to-onecorrespondence between how pupilslearn and how teachers teach. Thefifth step is therefore labelled asLearning Plans.

In order to decide an appropriateinstructional strategies to use, theattributes of the teacher would haveto be considered, for example, interms of strengths and weaknesses orof the teacher's perceptions. Thus,only after an examination of TeacherCharacteristics are in a position toselect appropriate procedures that are

Evaluation ofObjectives

Approaches toContent

20

suited to the needs of pupils as wellas the teaching styles of the teacher.Ideally, the teacher would do wellto consider how to approach teachingof the content in both more directlyand more indirectly. Associated withthe selection of suitable TeachingTechniques would be a considerationof how the teacher and pupils alikewould be able to evaluate the successor failure of the pedagogical encounter.The final step, Evaluation Procedures,is so crucial that it has been separatedout from the conduct of the lesson.The focus here is on the extent towhich the learning goals have beenattained, which therefore brings usback to the frist step of lessonplanning.

It is apparent that even thoughone can start from other than thefirst step and perhaps follow a non-cyclic series of steps, the aforemen-tioned series of steps suggest a modelagainst which lesson planning may becompared in order to ascertain ifthere are certain important areas thathave been omitted or neglected.

4.0 Experimental ResearchBesides being suggestive of fruitful

areas to investigate experimentally,the different interactions may oftenbe juxtaposed sequentially to consti-tute various phrases of an educationalexperiment. For instance, the triadicrelationships among T, P, C and 0form a natural cyclic sequence asfollows:

Planning forLearning by Pupils

Preparation forInstruction by Teacher

In an experimental design, pretestingand posttesting may be identified withEvaluation of Objectives, while treat-ment is generally equated withApproaches to Content. From theabove scheme it is probably clear thatfailure to include Planning for Learningby Pupils and Preparation forInstruction by Teacher is oftenresponsible for differences acrossstudies employing apparently similar

1. PRETEST

C1

(E19ElC

(02E)\02C

SIM

tests and treatment.

Even if we confine our attentionto the standard experimental design,in terms of the model, a number ofassumptions are inplicit, the violationsto which would constitute sources ofinvalidity. The scheme below showsthe main interacting componentsduring (1) Preteit (2) Treatment and(3) Post-test:

T2T2C1

(cC22cE)

P2E I/7(P2C)

2 TF....7;7.'..'........'...I'MENT

The following assumptions shouldbe obvious from the scheme:

(1) T1 # T3. Violation of this assum-ption would suggest that theperson or instrument involvedin the pretesting and posttestingare not equivalent (i.e., T1 /T3).Such an effect may be identifiedas what Campbell and Stanleyhave termed "Instrumentation"?

(2) T1, T3 .# T2. As far as possiblethe person doing the evaluatingshould not be the person doingthe teaching, for this wouldotherwise result in a "HaloEffect" whereby the experi-menter tends to become morelenient when acting as evaluator,or else more strict, resulting in a"Horn Effect."

T2E # T2C. Frequently theexperimenter acts as teacher forall treatment groups. This mayproduce a biassing effect asso-ciated with what is termed the"Teacher variable."

(3)

(4) P1 # P2 # P3. The attrition ofsubjects over time is what Camp-

28

(5)

T3

(03E)V/3C/

(20 (2:

C3

3. POSTTEST

4

bell and Stanley termed "Ex-perimental Mortality". Thisattrition effect may be broughtabout when P1>P2, P3 or P2>133. In addition, there is alsothe reversed order effect whichwe might label as the accretioneffect which occurs when P3>P2, P1 or P2>P1.

191C a- P2C = P3C. When thecontrol group changes systema-tically over time (i.e. 131C P2C,P2C .*P 3C), the obtained dif-ference in performance betweenpretest and posttest may reflectthe internal process of "Matura-tion". On the other hand, ifthere is no systematic changeand the subjects appear tobehave differently between pre-test and posttest (i.e. PICP3C), then it is possible that thiscould be due to the imperfectcorrelation between the testperformances and the fact thatthe subjects represent an extremegroup. Such an effect has beentermed the "Regression" effect.

(6) PlE # NC. The comparison

21

22

(7)

groups should as far as possiblebe equivalent. Biases would how-ever result if there has beendifferential "Selection" of sub-jects for the different groups.

Cl = C3. If gain scores are tomean anything the tests beforeand after presumed gain shouldbe comparable in terms of theContent they assess. Otherwisethere would be "non-equivalenceof criteria."

(8) C2E C2C. The educationalexperiences of the comparisongroups must be psychologicallydifferent, otherwise no signifi-cant difference is likely to ob-tain. Such a situation (i.e. C2E a--.C2C) may result in an "un-differentiated treatment effect."

Denoting attained objectives bythe subscript "a" and intendedobjectives by "i", 03a Ola F.02i, all things being equal, thegain scores should reflect theobjectives which are set out bythe treatment. Otherwise (i.e.03a 01a 02i), the practiceor fatigue effect of the prctestmight have affected perfor-mances during the posttest. Suchan effect has been termed byCampbell and Stanley as the"Testing effect."

(10) Ola 03a. If performances bet-ween pretest and posttest arenot very different (0 la E 03a),assuming that this is not theresult of the equivalence of treat-ment, the phenomenon may bedue to the fact that the testinstrument is rather insensitive inenabling subjects to attain eithernear maximum or near minimumscores. These effects may betermed "Ceiling effect" and"Floor effect", respectively.

(1 Ohi E 03i. "Non-equivalence ofcriteria" can also result whenthe pretest and posttest objec-tives are different or when theymeasure different things.

(9)

2.9

(12) 02E # 02C. Similarly an "Un-differentiated treatment effect"would Jesuit from the lack ofdifferentiation between the in-tended objectives for the treat-ment group.

(13) El F. E3. When the environmentsdiffer between the pretest andposttest session, an invalidatinginfluence which may be termed"Intersession history" wouldoccur.

(14) EE EC. The treatment groupsshould similarly experienceequivalent environments. Other-wise an "Intrasession history"effect is likely to take place.

It can be seen therefore that all thefactors indicated by Campbell andStanley as contributing to internalinvalidity, and more, may be derivedfrom an elaboration of the model.Sources of external invalidity are morecomplex, but with a few additionalassumptions, all these sources aspointed out by Bracht and Glass,6and more, may also be derived fromthe model. Within the limitations ofthis paper, this exercise is omitted forconsideration but the interested readermay be encouraged to pursue thisfurther by bearing in mind thatexternal invalidity arises in roughlytwo ways: (1) When various elementsinteract with the treatment to renderit non-generalisable, and (2) whenvarious elements and their interactionsare inadequately specified to begeneralisable to a population ofelements.

In order to assess various aspectsof teaching, a number of featuresof the pedagogical encounter weregenerated by considering the variousattributes and processes involved inplanning a lesson. Referring to Fig. 5,the four steps shown in the outerportion represent attributes of thecorresponding elements of the model,T, P, C and 0, while the four othersteps constitute the important process-es of the teaching-learning situation

which therefore suggest suitable focifor the assessment of teaching. Re-naming them as Aims, Planning,Conduct and Evaluation, they thenrepresent the four areas incorporatedin the Faculty of Education, Assess-ment of Teaching Scales (or FEATSas shown in the Appendix.). Thevarious features that could be observedin a lesson are therefore enumeratedand then reduced to a manageable fewaccording to priorities, stressingprocess features rather than attributefeatures. For example, teacher cha-racteristics like mannerisms and voicehave been omitted, although these maybe commented upon where relevant.Similarly under Evaluation, we haveincluded only the use of evaluation toimprove teaching on the one hand andlearning and thinking on the otherhand, rather than say the varieties ofevaluation procedures used.

0

6 TEACHER

EVALUATION8 PROCEDURES 7TEACKINGTECHNIQUES

LEARNING1 GOALS

O '

4A INSTRUCTIONAL

HATERIALS

2IDENTITY OFf PUPILS

8 LOGICAL STEPS IN LESSON PLANNING

SIM

Hence, the models besides suggest-ing different areas of a pedagogicalencounter that may be studied, alsoprovides a basis for scrutinsing ex-perimental research and for construct-ing suitable evaluation instruments.The microteaching 7 situation is es-pecially amenable to experimental re-search for investigating the interplayof the different elements of the model.A recent study 8 compared threegroups of students, one with 10 weeksof regular classroom practice teaching,another with 5 weeks of practiceteaching followed by 5 weeks of mi-croteaching experience, while the thirdgroup had 5 weeks of microteachingfirst followed by 5 weeks of practiceteaching in schools. While the fullreport is not yet available; it may benoted that generally the groups per-formed. in an increasing order accor-ding to the criteria employed.

Another study under way involvesthe effect of treatment via a courseon students' ability to describe andevaluate lessons reliably and validly.A future extension of this studymight consider the effect of variousinformation about each of the ele-ments on students' ability to describeand evaluate objectively. For example,students could be asked to describeand evaluate lessons in which infor-mation on various combinations ofthe following may or may not begiven:

23

Teacher: experienced practising teacher versus inexperienced student teacher;graduate versus non-graduate teacher;specialist versus non-specialist teacher.

Pupils: high ability versus low ability pupils;pupils familiar to teach versus new class of pupils;highly motivated versus listless pupils.

Objectives: given objectives closely related versus only slightly related to lesson;given objective aimed at high level versus low level of performance;given objectives varied versus stereotype.

Content: given topic closely related versus only slightly related to lesson;given topic for previous lesson closely relatedversus only slightly related to lesson;more instructional aids intended for use versus fewer aids.

Environment: lesson in prestigious versus unknown school;lesson in well disciplined versus poorly disciplined school;well equipped versus poorly equipped school.

5.0 An Experiment on StudentTeachers' Preceptions of TeachingCompetence

As an illustration of an experimentinvolving microteaching, a preliminarystudy of student teachers' perceptionsof teaching competence will now bedescribed.

24

Prior to the full exposure ofDiploma of Education students to thescheme for the assessment of teaching,their perceptions of what constitutedteaching competence were solicited.After viewing a taped microteachinglesson, the students were asked toevaluate the lesson under the fourheadings of Aims, Planning, Conductand Evaluation, as well as on thewhole. In addition, they were asked to(a) specify the features under eachbroad area that they were looking for,(b) indicate the strongest point andthe weakest point of the lesson, (c)weight the four areas by dividing 10points among them, according morepoints to areas that they feel ought tobe emphasised more, and (d) weightthe different features for each of themain areas, again on the basis of atotal of 10 points for each area. Sixweeks later, the evaluation form wasfully explained and discussed and this

.31

was followed by a subsequent re-viewing of the taped lesson and eva-luation using the F.E.A.T.S.

Of the 81 Science students involvedin the study, only 57 forms are usablein the sense that only responses toboth evaluation sessions the pretestand the posttest and completelyfilled forms were accepted. Notwith-standing effects of the selection Xmortality interaction, several qualita-tive and quantitative observations maybe of interest. First and foremost, itwas manifestly evident that there areimportant areas of difference betweenthe perceptions of students as com-pared with the perceptions of staff.For example, the bulk of the studentstended to list out the aims and underthis rubric rated for the extent towhich these aims were fulfilled.Furthermore the aims identified wereinvariably teaching aims rather thanlearning aims as emphasised by staff.A related perceptual difference in-volved the conception of flexibilityof approach, on which the Facultyplaces considerable premium. At onepoint of the lesson, the teacher foundit necessary to digress in order to goover some presumably poorly under-

stood concept. Many students pin-pointed this digression as the weakestpoint of the lesson during the firstevaluation session. After exposure tothe F.E.A.T.S., a few still maintainedthat the teacher's digression was herweakest point but they were morespecific in their comments for 'ex-ample, they generally felt that thebreadth and depth of digression con-stituted too much of a deviation.Itis also interesting to note that quiteoften similar statements appeared asstrongest point as well as weakestpoint for some of the students. Forinstance, some of them indicated thatthe teacher's strongest point was herinvolvement of pupils, while someothers suggested that the weakestpoint was the lack of pupil involve-ment. Arising from the ensuing dis-cussion session it became clear thatwhile the former were talking aboutthe mental involvement of pupils,which was a creditable feature of thelesson, the latter were referring to thelack of physical involvement of pupilsin the experiments whi,th weredemonstrated entirely by the teacher.Another area of apparent conflictconcerned the use of instructionalaids which was regarded as thestrongest point by some and as theweakest point by some others. Itwas revealed in the discussion thatsome who reported the teacher asweak in respect of instructional aidshad dismissed the equipment andmaterials for the experiment and thechalkboard as instructional aids.Similarly, yet another area of differ-ence concerned the interpretation ofwhat evaluation meant. For manythis seemed to be confined to formalevaluation such as the use of testsand questioning by the teachertended to be ignored as part of

32

SIM

evaluation.

Two kinds of quantitative measuresare implicit in the F.E.A.T.S., namelythe ratings and the weightings ofvarious features of the lesson. Theoverall and sub-grade ratings are madeon a kind of "gestalt" process, takingthe lesson or each area as a whole.Theoretically, the aggregate scores,obtained by multiplying each ratingof the four areas by the correspondingweighting and summing the products,should correlate highly with the over-all scores. Tables Ia and Ib show thebivariate distribution and the corres-ponding means, standard deviationsand correlation coefficients for thepretest and posttest situationsrespectively.

It is apparent that, although thecorrelations are not very high, thereis a fair correspondence between thepiecemeal and the overall assessmentsof lessons even for student teachers.The absence of near-perfect correla-tions indicates the lack of reliabilityor consistency in part-whole assess-ments, or the incorporation offeatures extraneous to the given form.Even though the means between pre-test and posttest scores do not seemto be greatly different, tests of signi-ficance of difference between meansfor the correlated sample reveal a highlevel of significance. Thus, the t forthe difference between the aggregatescores is 4.12 and the t for thedifference between the overall scoresis 5.25, both of which are significantbeyond the .001 level. This representsa significant change in the evaluationof the lesson by the students as aresult of a treatment situation inwhich aspects of evaluation areclassified and discussed and differencesin pretest ratings are ironed out.

25

Table Ia. Correlation betweenand Overall Scores.

Overall Scores

5 4 3 2 1

Pretest Aggregate Scores

Mean S.D.

45 2 2 OverallScores: 3.5 0.6

Aggregate 40-44 8 8Scores Aggregate

35-39 12 7 19 Scores: 34.6 5.5

30-34 6 13 19

25-29 2 4 7

20-24 2 2

0 30 24 3 0 57

Table lb. Correlation between Posttest Aggregate Scoresand Overall Scores.

Overall Scores Mean S.D.

5 4 3 2 1

45 4 4 OverallScores: 3.9 0.5

Aggregate 40-44 12 12Aggregate

35-39 1 27 3 31 Scores: 37.7 4.4

30-34 6 3 9

25-29 1 1

5 45 6 1 0 57

As a, matter of interest, the distributions of ratings versus weightings for each of the areasin the F.E.A.T.S. are presented in Tables IIa, Ilb, IIc and IId.

26

1

Weightings 2

3

4

1

Weightings 2

3

4

5

1

Weightings 2

3

4

5

6

Table Ila. Bivariate Distributions of ratings versusWeightings for Aims.

Pretest Ratings

5 4 3 2 1

Posttest Ratings

5 4 3 2 1

SIM

6 7

16 21 1

4 1

14 2 5

38 4 16 21 1

5 4 3

0 1

7

42

7

0 26 29 1 1 57 4 23 29 1 0 57

Table IIb. Bivariate Distributions of Ratings versusWeightings for Planning.

Pretest Ratings Posttest Ratings

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1

5 12

1 13 15 3

1 2 2 2

1_ _

2 21 29 5 0

0

17 2 23 10

32 2 13 6

7 1

1

o

35

21

0

57 4 37 16 0 0 57

Table IIc. Bivariate Distributions of Ratings versusWeightings for Conduct.

Pretest Ratings

5 4 3 2 1

Posttest Ratings

3 2 12 5 4

1 1

1 4 1

1 20 11 2

1 7 5 1

1

2

6 1 3 2

34 5 21 2

14 3 16 1

1 1 1

0 1

0

6

28

20

2

1

3 33 18 3 0

34

57 10 42 5 0 0 57

27

Table IId. Bivariate Distributions of Ratings versusWeightings for Evaluation.

Pretest Ratings Posttest Ratings

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 I

2 3 1 6 2 2

Weightings 2 2 11 20 4 37 3 21 16 2 42

3 1 9 2 1 13 4 9 13

4 1 0

3 22 26 6 0 57 3 27 25 2 0 57

The mean ratings and meanweightings are shown in Table III,where it is evident that changes inratings between pretest and posttestoccured mostly in the Planning andConduct categories. The weightingssuggested by students especially inthe posttest also seemed to approxi-mate the modal weightings of staff

Table III. Mean Ratings

who agreed to adopt a uniform set ofweightings as follows: 2 for Aims,2 for Planning, 4 for Conduct and2 for Evaluation. Departures were ofcourse permissible when differentecological situations were encountered,as long as reasons for these departuresare made explicit.

and Weightings

Ratings

Pretest Posttest

Weightings

Pretest Post test

Aim 3.4 3.5 1.8 2.0

Planning 3.4 3.8 2.9 2.4

Conduct 3.6 4.1 3.1 3.4

Evaluation 3.4 3.5 2.2 2.2

6.0 A final WordThere is little gainsaying the fact

that there is a prevailing danger inpivoting a great deal of research upona model of unproven worth. Theapproach taken in using the model isboth intuitive and empirical. Intuitive-ly, the question of concern to anyonewho wishes to investigate teaching-learning situations systematically arethose of: Who? Whom? Why? What?When and Where? How? and How

28

35

well? and these correspond to theelements T, P, 0, C, E and theimportant triadic relations involvingApproach to Content and Evaluationof Objectives, respectively.

The model has also led us tocertain inferences about sources ofinvalidity which correspond to well-established empirical phenomena. Thevarious types of empirical researchwhich may be derivable from furtherelaboration of the model will speak

for themselves in the sense that theresults obtained may perhap., attainsubstantive significance when differentproblems are explored using the modeland compared with studies of asimilar nature.

Hence, although the model may nothave been derived from existingtheoretical conceptions, as is the case,for example, with Smith's g Ryan's to& Snow'slimodels which are adapted

SIM

from the psychological conceptionsof Tolman,12Lewin13and Sears,14 andBrunswick15 respectively, it possessesan intuitive framework which may beappealing. While caution is urged,unless we put the model to the testwe can never be certain if it is indeedhelpft *. Fortunately, microteachingprovides ample scope for empiricaltesting and shall accordingly be ex-plored in subsequent studies.

1 Maccia, Elizabeth S. "Model in Theorising and Research." Columbus; Ohio: Bureau of EducationalResearch and Service. The Ohio State 0., 1965, p. 4.

2 Ryans, David G. "AsFessment of Teacher Behavior and Instruction", Review of Educational Research:1963, 33, 415-441.

3 For model-building attempts, see, e.g.,Openshaw, M.K. & Cyphert, F.R. "Development of a Taxonomy for the Classification of TeacherClassroom Behavior." Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State V. Research Foundation, 1966; McDonald,F.J. "Applying the Language of Behavioral Models to Teaching Acts." Stauford Center forResearch & Developments in Teaching, Research Memorandum No. 3, 1967; Snow, Rishard E."Brunswickian Approaches to Rcsearch On Teaching." American Educational Research Journal,1968, 5, 475-489; Snow, Rishard E. "Toward a Model of Teacher-learner Interaction."Stauford Center for Research & Development in Teaching, Research Memorandum No. 4, 1967;Baral, David P. et al. "A Taxonomy of Teaching Behaviors: A Progress Report," Stauford Centrefor Research & Development in Teaching. Research & Development Memorandum No. 36, 1968.

4 Gage, N.L. "Paradigms for Research on Teaching." In N.L. Gage (Ed.) "Handbook of Researcl: onTeaching." Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963, pp. 94-141.

5 Throughout this paper comparisons will be made to the sources of internal validity as expounded inCampbell, Donald T. & Stanley, Julian C. "Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs forResearch on Teaching." In N.L. Gage (Ed.), "Handbook of Research on Teaching." Chicago:Rand McNally, 1963. pp. 171-246.

6 Bracht, Glenn H. & Glass, Gene V. "The External Validity of Experiments," American EducationalResearch Journal, 1968, 5, 437-474.

7 It is not the purpose of this paper to explain microteaching, but the interested reader may wish torefer to the following suggested sources: Allen, D.W., and Ryan, K.A. "Microteaching". Reading,Mass.: Addison. Wesley, 1969; Berlinger, David C. "Microteaching and the Technical SkillsApproach to Teacher Training." Stanford Center for Research and Development in TeachingTechnical Report No. 8, 1969; Yeoh Oon Chye. "Microteaching for Macroteaching," MaatalahPendidekan, 1969, 2, 229-238.

8 to be published.9 Smith, B. Othaniel "A Concept of Teaching," Teachers College Record, 1960, 61, 229-241.

10 Ryans, David G. "Characteristics of Teachers." Washington D.C.; American Council of Education,1960.

11 Snow, Richard E. op. cit.12 Tolman, Edward C. "A Psychological Model" In Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils (Eds.)

"Toward a General Theory of Social Action." Cambridge: Hawaid U. Press, 1952, pp. 279-302.13 Lewin, Kurt, "Behavior and Development as a Function of the Total Situation" In L. Carmichael

(Ed.) "Manual of Child Psychology." NY: Wiley, 1946, pp. 791-844.14 Sears, Robert R. "A Theoretical Framework for Personality and Social Behavior," American

Psychologist, 1951, 6, 476-483.15 Brunswick, Egan. "Perception and The Representative Design of Psychological Experiments."

Berkeley, Catif: U. of California Press, 1956.

629

TEACHER TRAINING IN INDONESIA AS A NATIONAL PROBLEM

One can clearly see the relevance of theproblems of teacher training in Indoneisaonly if he considers them as an integralpart of the human resource development.If he wants to study the perspectives ofthe problems on a national scale, it isindeed true, that teacher training as a unitin manpower production must be consideredas such. In reality, however, not much hasbeen done in this matter. The Five YearDevelopment Plan that started in 1969 doesnot as yet show any overall approach.

The importance of education, and con-sequently the importance of teacher traininghas been accepted as an imperative con-clusion. But what is it that makes teachertraining so important? Why is it important,or why should it be important? In teachereducation what is there to be done, andwhat in fact has been done? Are thesesupporting the development program as awhole and specifically that of manpowerdevelopment programs, or are they ob-structing them? At present I cannot ex-plicitlyfind the answers to those questionsin political statements or educationalplanning. In other words, education as onesector of the development scheme doesnot, as yet, play a functional role as adriving force in the developmental process.So far education is treated as just a de-pendent variable, or tolerated and seen asjust a consequence of a process. whateverthat is beyond education. At the most,education functions only as an agent tomeet "practical" needs. These needs usuallyare very momentary and situational,depending so much on the political powerinfluencing the whole administration.

In 1964-1966 whey, the socio-economicsituation was a crucial problem, teachertraining in Indoneisa already showed adeclining trend both in quality and quantity.

Between the period 1950-1960, teachers

30

37

Dr. Winarno Surachmad

National Evaluation of Education Project,Djakarta, Indonesia

in terms of the socio-economic stratacame from the upper-middle class, but inthe mid sixties they came predominantlyfrom the upper-lower class, and even fromthe lower-lower class. Considering the viewsof the sociologists, psychologists andanthropologists regarding the value orienta-tion and one's attitudes in his environment,we may as well postulate that a shift ofvalue orientation of teachers has taken place,a shift from middle class values towardlower class ones. If we further considerthe fact that certain life values will alwaysinfluence man's behavior, then we canassume that the professional behavior ofteachers is influenced by that of the lowerclass aspiration. This may have a far reachingeffect. Research in determining teachers'attitudes towards tradition, moral, inte-llectual aspirations, religions, and culture,suggest that Indonesia is facing a futuregeneration that entirely relies on lowerclass values, . . . unless teacher traininginstitutes are successful in implanting abetter understanding, spirit and dedicationtowards the development of Indonesia.

It is precisely this point that makes meconsider giving priority to teacher traininginstitutes as agencies of supply of man-power that will in turn benefit the nation.

Other factors have made the deterioratingprocess of the quality of teachers worse.Between 1950 1960 teacher traininginstitutes of a tertiary level were established

the first one in 1954. This was to over-come the teacher's shortage both in quantityand quality.

However, the absorption power and theappreciation of the society showed adifferent trend. In 1961, a task force wasestablished to over-come the problem of oversupply of elementary school teachers. In1965, another task force was assigned theresponsibility to overcome the serious

problem of teacher shortage. At one timemany graduates of these institutes workedalmost everywhere except in the field ofeducation itself. They worked as manuallaborers, in private enterprises, banks,embassies, armed forces, local administra-tion, and as factotums in ministries andother government agencies in the capital.

In my evaluation, at present, teachertraining institutes of both secondary andtertiary level have become second classinstitutes rearing also second class citizens.

From the point of view of "the needsof society" the teacher education programis not always synchronized. Skills that areassumed important are not needed in reallife. The social development, as a result ofseveral socio-political and socio economicchanges, is in many ways out of control. Itdoes not follow the projected patterns forcertain specific stages. As far as teachertraining is concerned, an effort was madebetween 1950-1960 to uniform, unify, andimprove the teacher training program.

Social tensions and political frictionsthat escalated between 1960-1965 turnedthe only private professional assoication ofteachers (Persatuan Guru Republik Indone-sia) into a labor union with all kinds ofvested interests, sponsored by politicalparties. This intensified the negative imageof teachers and their profession.

Until now efforts have been made toregard teaching as a profession. It does nothave a professional code yet and it does notreceive adequate legal recognition either.Yet as a force the total of Indonesianteachers is one of the largest, much greaterthan the armed forces which is known as alarge group. The primary schools have350,000 teachers who teach 14 millionstudents. This number of students formsa small portion of all-school-age childrenthat ought to be in school. However, thistotal of teachers is relatively small whencompared to the population growth,especially when compared to all school-agechildren. The normal schools preparingprimary school teachers, all varieties thatare found in Indonesia inclusive, have atthe moment more than 85,000 prospectiveteachers.

WINARNO SURACHMAD

To solve the shortage of teachers, anaddition of about 300 teacher traininginstitutes was projected by 1971. Howeveronly 20% of the school buildings for theprimary teacher training have been com-pleted in 1968.

The abortive coup at the close of 1965has placed teacher training in a really extra-ordinary complex situation. It was assumedthen, that the primary school alone needed93,000 teachers to supplant those who weredirectly or indirectly involved in thatcommunist coup through the communistcontrolled PGRI Teachers' Assoication (theso-called Non-Union PGRI) and throughother means. The output of primary schoo?teachers in 1966 was estimated at only9,450, so that conventional ways will neversolve the problem. In other words un-conventional means must be employed withthe consequence that these may bring aboutlowering the already very low standard ofteacher training temporarily, or at leastpartially.

As of 1969, teacher training activitieshave entered a new phase the Five YearPlan (1969-1973). By implementing the FiveYear Plan it is expected that the gapbetween the pressing need for a greatnumber of better qualified teachers on theone hand and the output of teacher traininginstitutes on the other will be bridged.

But that does not solve teacher trainingproblems in Indonesia. Teacher training asa means of develop human resources doesnot stand alone. It is influencing and isinfluenced by other development sectors.

At the start of the 1968 academic year,the interest of teenagers to enter SPGsuddenly increased. In previous years SPGhad to accommodate "second class"students that were rejected by other schools.On top of that the entrance requirementshad still to be made "very flexible". But in1968 this phenomenon changed in severalareas. There was a case where one SPG hadan enrolment increase of 800% withoutaltering the requirements. Does this meanan awareness of the Indonesian Youth ofthe teaching job as a profession? Or is itcaused by negative aspects outside thefield of teacher training, for instance,

3831

secondary school graduates find it difficultto secure other jobs? Whatever the reasons,it is encouraging to know that the Indoneisanyouth express a greater interest in teachertraining.

Another encouraging aspect is the factthat university graduates are expressinginterest in the role of education in supportingdevelopment programs. Economists, forexamples, are starting to talk about educa-tion as a system of input and output, interms of human investment, etc. But this isstill sporadic. Certain experts are stillconsidering the quick yielding programonly. The recently talked about educationalplanning and educational assessment are infact economic planning for education, i.e.using economic criteria in evaluating theoutput of education. This sort of carefulinterdisciplinary consideration is not a

general phenomenon yet, but it is a goodstart.

Still another aspect that brightens usis the view of the Provisional People'sCongress (MPRS) that the national budgetfor education be increased to 25%. TheIndonesian people should appreciate thisvery much, since never in the past, haseven half of this ever been realized. But oneshould not forget that such an increase isnot the answer to many problems. What infact is the main reason to increase theaverage 5% budget to 25%? What targets ineducation are to be achieved with that raise?It is based on a careful calculation of the realneeds? What are those needs? I am afraidthat these questions remain unanswered.If the government intends to keep thebudget at a rate of 10% of the G.N.P. itmeans that only 15% of the proposed targetswill be accomplished after five years (1973).This means an increase of 1.1% per annum.To reach 25%, this increase must be raised to3.1% per annum during a period of fiveyears and this is a very high increase. Tomaintain the situation as in 1968, i.e. 9.4%for education in general (or 6.4% foreducation under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Education and Culture) we mustbe freed from being responsible for theeducation of the young who are ready toenter the labor market, (according to theschool situation in 1968). This number will

329-

exceed 200,000 in 1969, and 500,000 in1973.

Another aspect that should not beforgotten because it is still in its infantstate is the fact that educators and foreignagencies such as the World Bank, UNESCO,NNDP, UNICEF, the Ford Foundation andothers who help fund education a great deal,are introducing new methods in teachingand are applying new findings in technologyto improve the efficiency of education ina very short time, including that of teachertraining.

Viewed from the actual role the educa-tional institutes in Indonesia are playing,it would not be wrong at all to evaluate thisas just "preserving obsolete knowledge".It is far from inspiring or innovating newthings. There is a point in launching a"frontal attack" against the preservation ofold traditions. And exactly at this pointthat new porblems will arise, because tochange education is really not that simple.

I will close this part by stating thefollowing:

1. Teacher training as part of efforts to thecare of human resources faces manyproblems that involve the nationalinterest;

2. Teacher training ought to get a better,and more defined place in the develop-ment programs, because of the potentiali-ties that are in it;

3. Teacher training has reached a crucialphase where immediate action must betaken to save it, on the basis of soundand rational planning.

CURRICULAR PROFILE OF PRI-MARY TEACHER EDUCATIONThere are several types of institutesresponsible for the training of teachers forK-Grade VI and several other types for theJunior and Senior High level. The programsof the first mentioned group of institutesrange from 6 months to 6 years in durationafter 6 years of schooling (ElementarySchool). Some of these institutions are nolonger in existence, some other will be

closed in the near future, leaving only onetype (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, SPG) forthe training of Kindergarten teachers (SPG,Section A), Elementary School teachers(SPG, Section B), and Special Educationteachers at the general Elementary Schools(SPG, Section C). SPG being the core, thereare several other institutions at the samelevel with primary function in implementingthe inservice education.

The number of Kindergartens is growingrapidly in the last few years, and so is theneed for teachers at this level. Most of theseinstitutions are privately organized, andthere are only very few public Kindergartensrun by teacher training institutions; thelatter are used mostly for demonstrationand research purposes. On the other handthere is just a very small interest on the partof the private sector in running schools forKindergarten teachers. Consequently, themajority of Kindergarten teachers arepublic teacher training graduates workingeither as civil servants and paid by thegovernment (± 30%) or paid by privateorganizations.

In 1954, the Ministry of Education issueda curriculum guide for Kindergarten(Sekolah Taman Kanak2). One can learnfrom this guide that three different classesare recognized:

A Class for children 3 to 4 years old.

B Class for children 4 to 5 years old.

C Class for children 5 to 6 years old.

Individual teaching is very much stressed.In addition, Frobel's method is given animportant part in the curriculum. A typicallist of activities (syllabus) for A-Classincludes the following items: 3

Play (free, with songs, movement,percussion)

SingingStory tellingDrawingShort Trip/Taking a walkConversationFrobel I (box with colored balls)Frobel IIConstruction/Building

WINARNO SURACHMAD

Working with ClayArranging beadsFolding paperGutting, GluingMontessori equipmentsFree activities

Since then several attempts were made toimprove the program, but the basic ingre-dients remain essentially the same.

Up to 1st of March 1969, there wereabout 8000 Kindergartens with more than14,000 teachers taking care of more than383,000 pupils.

Upgrading courses are given continuouslyto the Kindergarten teachers two mainpurposes: (a) to give minimum professionalqualification to an increasing number ofunqualified teachers, and (b) to introducekindergarten teachers to new ideas in child-hood education.4

At the elementary school level, there aretwo sets of syllabi; one is intended forschools using Indonesian language from thefirst grade on and the other is for schoolsusing local language as medium of instructionin grades I and II. Except for the languagepart, all other programs remain the same.

Many Indonesian teacher educators willagree that the present curriculum is a betterinterpretation of the role the teacherinstitutions hope to play. In the meantimeconferences, seminars and research activitiesare going on to get far better preparationfor further improvement. Curriculum maker.;are aware that the problem of teachereducation is much more than the improve-ment of the existing curriculum. A favour-able climate and a real understanding areprerequisites for any kind of educationalchange.

40

As with education in general, teachereducation in Indonesia is at the crossroads.Most teacher educators are in full agreementon the inadequacy of the preservice as wellas the inservice program. Ever since Indone-sian independence 25 years ago, the educa-tional history has witnessed a growth ofunprecedented dimensions in education.Quantitatively the growth is tremendous.Certainly, this is one major achievement in

33

the overall development program. Still thisis not enough. At the same time thereemerge new social and political forces, newaspirations and political forces, new aspira-tions and value orientation which constantlypresent new challenges to education. Topleaders and educational decision makers areconstantly confronted with the vital needfor a reorientation of the basic strategy,goals and objectives, educational structure,the curriculum, facilities and allocation ofresources, and last but not the least theurgent need of highly skilled educationalmanpower not only at the national andinstitutional levels but also at theinstructional level to ensure the bestimplementation of the desired reform. Inthe field of teacher education one canexpect a more radical change. More andmore people share the opinion that theproblem of teachers must be given thehighest priority. Their education and pro-fessional preparation are of decisive im-portance in all measures of educationalreform. Indeed, there were times when thequantitative aspect was given more weight,at the cost of getting poor quality teachers(in Elementary Schools alone 75% of theteachers are not qualified to do their job).

In spite of the effort to produce moreteachers, there will still be a teacher shortageby the end of the Plan. However, while agrowing number of teachers has still to beproduced every year, there is an increasing

34 41

awareness that the quality of their educationis also a matter of importance, perhaps ofgreater importance. In order to meet thegrowing concern of the key educators, theparents, the consumers, even of the teachersthemselves, the Indonesian government istaking a serious look at the existing systemof teacher education. A national assessmentis on the way to study every possible aspectconsidered of importance in teacher educa-tion. It will be too premature to speculateon the findings.

In the first place, the whole programlooks very traditionalistic and perhaps bestbe classified as being truly subject-mattercentred. Laboratory experience and practiceteaching are given a relatively minor place.On the overall content there is no clearrelationship between what the prospectiveteacher is to master while in training andwhat he is expected to perform later in thefield. In addition, perhaps more emphasisshould be given on acute national andsocial problems, making the teacher institu-tion truly problem oriented. Flexibilityshould be encouraged to make the programmore meaningful for every party concerned.In short, what is needed most is a betterpolicy of and understanding about everypossible aspect involved in teacher educationand teaching. It should contain a modernapproach to teacher preparation, but itshould also be such that it is good andworkable in the Indonesian setting.

THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER EDUCATION IN INDONESIA

PART I THE EDUCATION OFSECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHERS BEFOREWORLD WAR II

As an occupied country, the education ofteachers followed the practice established inthe mother country. The concept of teacherat that time had a very specific meaning.Probably this concept can be explained inthe name of the colonial department whichwas in charge of educational matters atthat time, the Department of Instructionand Religion. In this sense education meant"instruction". This concept was retaineduntil very recently. It was only in the pastfew years that the Indonesian Departmentof Instruction, Education became theDepartment of Education and Culture.

What is the meaning of the teacher as aninstructor? A teacher, especially in thesecondary school is supposed to be an expertin certain areas of knowledge in which hedeserves to be called as an instructor. Heis a pure specialist. Before World War II,the teacher as a specialist was completelysuited to the need of the system of educa-tion since schools and pupils were limitedin number. The scope and aims of educationweie narrow and intellectualism was the idol.To bring the students into the world ofknowledge was the sole responsibility ofan instructor. The "dual system", generaland vocational secondary education, neededa kind of teacher who mastered theirsubjects thoroughly.

As specialists, teacher education was notthe responsibility of the university whichdesired sufficient general edcuation as anecessary foundation for their education.With in-service training program the expert-ness needed by the teachers was reachedmore easily and efficiently. It is not to bedoubted that the level of mastering thesubject of specialization of these teachers

4

Dr. H.A.R. Tillar,

National Evaluation of Education Project,Djakarta, Indonesia

was very high. They were first class scientistsin the limited meaning of the term, and intheir area of specialization they were evenrecognized by graduates from the universitiesat that time.

There were 3 types of certificates forsecondary school teachers and also threetypes of teachers training institutions.

1. The Lower Certificate (L.C.)

2. The In-service Training for Middle-Certificate A. (MC-A).

3. The In-service Training for Middle-Certificate B. (MC-B).

The first type was not institutionalized.The government conducted once a year astate examination which could be taken bypractically everybody. A holder of thiscertificate qualified for teaching in thelower level of secondary schools. The L.C.was granted in several areas such as MalayLanguage, handicraft, English, etc.

The MC-A was a two-year in-servicetraining program for teachers in certainsubject matters. The holder was fullyqualified to teach at the junior high schoollevel.

The third type was an extension of thesecond type a two-year in-service trainingprogram for teachers already possessing theMC-A certificate. At that ::me there werejust two or three institutions offering thistype of program most of which wereattached to the university. The holder wasfully recognized as a senior secondary schoolinstructor.

Besides the above mentioned certificates,most teachers at the Dutch Senior secondaryschools were staffed by university graduateseven though their number was very small.At the Teachers Training Schools, most ofthe instructors were MC-A or B holders.

35

Summary:

Teacher education before the war hadthe following characteristics:

1. The secondary school teacher was aspecialist in a certain subject matter.

2. The teacher was more an instructorthan an educator.

3. Teacher education was organized ona kind of in-service training program.

In the following discussions it will beshown that these three aspects are still thefoundations of teacher education inIndonesia today.

PART II. THE EDUCATION OFSECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHER IN 1942-1954

The period of 1942-1954 actuallyconsists of two sub-periods, the period ofJapanese occupation and the period between1945-1954. During the Japanese occupa-tion not so many things happened ineducation except the changing from Dutchto Japanese as the medium of instructionat all levels of education. The number ofschools increased, espcially at the secondarylevel. This raised problems of trying tostaff the schools left empty by the departureof Dutch teachers. With the exceptions of afew Japanese teachers, most secondaryschools were staffed by Indonesians whowere actually prepared an primary schoolteachers. The shortage of books coupled

36

with in experienced teachers caused seriousproblems in the quality of education. Theseconditions remained through the War ofIndependence Until 1950.

In the meantime, in the Dutch occupiedareas, the pattern of secondary schoolteacher education continued following thepre-war system, while in the Republicanoccupied areas, teacher education wasattached to the first National University,the Gadjah Mada University in Jogjakarta.It was not until 1950, that the Faculty ofFedagogy was established at this University.

After the recognition of independencein 1949, there were two kinds of teacherstraining programs. The Faculty of Educationat the Gadjah Mada University to educateeducationists, and the B-I and B-11 Coursesfor training instructors :3r secondaryeducation new names for the DutchMC-A and MC-B Certificate programs.

In the meantime the government intro-duced plans for a literacy campiagn andenlarged the number of secondary schools.Both created a need for a large number ofnew teachers. For practical reasons, thestaff of junior high schools at that timewere filled by the graduates of TeachersTraining Schools. Recognizing the greaterneed for more qualified secondary schoolteacher within a short time, the governmentestablished the Junior High School TeachersTraining (JHSTT), a one year program afterSenior Secondary School. This was aroplica of the former Low Certificate pro-gram. There were then 4 types of teacherstraining at that time as shown on Table I.

TABLE I. TYPES OF TEACHER EDUCATION TILL 1954

Name of Ins- Length oftitution the Program

Goals Qualification

I. JHSTT One year

2. B4 Course

3. MI Course

Two year in-service training

Two year in-service trainingafter B-I course

4. Faculty of Five yearuniversity program

Subject matter Teacher at thespecialist Junior High School.

Subject matter Teacher at thespecialist Junior High School

with full qualification.

Subject matter Teacher at thespecialist Senior High School

with fullqualification.

Educationist Teacher,administrator,researcher.

43

Of these four institutions only the JHSTTremain in operation today. The B-I and B-HCourses were combined to form the Instituteof Teaching and Educational Sciences (ITES)in 1962.

The JHSTT as well as the B-I and BIICourses were in-service training programs,Because of the nature of these institutions,education courses seemed to be redundant.Their programs were tailored to the programsof the same faculties at the universities. Thegraduates of these institutions were highlyrespected.

At the Faculty of Pedagogy the aimswere slightly different. They were trained asgeneralists and not to teach certain subjectmatter except at the Teacher TrainingSchools, a pattern which followed thecontinental system.

PART HI. THE NEW ERA INSECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHER EDUCATION

With the fast development of educationin the early fifties, the government beganto realise that the output of the B-I and B-IICourses was no longer suited to the needsof the country. The government felt thatthe fast growing number of universitiesshould be backed up with a number ofgood quality secondary schools which wouldprepare the future university students. Highquality secondary schools students neededhigh quality teachers. In case of subjectmastery, the graduates of the B-I and B-IICourses were well qualified. However, thisis not the only requirement of a qualifiedteacher. Teachers at the secondary schoolsshould also be respected by their colleaguesat the university. For this reason secondaryschool teachers should have a universitytype of education with an understandingof the science of education.

The first Teachers Colleges were esta-blished in 1954; they had two goals:

1. Raising the prestige of the secondaryschool teachers by providing themwith a university level education.

2. Giving more emphasis to the educationcomponent in teacher educationsomething which had been neglected

4

H.A.R. TILLAR

in the former programs.

The first four Teachers Colleges wereestablished in Bandung, Malang, Tondano,and sBatusangkar (West Sumatra).

The first goal was greatly needed at thattime. It was the period of great growth forstate as well as private universities. Whilethe newly born Teachers Colleges were"invaded" by students, educators felt thatnecessary steps should be taken to protectthe teaching profession in this competitionsince the Teachers College was regarded asunwanted children by the universities. Thetradition had taught them that "any bodycan be a teacher". It was therefore, thefirst mission of the Teachers Colleges todeclare war on this traditional belief.

If the first goal was a war against theoutside "world", the second was an un-declared war against the tradition in teachereducation itself; this was the most difficultas will be shown later in this paper.

The Teachers College adopted theprograms of its predecessors, the B-I andB-II Courses with some additional generaleducation and education courses. It shouldbe noted that the State University of NewYork or SUNY Team helped these institu-tions in trying to adapt its content to theneeds of the secondary schools and in itsprogram to upgrade the teaching staff.However, fundamental changes did nothappened in this institutions because thebasic foundations remained as they hadbeen. The Departments were organizedaccording to subject matter. This was alsotrue with the curriculum of each department.To achieve the objective of raising theprestige of teachers, the program wasarranged in the traditional way of theuniversities. It was a common saying thatthe Teachers College was a "bisex" institu-tion. The results were obvious: the TeachersCollege produced half educationist and halfscientist type teachers a dubiousaccomplishment.

In 1961 the Teachers College got its fulluniversity status and became a faculty ofthe state university, the Faculty of Teachingand Educational Sciences. They kept thisstatus less than two years, the Faculty of

37

Teaching and Educational Sciences becamean autonomous institution in 1963, underthe name of the Institute of Teaching andEducational Sciences (ITES).2 The B-I andB-II Courses, which were still in operation,were totally assumed by the new ITES.The merging of these institutions was theresult of political considerations operatingat that time. Essentially these two institu-tions had a common program.

The birth of the FTES, and later on theITES, had several advantages, Dualism insecondary teacher education was abolished,and the universities recognized education asa discipline. It is to be regretted that thisfavorable momentum was not accompaniedby necessary action to improve the contentsand aims of the FTES or ITES.

The reasons why internal changes at theFTES or ITES did not happen are many.

There were no reasons to justify the separa-tion of the FTES from the university otherthan political. At that time education wasadministered by two separate ministries,the Ministry of Basic Education, and theMinistry of Higher Education. The Ministryof Basic Education argued that the FTESdid not meet their own needs. Therefore,for their own purposes, this Ministry its ownTeacher Training Institutes. This became apolitical issue at that time and the govern-ment decided to establish one institutionfor all secondary school teachers, the ITESunder the jurisdiction of the Departmentof Higher Education. The consequence ofthis action was the isolation of the ITESfrom their consumers the secondaryschools. This wall of separation betweenthe "producer" and the "consumer"remains in the present structure of adminis-tration of teacher education as well. (seeFigure I).

FIGURE I. THE ADMINISTRATION OF TEACHER EDUCATIONINSTITUTIONS

The Minister ofEduc. and Culture

The Directorate Generalof Education

The Directorate of The Directorate of The Directorate of The Directorate ofHigher Education Teacher Education General and Voce- Technical Education

tional Education

The !TES Teachers TrainingSchools

Figure I clearly indicates the maindifficulties in improving secondary educationteachers' curriculum. The ITES, whichserves the secondary schools, does not havedirect relations with these schools. Thesecondary schools arranged their owncurriculum under two separate directorates,the Directorates of General and VocationalEducation, and the Directorate of TechnicalEducation. It is now quite apparent that theITES is moving in own its peculiar directionwhile trying to maintain the right forexistence in the domain not of his own.The ITES considers itself as the supplier ofsecondary schools teachers but she refuse toadmit them on its campuses. This "messy"

38

Secondary, Primary Technicaland Vocational SchoolsSchools

45

situation is also intensified by the fact thatthe secondary schools have but anothersource of teachers, the JHSTT under theDirectorate of Teacher Education.

So far we have discussed the short historyof secondary teacher education in Indonesia,its curriculum and organization. It should benoted that the JHSTT and the ITES areinstitutions for secondary school teacherstraining in Indonesia at the present time.The former, according to the First FiveYear Development Plan will be graduallyabolished and integrated to the existingITES. In the second Five Year DevelopmentPlan, which will be started in 1974, the

ITES will be the only institution fortraining secondary school teachers.

A brief summary of educational reformplans in the First Five Year DevelopmentPlan would be helpful for an understandingof the present status and the future prospectsof these two institutions.

In the Education Chapter of the FirstFive Year Development Plan several pointshaving significance for the secondary schoolteacher education were presented; theyincluded the following observations:

1. The curricula are not in accord withcommunity needs, especially at thesecondary schools level. The resulthas been the production of gra-duates whose knowledge can notdirectly be utilised for developmentpurposes.

2. Teaching methods still need to beimproved. The present methods ofmeasuring students' achievement,mainly through state examinations,have given rise to bad habits ofstudy and teaching procedures,with the result that students onlywith the aim of passing examina-tions.

3. Most of the teachers are un-qualified. It is estimated that 75%of the secondary school teachersare semi-or partially qualified.Upgrading programs are necessary.

4. The teacher education institutionsmust be improved to ensure highteacher quality.

5. More teachers must be supplied toneed areas, especially those outsideJava.

6. A new strategy for attracting ablestudents to the teaching professionmust be fovnd.

11.A.R. TILLAR

7. The ratio between teachers andeducational administration person-nel must be improved.

8. Educational facilities must beincreased.

9. The general schools must bevocationalized by including voca-tional training as complementarysubjects.

10. Student enrollments must beincreased.

Within the framework of the First FiveYear Development Plan the need forqualified teachers has been given firstpriority. The resulting policy includes thefollowing porgrams:

1. The intensification of the use of theavailable capacity of teachertraining institutions.

2. The implementing of compulsoryteaching for students to fill theshortage of teachers in vocationalsubjects, technology and naturalsciences.

3. The creation of upgrading programsfor teachers to introduce them tonew and better methods and con-cepts in education.

4. The integration of the JHSTT intothe existing !TES.

5. The reduction of the teacherstudent ratio to 1:25 (especiallyin the primary and secondaryschools).

These are the programs in the First FiveYear Development Plan which show theweakness and problems facing the secon-dary school teacher education institutions,these are likely to continue for many yearsto come.

1 Abridged version of the original paper.2 In Indonesian, Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pcndidikan (IKIP).3 Defter Rentjana Peladjaran untuk Sekolah Tartan Kanak2, Inspeksi Pendidikan Taman Kanak2,

Djakarta 1954.4 UNICEF plays an important role for the improvement of the quality of preschool education.

39

'10

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHING EDUCATIONIN MALAYSIA

Mr. R. Vivekananda &Dr. Sim Wong Kooi

(Teacher Training Division, Ministry of Education, Kuala Lumpur, &Faculty of Education, University of Malaya)

1.0 IntroductionTeacher education in Malaysia is com-

parable to a three-layered cake where thelayers may be separately produced butwould have to be sampled together by theconsumer. At the base of the hierarchicalsystem are the day training colleges orcentres which, until two years ago, requiredonly a Lower Certificate of Education 1as minimum qualification for entry. Ingeneral, the conditions that obtain inprimary teacher training institutions, suchas bu;!..lings and facilities and the qualifica-tions of academic staff, have tended to beinferior to those in secondary teachertraining colleges; which are entirely resi-dential and which admit students with atleast a School Certificate, the number with aHigher School Certificate increasinf, rapidlyin recent years. The professional trainingof teachers for the primary and lowersecondary classes is in the hands of theMinistry of Education Teacher TrainingDivision, whereas the professional trainingof the "creamy layer" of graduate teacherswho possess at leas:: a basic degree (e.g. inArts, Science, Economics or Agriculture)takes place at the Faculty of Educationwhich in awarding a Diploma in Education toa graduate teacher virtually certifies thathe is qualified to teach in the uppersecondary classes.

The importance of maintaining a closeliaison between the Ministry and the Facultyof Education cannot thc;efore be over-emphasised, as is evidenced, for instance,by the present joint undertaking. Duringthe earlier years of the Faculty's existence,the relationship between the Ministry andthe Faculty tended to be more formal, aswhen staff of the Faculty constituted aBoard of External Examiners for thesecondary teacher training colleges. In this

404-7

respect, Faculty staff were involved notonly in moderating examination questionsand sample scripts, but frequently in travel-ling all over the country in order to examinesamples of teachers during teaching practice.

With the rapidly increasing responsibilitieswithin the Faculty itself and, more im-portant with the build-up of more qualifiedstaff and greater self-reliance in the trainingcolleges, the role of the Faculty becamepurely advisory while the resources of thecolleges were pooled together to form acentralised system of examination.

As another example of the spirit ofcooperation, a Teacher Training PolicyReview Committee, headed by the Directorof Teacher Training and comprising seniorofficials from the various Divisions of theMinistry and representatives from theFaculty of Education,was established earlylast year with the following terms ofreferences:-

(a) To define the aims in the teachertraining programme in primary andsecondary teacher training collegesand to consider the extent to whichthese programmes are geared to theneeds of schools, bearing in mindthe changed conditions since 1964.

(b) To review the present courses ofstudies and syllabuses in relationto the proclaimed aims and inlight of the experience of theteacher training colleges since thesecourses of studies and syllabuseswere introduced.

(c) To consider the desirability andfeasibility of co-ordinating andintegrating teacher training pro-grammes in the secondary andprimary training colleges which

hitherto have been separate, andbearing in mind also the Ministrypolicy of producing teachers whoare bi-lingual insofar as English andMalay are concerned at least.

(d) To consider the financial implica-tions, i.e. the expenditure, bothcapital and recurrent, resulting fromthe proposed changes.

(e) To consider the problem of theavailability cf staff qualified tolecture in the subjects under theproposed programme, and, ifnecessary to consider also the needfor in-service courses and re-training programmes, for bothlecturing staff as well as teachers.

With the untimely death of the lateMr. J.E.B. Ambrose, the previous Director ofTeacher Training, in April, with the outbreakof violence in the country in May, andnow with new priorities emerging on thescene, the work of the Committee, whichincluded curriculum evaluatior in teachereducation, is held in abeyance for anindefinite period of time. It is howeverenvisaged that the Committee would soonbe re-convened.

2.1 Ministry and PolicyIt is perhaps resonable to say that so

far the major teacher education curriculumchanges have followed important policypronouncements. A landmark may beconsidered as coinciding with the publica-tion of the Report of the EducationCommittee of 1956 (or the Razak Report),which catalysed attempts to coordinate asfar as possible the different training coursesin order to produce teachers with com-parable qualifications through a commonpattern of teacher education for servicein all Government-assisted schools, irrespec-tive of the media of training. Hithertothere was a proliferation of types of trainingcourses for different types of schools usingdifferent media of instruction. The staggeringdiscovery by the Royal Commission on theTeaching Services, West Malaysia (or AzizReport, 1968) that there were 511 salaryscales for teachers and 55 teachers' unionsin existence in West Malaysia2 is probably

VIVEKANANDA & SIM

associated to a large extent with the diversityof training courses offered through the years.Whiiie stressing uniformity in types ofcourses offered, specific variations in theinterpretation of curricula were permissible.

Even well after independence in 1957there have been attempts at revising existingsyllabuses and establishing common ones.The Education syllabus for primary teachereducation has, for instance, undergoneconsiderable revision in 1963 when aSpecial Committee was appointed to reviewthe entire primary teacher trainingsyllabuses. With the help of several consul-tants, mostly psychologists, and after aseries of four conferences for lecturers inprimary teacher education, the Educationsyllabus was revised, with an understandablystrong bias in psychology. The Educationsyllabus for lower secondary teachereducation was also revised, rather drastically,as a result of the deliberations of the Educa-tion Syllabus Committee appointed in 1964.Thus, in order that an integrated approachto education be maintained, emphasisingthe "application of educational principlesto classroom practice and not merely atheoretical discussion Of the nature andvalidity of these principles themselves, thetraditional framework of classification bysubject was replaced by one which keeps inview the principal interacting variables ofTeacher, Pupil, Teaching Method, Evaluationand Setting."3 An orientation course wasalso organised for lecturers in secondarytraining colleges towards the end of 1964and the comments of the workshop groupswere included in the revised syllabus.

Another significant stimulus for curricu-lum change occured with the introductionof comprehensive education in 1965 wherethe inclusion of compulsory electives suchas Agricultural Science, Industrial Arts, etc.,led to an urgent need for teachers capableof teaching these subjects. Furthermore allpupils were given an opportunity to continueup to Form III after primary education, alarge number of teachers had therefore tobe produced very quickly. The TeacherTraining Division of the Ministry braceditself for the event and in 1964 introducedthe so-called Integrated Teacher TrainingProgramme whereby each college specialised

48:41

in certain specified subjects of the SecondarySchool curriculum, so as to conserve thescarce resources in personnel and physicalfacilities.

A less popular move was the introductionof the Regional Training Centre Scheme,which had been criticised for the dilutionof standards. It is however doubtful that,under the circumstances, any other crashprogrammes would be capable of copingwith the sudden influx of approximately110,000 pupils more each year for threeyears, besides the need to provide for theteaching of new compulsory electivesubjects. The Comprehenisve EducationCommittee of the Teaching TrainingDivision was indeed cognisant of the dangerof further dilution of standards and re-commended that, over and above thetraining of teachers during weekends whilethey taught during weekdays with a reducedteaching load, the following measures beadopted:-

(a) The trainees were to be recruitedon the same basis as those fortraining colleges and they were allto sit common examinations;

(b) The trainees attended vacationcourses in the nearest teachereducation institutions;

(c) The lecturers in these centresattended professional lecturesconducted by Faculty of Educationstaff during vacations.

More recently, arising from a Ministerialpronouncement last year that the nationaleducation policy which entails "the pro-gressive development of an educationalsystem, in which the National Language isthe main medium of instruction,"4 wouldbe implemented progressively starting fromstandard One this year, the urgent need toprovide in-service training for teachers inthe National Language or Bahasa Malaysiabecame apparent. It is true that since 1960all student teachers in primary teachertraining institutions were required to offerBahasa Malaysia as a first or y I language,but teaching various subjects using BahasaMalaysia as the medium of instruction is

42 49

radically different from acquiring some basicproficiency in the language. It is true alsothat a large percentage of teacliel.1 signifiedthat they were able to teach it, BahasaMalaysia on the basis of a questionnaireadministered by the Ministry, but on thebasis of the answers to the questionnairesthe degree of their professed competencecould not be ascertained and furthermoreit is not possible to dismiss the fact thatfearing transfer some teachers preferred tostate that they are capable of teaching inBahasa Malaysia in the hope that theymight be able to pick up the language toadequately teach in it.

In sum, it may be seen that so fa:,evaluation of teacher education curriculahas tended to take the form of reviewingthe types of courses offered in conformitywith policy decisions. Of late, there has alsobeen considerable changes corresponding tothe imminent changes in various schoolsyllabuses. Thus, the staff of teacher traininginstitutions have been preoccupied withconducting, or participating in in-servicecourses, such as those concerned with theintroduction of the Scottish IntegratedScience and Nuffield Science syllabuses,into our School system, and making relevantadjustments to the courses they offer intheir respective institutions in order tobecome involved in systematic evaluationof teacher education curricula, such as hasbeen envisaged by the teacher trainingPolicy Review Committee alluded to earlier.While it remains the intention of the TeacherTraining Division to re-convene the Commit-tee and to conduct the proposed TeacherTraining Survey soon, thereby precludingdetailed discussion at this stage, it may bepertinent to mention some of the salientpoints, in broad outline, that fall within thepurview of the Committee.

2.2 Teacher Training Policy 'ReviewThe Committee focussed its attention

initially on the delineation of aims ofteacher education with the view to suggestingpractices that would be consonant withthese aims. Scrutiny of existing Reportsrevealed that when a statement of aims wasprovided, it was often vague and global,such as in terms of producing teachers of

the desired quality and quantity. Acce*ding-ly, members of the Committee su'.:mittedalternative formulations of aims in order toprovoke discussion. The Inspectorate, forexample, suggested the following threeaims:-

(1) "Teacher training should aim ateducating trainees in the principlesof education in general and thepurpose of the nation's educationalsystem in particular so that theywill learn the basic fundamentalsthat will help them to formulatea philosophy of education to guidethem as educators".

(2) "To educate teachers so that theywill be able to meet the needs orthe changing conditions in thecountry to fit into the society inwhich they serve and to foster anational outlook and a realisationof national identity".

"To broaden teachers' outlook withreference to educational systemsin the world in general and inneighbouring countries in particu-lar".5

(3)

Another paper attempted to formulateaims by considering plausible solutions topressing issues and suggested the followingobjectives: -

(1) "preparing teacher trainees to beresearch-minded";

(2) helping them to ".seek rapproche-ment by synthesising and coor-dinating the best of suggestedfeatures into a balanced andharmonious operation";

(3) "inculcating in teacher traineeshabits of continual review of what-ever they do";

(4) "emphasising the importance ofrelevance in teacher educationcourses and practices and the neefor teachers to be adaptable todifferent situations and individualdifferences among pupils." 6

The Committee has also prepared a

VIVEKANANDA & SIM

comprehenisve Questionnaire for adminis-tration to representative samples of Headsof training institutions, Lecturing staff,Teacher trainees, Heads of Schools andSchool teachers. The questionnaire aimsat soliciting the impressions and opinionsof different categories of respondents oncurrent and future teacher training vis-a-vis.

a. curriculum and manifest aims,b. organisation and policy,c. methods of teaching and supervi-

sion,d. examination and other evaluation

procedures,and e. staff and students.

Among the many aspects to be assessed aredesirability and practicability of a number ofpropositions such as the following:-

AS "Each student, whether fromprimary or secondary traininginstitutions, should be more in-tensively and extensively trainedin only two main (or teaching)subjects, rather than have his effortsspread thin in trying to master thecontent and methodology of a

range of subjects".

A6 "For other main (or teaching)-.1bjects, a series of single lecturesshould be given in the Educationcourse, wherein the specialistlectures would provide guidelineson crucial points to observe inteaching the subjects, additknalnotes and references, etc. to enablethe student to seek further informa-tion and materials on his own, ifand when required to teach thesesubjects."

B5 "Primary and secondary teachertraining programmes should beregarded as continuous andarticulated and not separate".

B6 "Initially, integration should beone of sharing common aims, havingcommon syllabuses and examina-tions for basic subjects and perhapsalso sharing lectures and meetingsocially and professionally, buteventually physical integration of

-r:71-1u43

primary and secondary trainingprogrammes under one roof isdesirable".

C3 "Lecturing staff should demon-strate, either during the lecturesthey give or in real or simulatedclassroom situations, the kind ofteaching they expect their studentsto conduct as teachers."

C4 "Lecturing staff should be releasedon a staggered baiss and in a

systematic fashion to teach inschools or to undertake the func-tions of an inspector of schoolsfor a period of time, once everyfew years".

D7 "Students of training institutionsshould have experiences in eva-luating themselves and their peers".

D8 "Systematic self-evaluation bylecturing staff should also beconducted periodically".

If and when executed, it is anticipatedthat the survey 'would constitute an im-portant exercise in the evaluation of teachereducation curricula.

The danger however is that its recom-mendations might be converted intovirtually immutable policies, whereas theCommittee has been working under theframework of developing a self-renewingeducational system and has emphasised theneed for the periodical review of aimsand practices and the continual refinementand extension of investigations into theconcomitants of teacher education.

3.1 Faculty and FlexibilityThus far the Faculty of Education has

enjoyed relative autonomy in the coursesit offers, so that over the past few yearsit has been able to evolve a fairly flexiblesystem whereby feedback from the activesolicitation of opinions from staff andstudents alike could bring about radical butrelevant changes without undue reper-cussions.

Thus, arising from questionnaire returnsfrom students regarding various aspects ofthe Diploma in Education programme,

44

frequent staff discussions regarding roles andrationales for avowed goals and priorities,as well as annual get-togethers with Headsof Schools, it has become apparent thatthere are four categories of needs as providedby the following types of courses:-

(a) Basic Courses which are requiredof all students as minimal forgraduate teacher education.

(b) Additional Courses which exposestudents to specialised areas thatthey may later on pursue for afurther degree in education or forfurther enlightenment.

(c) General Courses that widen theirexposure to fundamental issues ineducation, and

(d) Specialised Courses that wouldprovide depth in some specificaspects of education.

The kinds of courses actually offered arehowever derived from the juxtaposition ofeach of the first two categories with anotherfrom the last two categories as shownbelow:-

Basic Additional

GeneralPrinciples ofEducationalPractice

InvitationalLectures

Speciaiised SpecialMethods

OptionalCourses

The Principles of Educational Practice isan integrated core course, in which everymember of staff offers a few lecturesstressing the application of psychological,sociological, philosophical, historical andother educational principles to classroomand professional practice. This is the onlycourse which is examined at the end of theyear by means of an objective-type paperas well as an essay-type paper. It may benote-worthy that so far the correlationsbetween the two papers have remainedrather low, suggesting that some studentsare better at one mode of testing than theother.

The Special Methods are integrated intothree cognate areas, namely Language,Sciences and Social Science Methods.Students being trained to teach a givensubject, e.g. History, would participate inlectures and discussions on the planning,conduct and evaluation of lessons acrosseach cognate area, besides specialisedlectures and discussions for the subjectconcerned. Assignments for each MethodsCourse are closely linked with practicalteaching of the subject.

The Optional Courses consist of theformer 20 or so specialised options whichhave been re-grouped into five studies(Comparative, Development, Pedagogical,Psychological and Sociological) correspon-ding to the five Divisions of Faculty.Assignments for these courses are research-oriented and based on joint projects underthe supervision of the staff in charge ofthe respective courses. The five Divisionsare more than an administrative expedient,for, even though it is a relatively new typeof classification, the Faculty is convincedthat it has a viable set of main directions,in which, Faculty research is likely to exertits maximal impact. Whereas certain existingdisciplines would be confined to just oneDivision it is envisaged that some others,such as curriculum studies, could span acrossthe five Divisions, in which cooperativeprojects may be conducted.

In case some members of the audience areunfamiliar with the new terminology, herethen are statements about the Divisionsin encapsulated form:-

I. Comparative Studies in Educa-tion

The disciplines incorporated in thisDivision will concern the comparativestudy of various problems in educa-tional systems and organisations froma space-time perspective, with specialreference to Malaysia and South-eastAsia.

IL Development Studies in Educa-tion

The study of the relationshipbetween education and the develop-ment of societies through economic

VIVEKANANDA & SIM

growth, with particular emphasis onsuch problems as the functional roleof education and educational ad-ministration in the development ofhuman resource for economic growthand social welfare, will be the mainconcern of this Division.

III. Pedagogical Studies in EducationThe focus of the Division is on

the development of a theory ofteaching through the study of teachingbehavior and situations involvingspecialsied teaching, such as the useof educational technology and theteaching of exceptional children.

IV. Psychological Studies in Educa-tion

This Division will include behaviour-al Science disciplines connected withthe study of developmental and edu-cational changes in human behaviouras we as of the measurement andcounselling of such changes in

behaviour.

V. Sociological Studies in EducationThis Division is envisaged as com-

prising the disciplines arising from orassociated with the Social Sciences,such as educational sociology, lin-guistics, and other studies relating toproblems of human orgnaisation andcommunication, and will focus onthe analysis of the complex relation-ships between social factors and theeducational process.

Increasingly more facets of the curricu-lum are evaluated by a diversity ofmethods. Sometimes rather formal methodsof evaluation are employed, such as theassessment of the relative efficacies ofhaving 10 weeks of continuous practiceteaching in the schools as compared withonly 5 weeks in school followed by 5 weeksof micro-teaching and 5 weeks of micro-teaching followed by 5 weeks of classroomteaching. Evidence so far seems to suggestthat the last treatment is the most effective,but interpretations of the results of theexperiment are more involved and henceare beyond the scope of this paper.

t,245

More informal procedures, such as havingindividual discussions with students or a"jam" session with the entire student bodyto explore their moans and groans, have alsobeen adopted. Changes in the current year'steaching practice pattern are probablyattributable in large measure to Faculty'sacceptance of the students' criticisms.

The Faculty has also had a chance toassess the strengths and weaknesses ofstudents as a whole by item analysis of theresponses to each item or question in thewritten examination, in particular theobjective type paper. Some of the resultsof item analysis are highly revealing. Forexample, item analysis of the followingitem shows that very few students pickedC, the keyed answer, with the result that theitem has very low facility and a low discri-mination between the top third hild thebottom third of the students based on theoverall score on the objective paper:

"Which of the following Reports notedthat 'a school of Education in theUniversity of Malaya in Kuala Lumpurcould play a very helpful part in theorganisation of an adequate teachertraining programme?'

A. The Higher Education Report,1967,

B. The Aziz Commission Report,1969.

C.

D.

The Rahman Talib Report, 1960.

The Aitken Report on the Univer-sity of Malaya, 1957.

E. The Razak Report, 1956."

It is amazing that the largest numberpicked D, followed cl,ssely by A, for itsuggests that the majority were guessing atthe wrong cues, being apparently unawarethat the University of Malaya in KualaLumpur was established in 1958 in the caseof those who picked D.

Another similar example of a low facilityand poor discrimination item is as follows:

46

"The most legitimate criticism againstautomatic promotion is that it:

53

A. Increases the problems of class-room teaching.

B. Gives pupils an excuse not tostudy.

C. Gives teachers an opportunity toshirk responsibility.

Leads to poor examination results.

Overlooks individual differences".

D.

E.

Again, very few, the fewest in fact, chose thekeyed answer C. This is symptomatic of thepervading view that automatic promotion isnecessarily evil and that teachers are blame-less in such consequences as are depictedin responses, A, B, D and E of the question.This is an example of the confusion betweenmeans and ends, for it is the predominantattitude of teachers who pass on the buckwhenever they encounter a difficult childthat is solely responsible for the apparentdisadvantages of automatic promotion. Thisparticular example was ised as an illustrationin a lecture, in the hop that students couldlearn from the misconceptions of theirpredecessors.

3.2 Appraisal of Teaching PracticeObjectives and Priorities

One area which is undergoing systematicchange arising from the rigorous evaluationor review of the Diploma in Educationcurricula pertains to teaching practice.Earlier attempts at recommending organi-sational changes have tended to focus on thesolution of specific problems as perceivedby staff or students. While such an approachis legitimate and even fruitful, the remediesit suggests can lead only to the partialfulfilment of the explicit or implicit ob-jectives of teaching practice.

The Faculty however recognised thatuntil and unless it adopted a total systemsapproach to the problems which directly orindirectly affect teaching practice, involving,for instance, the clear definition of both ourobjectives and priorities for the selection ofoptimal programmes for their attainment,our various efforts may become unrealisticor even futile.

In attempting to derive objectives and

priorities in teaching practice, the basicassociated elements were considered to be:

a) Theory or course work fromlectures and discussions,

b) individual predispositions arisingfrom previous experiences orobservations,

c) the teaching practice experiences inthe school,

d) simulated teaching practice ex-

VIVEKANANDA & SIM

periences such as micro-teaching.

e) immediate future teaching situa-tions under existing constraints,and

f) ultimate future teaching situationsunder hopefully more idealconditions.

One way of arriving at the objectives ofteaching practice is to consider the inter-actions between pairs of elements as shownin the scheme below:-

(b) Predispoistiont

(Individual)

One important objective, derivable fromthe above scheme, is the intimate interplayof theory and practice. It suggests that thereshould be a closer tie-up between what aresuggested especially in Methods coursesand what are expected during teachingpractice. Thus, those who are going to beinvolved in teaching practice supervisionmust also be intimately involved at leastin the formulation of guidelines to beincorporated in the Methods Lectures.More important, ways and means ought tobe explored for staff to demonstrate thatthey do practice what they preach. Thismay be done either by means of actualdemonstration lessons in front of a liveclass with a few student observers or throughmicro-teaching, or else by showing that inplanning, conducting and evaluating lectures,the Faculty Staff are guided by a similarset of principles which we expect studentsto adopt when they plan, conduct andevaluate lessons which they teach.

Since students have different back-

(e) Teaching

(Actual)

I6

(f) Teaching

(Ideal)

grounds, in order that our programmes canbe made personally meaningful, indivi-dualised approaches need to be adopted sothat they can proceed at their own pace,perhaps, if possible, by a self-regulatedchoice of paths. The rigid time criterionwhich the Faculty has adopted in inflexiblyrequiring each and every student to undergoexactly 10 weeks of teaching practice istherefore oven to question. Instead theFaculty decided that it should applyperformance criterion wherever feasible:, sothat a student who has reached optimalcriterion performance need not be requiredto undergo further supervised teachingwhile conceivably there would be somewho require a longer period or closersupervision.

Some preliminary analysis of data onthe Science students' rating of microteaching experiences suggested that micro-teaching is regarded as less interesting,valuable and professionally challenging thanclassroom teaching practice. Despite the

47

majority indicating that they liked being partof an experiment, they were generally over-whelmed by the artificiality of the situationand were relatively unclear as to the ends tobe achieved by the micro-teaching ex-perience. It was therefore felt imperativethat, if micro-teaching is to be usefullyemployed to supplement and complementmicro- teaching, there should be closerlinkage between the two so that students areenabled to identify specific experiencesthat are transferable from one situationto another.

The Faculty felt also that the reasonwhy it has been relatively ineffectual insuggesting to the Diploma in Educationstudents the applicability of theory topractice is probably because the practicewe refer to is often rather remote from theexisting situations in schools, where a varietyof constraints operate to prevent at leastas perceived by students the practice ofprinciples from being meaningful. As long aswe urge students to prepare elaborate lessonnotes which they know they would not havetime to write out as regular teachers, aslong as we insist on inquiry methods withoutshowing how with the use of group methodsand sampling procedures the syllabus canbe "covered" in good time, as long as westress evaluation and the catering to indivi-dual differences without offering positiveand specific suggestions that are workablewithin the limitations of time at the teacher'sdisposal as long as we continually fail totake full cognisance rf the multitude ofconstraints which confront a regular teacher,we cannot expect our students to take oursuggestions seriously and, at most, theywould act in ways which they think wouldsatisfy us for the duration of the course.Hence, a priority objective was regarded asone of gearing the teaching practice ex-perience to the more realistic -sonditionsthat successful students would encounterin the immediate future.

Finally, the Faculty felt that it cannotof course neglect the possibility that withimproved conditions in schools, some ofits graduate teachers may be able to func-tion as effective and creative change agents.For this reason, they must be exposed toinnovative ideas and given opportunities

48

55

to evaluate them. However, the Facultyagreed that it ought to be made crystal clearthat it does not expect them to apply allthese ideas all the time.

To summarise, in evaluating alternativeplans for teaching practice and perhaps otheraspects of an overall teacher educationprogramme, the Faculty agreed that itshould examine the extent to which thefollowing objectives are likely to beattainable::-

(1) interplay of theory and practice,

(2) catering to individual differences,

(3) close-knitting of microteaching andmacroteaching

(4) attention to teaching under existingconstraints,

exposure to teaching underidealised conditions.

(5)

In accordance with the above considera-tions, the teaching practice arrangementsat the Faculty has undergone a completechange, hopefully for the better. In order tobring about closer correlation betweentheory and practice, the Faculty has beenable, by such means as the pairing up ofstudents in order that they could mutuallybenefit from joint planning and evaluation oflessons, the use of microteaching and thereduction in the teaching load to aminimum, since it is admittedly impossibleto approximate the actual load of theregular teacher and this fact is emphasisedconstantly , to confine the posting ofstudents to schools in the Petaling Jaya,Kuala Lumpur and Kiang areas, so as to bringthe students back in the afternoon fordiscussions on the principles of educationalpractice as well as the practice of educationalprinciples. In addition, through the kindspecification of topics likely to be taughtduring teaching practice by schools earlierin the year, it is possible for staff andstudents to discuss these "contracts" interms of structure and sequence, as well asmaterials required and problems likely tobe encountered, well before teachingpractice.

With flexibility in arrangements for both

microteaching and classroom teaching (ormacroteaching), it is possible to cater tothe individual needs of students in teachingpractice. Thus, in some cognate teams thedegree and nature of supervision for studentsvary according to needs, while in otherteams stronger students are employed toassist those who are weaker.

The microteaching is also less regimentedthan previously practised so that thenscaled-down lessons are used only byparticular students who wish to practise afew skills at a time. Throughout emphasisis made concerning the extent to which themicroteaching and macroteaching situationsare similar or different so that the strength'sof microteaching may be capitalised uponwhile its weaknesses could be used as take-off points to discuss what adjustments areneeded in the real classroom situation.

With the reduction of the number ofperiods required for teaching practice, itis similarly stressed constantly that in theactual situations, with heavier load, crowdedsyllabuses and large classes especially,special arrangements are needed and fromtime to time the attention of the studentteachers are drawn to finding promisingpractices to overcome pressing problemsof the classroom under existing constraints.

At the same time, since opportunitiesoften arise when teachers may have someoccasion to engage in more time-consumingpreparations of instructional aids or theschools may have such equipment asprojectors and tape recorders, the studentsare all exposed to a basic audio-visual course.Judging by the number of students whoturn up at the AVA workshop each after-noon or weekend, and by the more extensiveuse of instructional aids this year, it maytentatively be inferred that this venture isquite successful.

4.0 Some Concluding RemarksIn this paper we have attempted to

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provide brief giimpses of some of theprocesses and products of curriculumevaluation in teacher eudcation that havetaken, or are likely to take place in Malaysia.However, if we define curriculum evaluation,as we think we should, as the systematicand continuous process of gathering relevantdescriptive, explanatory and/or predictivedata in order to aid decision making withrespect to the curriculum, then our recentattempts are far from satisfactory, eventhough we seem to have gone a long wayfrom the pre-Independence ad hoc arrange-ments based on practically no evaluativeinformation regarding the appropriatecurricula for teacher education.

We still need better conceptualisationsthat will aid us in continuing to collectuseful data unimpeded by unavoidableconstriants such as new policy pronounce-ments or disproportionate increases inresponsibilities elsewhere. Perhaps bettercoordination among the different agenciesthat have a. stake in the ultimate productionof an effective and efficient teacher isnecessary. There ought also to be continuityin the information available from separateagencies who deal, with a potential or trainedteacher at different times of his life span.In terms of a teacher education institution,incoming background data and outgoingfollow-up data are as important, if not moreimportant, than the transactional data whichwe tend to accumulate. Perhaps too, amuch neglected area involves the process ofcommunication concerning the importanceof and results from curricula evaluationin teacher education. We need to convinceboth purveyors and consumers of curriculain teacher education not only of the need toevaluate but also of the importance ofevaluating accurately and adequately,systematically and continuously. Muchremains to be done in the evaluation ofteacher education curricula in Malaysia byway of fostering better conceptualisation,coordination, continuity and communica-tiun.

I In Malaysia, primary schooling comprises six grades (Staudards 1-6), after which pupils can proceedautomatically up to Form III where they sf.. the Lower Certificate of Education public

49

examination. Usually less then 20% would continue with Upper Secondary education, terminatingeither in a School Certificate at Form V or with a High School Certificate after a further twoyears at Form VI level.

2 Report of the Royal Commission on the Teaching Service, West Malaysia. Government Printers,1968, p. 2.

3 Report on Education Syllabus for Secondary Training Colleges and Regional Training Centres.Ministry of Education. p. 1.

4 Preamble to Education Act, 1961..5 Chang, Paul. "A Paper Prepared by the F.I.S. on the Re;liew of Teacher Training Policy", 1969.6 Sim Wong Kooi. "A Preliminary Statement on the Rational Formulation of Aims of Teacher Training

in Malaysia". 17th March, 1969.

SO 57

EVALUATION OF TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULA

The favorite model for curriculumevaluation is the one used in industry, viz.,measuring the product against the functionit is supposed to perform. For teachereducation curricula following this modelwould yield the question: Does a givencurriculum perform its function ofproducing teachers who, in turn, performtheir function, viz., produce good 'earningsin their pupils? The application of thisdesign has been hobbled by our inabilityto agree upon any significant criteria forgood teaching and for good teachers.1 Inthis field of inquiry mountainous labors haveproduced puny mice, so that one recentwell-known summary of research concludedthat "There are no clear conclusions."'

This is hardly surprising if one thinksabout the nature of the research into thisproblem. For the most part, it has consistedof asking school administrators, supervisors,teachers, prospective teachers, teachereducators, pupils, parents, and almostanyone else willing to answer a question-naire, what they regarded as the characteris-tics of the "good" teacher; what coursesthey regarded as most or least useful. Inas much as this wide variety of personneloccupied a wide variety of roles in theeducational enterprise, and thereforeviewed it from the perspective of theirindividual roles, it could be expected thatthe list of traits would be large and theorganization of them into some explanatoryscheme would be well nigh impossible, evenif semantic uniformity with respect to theterms could be achieved.

Perhaps it is time to turn back from thisblind allay to ask afresh: "In what sense canone regard teaching in general and theteaching of teachers as a linear, clearlyidentifiable process?" Perhaps an under-standing of this query will lead to a morerealistic model for evaluation of the teachereducation curriculum.

Dr. Harry S. Broudy,

College of Education,University of Illinois, USA

Levels of ProcessFor one thing, the process into which

educational research has been probing is nota physical process such as oxidation, thecirculation of the blood, or the growth ofcorn. If it were, it hardly could haveeluded so eager and massive a search bymethods alleged to be rigorously empiricaland scientific.

There is, I am sure, a physical process atthe basis of learning. in another 25 yearsor so, conferences on teaching-learning maywell be addressed by neuropharmacologistswho will propose the control of 'earningsby drugs; brain physiologists who will beable to stimulate neural regions to controllearning, and computer scientists who willhave created astonishing analogues of thehuman brain. May I suggest that if this isthe kind of process we have in mind whenwe talk of teaching, we would be welladvised to leave it to the physiologists,chemists, and neurologists to investigate;educators will not find the answer to thiskind of secret.

The kind of process that educationistsdo investigate has a psychological texture.This process presumably supervenes on thephysiological Rite and has for its elements,rather than calls, molecules, and atoms,ideas, images, feeling tones, etc. If we couldonly ascertain the laws of succession ofthese elements, we could control and predictthe flow of experience in the pupil.

Well, we do have generalizations oi thiskind: the laws of assoication of ideas is one;Gestalt theory has contributed some others;Freudian theory offers us an hypothesis,and, of course, operant conditioning stillanother. We do have educational theoriesbased more or less on these and similarlearning theories. Why, thcn, is our problemno nearer to solution?

51

One answer, of course, is that the kindof !earnings we promote in schools involvemany more factors than the learnings ofexperiments on which these theories (Freudexcepted, perhaps) are based. If the goal ofschooling were to teach only maze runningskills, for example, there would be no greatdifficulty. Neither would there be an in-surmountable problem if teaching werereduced to the application of reinforcementschedules so that preprogrammed responsesof any sort would be facilitated or inhibited.Unfortunately it is easier to devise mechani-cal models of teachers than of pupils, andstrangely enough, if we were successful inproducing men and women who wereperfectly efficient teaching machines andpupils who were perfectly efficient learningmachines, we should forthwith disown bothas monstrous.

The more obvious reason for this reactionis that human learning means learning some-thing more than a repertiore of responseswith which to respond mechanically or evenlogically to stimuli. Human learning, welike to think, is a liberation from suchrobot-like responding; not an abandonmentof correctness, to be sure, but a freedomto reconstruct the pattern of response interms of foresight, aspiration, imagination,and commitment. Now so long as one thinksof teaching-learning as a psychologicalprocess that can be described as an invariableseries of causally related events, the modelis a machine, and teaching is a form ofhuman engineering. This concept of humanlearning, however, is precisely the one whichevaluators of the curriculum at any levelof education are anxious to deny.

Again, I have no doubt but that learning-teaching can be described as a processionof psychological events, and that these inturn can be traced to physiological events.But there is a sense in which psychologicalanalysis of learning tell us much morethan we want to know about phenomenain which our interest is relatively low, e.g.,rats running mazes, learning non-sensesyllables, salivating dogs, reaction time tovarious stimuli, and the like. This does notdenigrate the scientific import and interestof such studies, but about school learningsin real school situations they tell us littlethat teachers do want to know about. In

52

other words, "human" learning operatesin a domain in which meanings rather thanevents as such are central. Superveningupon the physiological and psychologicalseries of events is the realm of meaning orhuman import. The important point aboutthis realm is that meanings are not relatedto each other causally as we believe allevents to be. The lightning causes thethunder, the pull of the moon, we believe,causes the tides, and the repetition of aresponse causes it to be "fixed." But thereis an important sense in which 2+2=4 is notthe cause of 4+4=8. The relation betweenthese two concepts, we say, is logical. Therelation between the meaning "democraticsociety" and "representative form ofgovernment" is not one of cause but logical;the relation between the meanings of "rose"and "beatitude" is not causal but poetic.The relation between the meanings of"commitment" and "ideals" is moral ratherthan causal.

Moreover, we can understand themeaning of the multiplication table withoutknowing what events in the brain areoccurring when we understand it; thefragrance of a rose is not equivalent tothe organic processes by which roses grow.Conversely, not all the knowledge abouthow people learn to love their neighborscan give us any valid reason for lovingthem, much less give rise to the notionthat one ought to love them.

The great intellectual disciplines aresystems of such meanings, and they arenot organized on the basis of psychologicallaws, but on logical, moral, and aestheticones. If formal schooling has as its majorgoal the organization of pupils' experienceso that it becomes organized as analogousmeaning systems, the guidance from phy-siology and psychology for teaching is farfrom sufficient.

There are, then, at least three levels onwhich human learning occurs, and they maybe illustrated by a man reading a sign whichsays, "Twenty miles to Paradise Hotel."At the physiological level, his eyes andbrain as well as the whole chemicalsystem of his body enable him to formimages of the letters on the sign. Psychologi-cally, a series of images and ideas are

Orn.rzvs,).

initiated (according to the laws of associa-tion, etc.) by which he translates the lettersinto symbols. And finally, at the third level,he construes the meaning of these symbolsin terms of their import for him as atraveler.

It is to be noted that each level dependson the one beneath it for its existence, yetcannot be reduced to it. Somehow to saythat my tor,thache is nothing more thanthe excitation of a nerve net is to ssiysomething false, even if we do not doubtthat without such an excitation there mihtbe no toothache. The psychological lieveladds consciousness to the physiological 4eveland therewith a new dimension. The me/ ninglevel adds human purpose to the psychologi-cal and physiological dimensicyns ofexperience.

Because the upper two levels achieve ameasure of what Gordon Allport called"functional autonomy," the laws of eachlevel can only provide limiting conditionsfor the events in the one above it, but giveno way of predicting and producing anyspecific even. Thus the laws of mechanicscannot be violated if we are to constructan efficient automobile, but no amount ofknowledge of mechanics can prescribe thatone should build automobiles or whichkind of automobile one should build. Forthis we need the category of human purpose.Similarly, good teaching cannot violatepsychological laws, but from these laws verylittle can be predicted or prescribed in theway of curriculum or teaching strategy. Itis as if the traveler reading the signpost whodid not understand the language in which itwas written asked about its meaning andwas given a lecture on the laws of optics bywhich the letters became visible.

Accordingly, while one may think of theteacher education curriculum as a cause ofthe teacher performance and the teacherperformance as a cause of the pupil per-formance and seek generalizations about thecausal sequence, it may be a little beside thepoint to do so if the important transactionsin human teaching and learning are carriedon within the domain of meanings. Thereally significant relationships may have tobe sought in the meanings systems that haveorganized our culture and the way in which

BROUDY

individual human learners use them inorganizing their own experience.

Content and Method

the standard division of the teacher-training curriculum into content and methodassumes that what is to be taught to thepupil can be taken from the realm ofmeaning and import, ,while method is a setof procedures that is justified by psycholo-gical principles of learning.

However, if we have learned anythingfrom the recent development in curriculum,it is that these notions of content andmethod are far too simplistic. If method isa way of teaching, then it includes morethan psychologically based techniques. Forexample, when one uses logic to help explainthe new mathematics, this is not a techniquein the ordinary sense of the word, and it isnot psychological. The logic is itself acontent a cognate content but it is notincluded explicitly in the content whichis taught to the pupil. The methodologyof teaching has to include a special kind ofcontent and is therefore more than appliedpsychology, whereas the content has to gobeyond what is taught to the pupil, i.e., it ismore than a slab of replicable subjectmatter. If we are to broaden the concepts ofcontent and method, there will be corres-ponding changes in the curriculum forteacher eudcation and in the criteria forevaluation of the curriculum. As far ascognate content is concerned, it is not safeto take for granted that content for teachingwith will be acquired as part of the generaleducation of the student or by highlyspecialized study of a given subject. In theUnited States, at least, there is no uniformpattern of requirements for general education,while advanced work in a subject is moreadequate preparation for research andscholarship in a subject than for teaching it.The role of cognate content in the trainingof teachers is an important issue and isone of the more promising areas in whicheducationists and subject matter scholarscan collaborate. In the new standards forthe accreditation of teacher education inthe United States, cognate content or specialcontent is recognized as part of theprofessional curriculum.3

53

As for methods, there are too manyconfusions and issues to be discussed evenin one book, let alone in a paper of thiskind. However, as pertains to evaluation,the issue, it seems to me, lies in a choicebetween "methods or techniques" on theone hand, and "methodology or technology"on the other. The suffix derived from logosis crucial because it refers to the role oftheory in teacher training, and, accordingly,it is the pivot upon which one evaluatesa curriculum as being of professional gradeor not. These notions, in turn, are relatedto the amount of autonomy teachers candemand in the exercise of their functions.

Two sorts of question arise in thisconnection. How professional, i.e., just howtheory-based can teacher training curriculabe, and how far ought they to be? Theargument for the professional curriculumis based on the assumption that rule-following technicians will not be flexibleenough to meet the complex and shiftingdemands of the learning situation. How canthe modern teacher take account of theindividual differences of his pupils, how canhe take account of cultural and economicfactors in the learning situation, how canhe manage the knowledge explosion byfollowing rules?

The Pivotal Role of TheoryIf the modern demands on the teacher

are to be taken seriously and what thesedemands are can easily be inferred fromthe troubles in our schools and collegesand in the social and political turmoil ofthe day then there is no alternative to acurriculum in which theory that enables thepractitioner to be rational about rules playsa prominent part. But what sort of theoryis available for this purpose?

By "applying theory" one usually has inmind something like the use of chemicaltheory to guide the manufacture of syntheticfabrics or the science of mechanics to guidethe work of the engineer. Let us call thisapplicational theory. In education this mightbe represented by the application of theSkinnerian theory of operant conditioningto the designing of teaching machines. Orone might formulate rules of class manage-ment from the principles of group dynamics.

54 61

Alas, the amount of empirical theory thatcan be applied to practice in educationin this way is pitifully small, but whateverthere is of it certainly belongs in a curricu-lum that has any pretensions to professionalcalibre. These constitute the behavioralfoundations of teaching.

For the most part, however, the theorythat one finds in the teacher trainingcurriculum is of another sort. Principlesof education, philosophy of education,social foundations of education, history ofeducation are some of the more commontitles. They purport to place the aims ofeducation, the curriculum, the teaching-learning process, and the organization ofthe schools in a rational context with theaid of concepts from the parent disciplines.To do this, the nature of man, the natureof society, the relation or lack of relation toGod are made explicit. At a somewhat lowerlevel of generality, the place of the schoolin the social order and its role in creating anddealing with the problems of the society arediscussed. The degrees of rigor, order, andsophistication of these courses vary over agreat range from common sense reflectionon life to technical treaties.

It should be noted that in. these coursesthe type of theory is not empirical in thesense that a physical science or even abehavioral science claims to be empirical.Aside from history, there is no close relationto fact; the social theory is based on socialphilosophy rather than an empirical socio-logy; the psychology is more philosophicalthan derived from laboratory experiments.There is also a good deal of philosophicalanthropology.

From such general humanistic studies norules for pedagogical practice can be deducedwithout a generous use of the imagination.Consequently, their usefulness for theteacher is questioned, especially by theprospective teacher. Some critics say theyshould be eliminated altogether, and thatthe teacher's general education will takecare of providing this sort of background.Others, who sense some value in thesestudies, believe they can be postponed untilafter the teacher has acquried some ex-perience in the classroom postpone, so tospeak, for in-service training. On this view,

the pupils taught by the beginning teacherpresumably can forego this value.

The point, therefore, is whether thesestudies are useful in some sense other thanas a source of rules to be applied topractice. This is an issue in all generalstudies, and in the role of foundationalstudies in any professional curriculum. Themost plausible defense of them is to pointout that they provide the context ofpractice rather than the rules for practice.Thus understanding the sociology of povertydoes not directly give rules for healing thediseases of the poor, but the dietaryprescriptions that a physician might give tothe poor will avoid serious errors if he doesunderstand the social dimensions. Knowledgeof social context therefore affects thegeneral strategy of education, of appraisingthe teaching situation in many dimensions,and for making decisions that take accountof these dimensions. It is what KarlMannheim referred to as "correlationalthinking" as opposed to the linear thinkingof the technician

Now it may be and one devoutlyhopes that it will be soon that thebehavioral sciences of empirical psychology,sociology, anthropology, and the like willprovide educationists with more applica-tional theory from which rules of procedurecan be derived. This would provide us witha methodology and technology. But asmatters now stand, the applicational theoryis not very significant whereas the inter-pretive theory derived from the humanisticdisciplines is plentiful but not applicationalin the ordinary sense of the term.5

There are really no satisfactory responsesto this predicament. First, one mightpromiSe that the humanistic foundations(interpretive theories) can be applied andthat study of them will help the teacher insolving everyday problems. Such promisesare the rule rather than the exception, butthey merely embitter teachers when thepromised help does not eventuate. Thisbitterness is then reflected in the judgmentthat teachers pass on their teacher trainingprograms. In answer to questionnaires, theydismiss virtually all theory courses as awaste of time because they gave noimmediate help in keeping order in the

BROUDY

classroom, in finding recommendedmaterials in impoverished school systems,in motivating children from homes in whichschool learnings were not highly esteemed.

Second, there is the alternative ofeliminating all theory and reducing theteacher training curriculum to the practiceof rule following. On this alternative, onemight still claim that the training wasprofessional or candidly admit that it wasnot: Either of the latter choices is anabandonment of the professional ideal, butthe latter one is more honest.

Among these responses I believe thatthe most preferable is to admit that wemust rely pretty heavily on interpretivetheory, but to stress the need and usefulnessof such theory in setting our educationalproblems into their appropriate contextpsychological, historical, philosophical,societal. Together with the cognate content,these constitute the concepts one teacheswith. That they cannot be applied in theordinary sense of prescribing rules ofprocedures does not make them useless,but it is a use of which the user is very oftenunaware until he compares himself withothers who do not have this context-building materials, or until in his ownteaching he reaches an impass because thereis a gap in context that he cannot remedy.

The importance of interpretive theory iswitnessed by the almost frantic attemptsof such well- established professions as en-gineering and medicine to correct the socialand philosophical myopia of their membersas regards context relevance. For teachingthe need is even more urgent because itsonly alternative to this kind of theorizingis mindless rule-following or trail and error.6

Next in order to preference is the frankabandonment of the professional ideal andto train teachers to the rule-following levelof competence.

The rule-following teacher needs (1) toknow rules that cover the various classes ofteaching situations and (2) sufficientfamiliarity with a wide variety of classroomsituations so that he can choose the appro-priate rule. The type of training requiredfor this sort of competence would haveto provide for (1) familiarity only with the

8255

content or tasks to be taught, (2) practice inas wide a variety of situations as it is feasibleto provide, (3) sufficient guidance tofamiliarize the practitioner with the "right"procedures and the rules that determinewhich procedures are "right." This kindof competence roughly corresponds to whatis expected of a craftsman, a mechanic orcarpenter who receives his training byapprenticeship.

This model of the classroom teacherwhich to my mind is far better than apseudo-professional one is much appre-ciate both by teachers and by schooladministrators. With time, the teacher cancoped reasonably well with all standardsituations. He can control the classroom,keep activity orderly and moving forward,use prescribed textbooks and follow teacherguides. He acquires the confidence andcompetence that comes from familiarityfrom recognizing a situation as being one"like the one I had at such and such atime." Even high-level professionals wouldnot swap this sort of experiential familiarityfor a book full of brilliant theory. Certainlyif we are about to undergo surgery, wewould feel more assured if the surgeon werelonger on practice than on theory. And, ofcourse, this makes sense, for to have hada long professional career means to havesurvived a great many trials with no errorssufficiently grave to have driven one out ofthe profession. Furthermore, children'slearning problems, like their other ailments,tend, for the most part, to be standard ones.Hence the great preference for practice andexperience. If one were to name the onemost pervasive criticism of teacher educa-tion at least in the United States it isthat the beginning teacher has not hadsufficant familiarity with children andclassrooms; that his work at the trainingschool was too theoretical, i.e., too remotefrom the concrete problems of the class-room. Hence most of the innovationsproposed in teacher training in the UnitedStates are schemes to increase the student'sfamiliarity with the problems of the class-room as soon as possible and to stay withthese concrete situations as long as possible.While apprenticeship is the most obviousway of accomplishing this, electronicsimulation as in microteaching is a popular

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surrogate.

The drawbacks to a teacher-trainingcurriculum that consists solely of practiceand rule following is that (1) it provides nointelligent way of coping with the non-standard situation and each situation is ina sense non-standard, and (2) unless theteacher builds up through intuition asensitivity to the need for context, theteaching becomes mechanical, wooden, andleans increasingly to rote performance ofone kind or another.

Evaluation StrategyIt should be clear, therefore, that the

first act in the evaluation of the curriculumis to ascertain the claims that the institutionmakes explicitly or implicitly. If it claimsto provide a professional curriculum, thenone has a right to expect a full panoplyof the humanistic and behavioral founda-tional studies, context to teach and cognatecontent to teach with.

The foundational part of the curriculummight well be common to the preparation ofall educational workers, for at the pro-fessional level it is reasonable to expect thatteachers, administrators, supervisors, andcounselors will become apt in supplyingthe philosophical, historical, societal, andpsychological contexts for the standardproblems in education. I have in mindsuch problems as those pertaining to theformulation and justification of aims,curriculum, organization of the schoolsystem, and, of course, teaching learning.

But at the professional level there hasto be a segment of the curriculum thelargest perhaps which deals with theproblems of practicing one's specialty: ele-mentary teaching, or the teaching of reading,teaching handicapped children, supervision,etc. It is in this segment of the curriculumthat methodology (not simply method) basedon as reliable knowledge as we have finds itsplace. In this section of the curriculum wecan distinguish (a) theory-laboratory coursespertaining to such aspects of one's specialtyas the choice of materials, evaluation andtesting, lesson planning, classroom manage-ment, (b) clinical experience, in which realindividual situations are studied under thesupervision of the master teacher, (c) intern-

ship, or experience in a real school withrelatively little supervision, (d) experiencein research, primarily as a consumer butwith some work as a producer.

If, however, the curriculum makes nosuch professional claims, what has beensaid above about the requirements for ule-following could constitute the wholecurriculum, and it could be evaluated inthese terms. Even here it would be dangerousto follow. If the process-product is the pupilof the teacher being trained, then all sortsof variables that have little to do with thetraining program become operative. How-ever, one can demand that the rule-followingknowledge and procedures be tested at theend of the teacher training program a sortof end-of-course type of evaluation.

Role DifferentiationAs long as the ideal of a high-grade

personality skilled in the art of teaching forevery classroom persists, there will be greatresistance to admitting that claims toproviding professional training has beenabandoned. instead there will be thetemptation to substitute rhetoric about thelove of chiithen and the nobility of theteacher's calling for the time and intellectualquality needed to carry out the requirementsof a truly professional curriculum. Asbetween pseudo-professional programs thatproduce teachers who are neither pro-fessionals nor good technicians and thosethat really turn out good technicians only,the latter, it seems to me, are preferable.This alternative would mean, however, thatthe non-technician competance that weseem to want in our schools would have tobe provided by a different set of personnel.

It may be that no country even therichest can afford the resources neededfor providing a fully professional teacherfor every classroom, and it may be that ifwe could train technicians for most class-room functions, we might be able to afforda much smaller cadre at the professionallevel for decision-making, supervision, andthose aspects of education that involve theperson-to-person encounter as an essentialcomponent. I have in mind conseling, groupand individual, discussion, seminar work,project development, etc.

BROUDY

One such possibility is to give overdidactics, i.e., explicit instruction of explicitcontent to programmed learning, with orwithout the aid of machines. Teachersmilled to the rule-following level couldmanage this aspect of instruction, and theycould be trained to this level with probablyno more than two years of post secondarywork.

Some of these "encounter teachers"might be trained in the fashion of socialworkers and psychological group counselors;but others might qualify by experiencewith children and youth in various formsof community work. The attempt to com-bine skill in didactics and human relationsin the same person has been not the leastof the causes of the failure of teachertraining programs. Combining disparaterequirements merely reduces the chances offinding them in many individuals. Didacticsasks the teacher to function as an efficientmachine; encounter teaching as a warm,sensitive, concerned person. Most teachersworry about didactics, and quite predictablythey act as fairly inefficient machines. Thechances for a well programmed machineproviding highly individualized instructionin didactics are better than for a live teacherdoing so. But machines cannot deal withpersons as persons because they are notpersons, but neither can live teachers dealwith persons as persons unless they them-selves are rather special kinds of persons.The number of human beings who canqualify for both types of teaching is boundto be far smaller than one would desire.Hence most teachers are unsuccessfulteachers and inevitably the curriculum ofteacher training institutions is blamed forthe failure.

SummaryEvaluation of curriculum of teacher

education, I would conclude from theseconsiderations, cannot be carried on bysimply aping the process of product evalua-tion in industry. Instead one shoulddifferentiate, in the first place, among thelevels of training to which the institutionappires. In the second place, within theselevels the general criterion might be theextent to which a curriculum contains thoseingredients or components of content and

57

method that a teacher needs to teach andto teach with. Finally, the evaluator mightwell examine the provisions the curriculummakes for didactic teaching and encounterteaching and the claims it makes for each.

Can one identify these components ofthe curriculum in the product? Some can beidentified at the end of the training, e.g., thecontent and techniques. Other components,however, operate tacitly, especially thosecomponents of the curriculum that we have

referred to as cognate content and inter-pretive theory. Evidence of these elementsmay not be easy to find, for the user ofthese in many instances has to forget themexplicitly in order for them to functiontacitly. Only when the user is comparedwith a teacher whose training did not includethem is the difference apparent. Above all,the role of evaluation is to prevent student,institution, and the public from accepting apseudo-professional curriculum for the realthing.

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1 H.S. Broudy, "Can we Define Good Teaching?" The Record, LXX (April 1969), pp. 583-92.2 B. Berelson and G.A. Steiner, Human Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings (New York:

Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964), p. 44.3 "Recommended Standards for Teacher Education," Washington, D.C.: AACTE, 1969, p. 5.4 Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1940).

5 On the role of the foundational studies, cf. HS. Broudy, "The Role of the Foundational Studies inthe Preparation of Teachers in S. Elam, ed., Improving Teacher Education in the U.S., Blooming-ton, Ind.: Kappa Delta Pi, 1967, pp. 1-22, and W.O. Stanley, The Social Foundations Subjectsin the Professional Education of Teachers, "Educational Theory, Summer 1968, s: 224-36.

6 The defense of interpretive theory is set forth more explicitly in Broudy, B.O. Smith, and Joe R.Burnett, Democracy and Excellence in American Secondary Education, Chicago: sandMcNally, 1964, but in the last few years I have beccme more and more convinced that itsplausibility is enhanced by a theory of tacit knowing as developed by Michael Polanyi in hisPersonal Knwoledge, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964, and many other writings.

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CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATIONIN THE PHILIPPINES

It was with great pleasure that thePhilippine Government accepted the invita-tion of the Faculty of Education, Universityof Malaya and the AACTE to participatein this conference on "Evaluation of Curri-culum on Teacher Education." We congra-tulate the planners of this conference forselecting a very fitting theme. Never beforehas the role of the teacher been challengedso vigorously. This may be attributed to thedynamic forces that are changing our societywith bewildering .-peed. As educators we areat once observers and participants in thiscomplex phenomenon.

The birth of new nations in Asia, Africaand other parts of the world has intensifiedthe feeling of nationalism amongst ourpeoples. OUr countries have entered a newperiod of economic, social and culturaldevelopment at a relatively fast rate. Studentpower and activism have spread on ourcampuses: Our students have artic&tedboth their own as well as the people'sgrievances because they IMO been providedwith a means in their education, They havecome full circle beca0Se, finally, they arequestioning the relevance of formal educa-tion itself. As educators, We realize morethan ever before, that our students, at alllevels, cannot and should not be taken forgranted. All these forces have impingedon our post World War II society.

The teacher is the key to the educationalprocess. His responsibility to the student isthe most important element in the educa-tional enterprise. The quality of his educa-tion, as provided in teacher educationinstitutions, is of paramount importancein planning educational reforms; for noscheme of school or curriculum change cantake the place of good teaching.

We are witnesses to examples of mis-directed teacher education in former

Dr. Paz G. Ramos &Dr. Julietta M. Savellano

University of the Philippines.

colonies and developing nations. As a resultof alien perspectives foisted on their culturesand educational systems, such countriesnow fmd themselves at the crossroads,seeking new directions.

This is indeed a difficult task confrontingthose whose job it is to charter the courseof teacher education in these countries.The impact of alien culture, standards andobjectives, the temptation to resort to short-cuts, the pressures on educational systemsfrom within and without, and worst, theindifference to the need for developingindigenous programs, may militate againstreforms in teacher education in thesecountries.

However, this conference as well asothers held in the recent past is indicativeof a positive trend in teacher education.In the Philippines, our thinking and effortsto review and improve our teacher educationcurricula have been summarized by theSecretary of Education, Dr. Onofre D.Corpus, in his address at the openingceremony of the Regional Meeting ofTeacher Educators in Asia held at theUniversity of the Philippines on September23, 1969, as follows:'

" We are looking forward to a situationwhere our teachers are trained to teachour pupils Philippine studies that willstamp our education with the spirit ofFilipinism, the ethics and charactertraining that will be conducive to orderin our society, and the science and tech-nology that will generate that tensionbetween tradition and modernization toproduce progress. In short, we hope toachieve a focus on our national culture,stability in society and tension that is theprerequisite and character of develop-ment."

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These ultimate goals of teacher educationharmonize closely with the objectives ofeducation as provided for in the PhilippineConstitution which are to develop moralcharacter, personal discipline, civic con-science, vocational efficiency and to teachthe duties of citizenship.

A. Status of Teacher TrainingInstitutions in the Philippines

Today, there are 320 teacher traininginstitutions in the Philippines. Eighty-nineper cent of these are privately supported andthe rest are state endowed. Their annualoutput is 50,000 graduates out of whom90 per cent come from private institutionsand only 10 percent from state-supportedschools. Of this number between 12,000 to15,000 can be employed. While there isan oversupply of teachers, there is an under-supply in certain subjects such as science,mathematics, art, music and social studies.

The General Education Policies report ofthe National Board of Education in 1958states that the teacher education programshould provide prospectb e teachers withthe following:

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1. A broad general education.

2. Intimate knowledge and deep under-standing of children -nd of the mosteffective means of helping youngpeople develop and learn to the fullest.

3. Resourcefulness and proficiency in thepreparation of curriculum materialsand in the use of local communityresources for vitalizing and enrichingthe education of children.

4. Knowledge and understanding of theneeds, materials, methods and psy-chology of fundamental and adulteducation, including arrangements andprocedures for the continuing educa-tion of dropouts.

5. Understanding and knowledge of thedynamics of the democratic groupprocess and skill for their utilizationin group thinking, decision and action.

6. Adequate professional laboratory ex-periences in school and communityincluding off-campus student teaching

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in typical community schools.

This paper was prepared on the basis ofthe following permises:

1. There are compelling reasons for anevaluation of teacher-education in thePhilippines today.

2. Evaluation of teacher edcuationprograms must be done within thecontext of unique Philippine condi-tions, needs and goals and at the sametime keep within the framework ofgenerally accepted principles inteacher-education.

3. For the benefit of all, teacher-educa-tion institutions must share theirexperiences, resources, facilities, andexpertise to strengthen their curricularofferings.

4. Curriculum evaluation in teacher-education must go hand in hand witheffective measures of recruiting,admitting and retaining capable youngpeople in the teaching profession.

B. Need for Curriculum Evaluationin Teacher Education in thePhilippines

A carefully planned and systematicreappraisal of teacher education is animperative in the Philippines as it is in othercountries today. Several reasons may becited for this but perhaps there will besingled out:

1. The demand for change andfor relevance V. basic goal.

Student activism is deeplyrooted in the students' demand forchanges in curricular offerings andacademic requirements to make thesemore relevant to the times. In a deve-loping country like the Philippines wherenational development is the basic goal,it is necessary to look at teacher educa-tion in the light of its contribution to thisgoal. Of course this will also mean astudy of the meaning of national deve-lopment in order to determine better theskills and knowledge teachers need to beable to contribute to its attainment. But

national development is so much rehtoricunless we can specify its particularmeaning for teacher education. To thedegree that teachers can stimulate avigorous spirit of inquiry, of willingnessto experiment, to venture into hithertounexplored fields of knowledge, to thatextent it would be contributing tonational development. Teaching is in-directly but significantly related to theurgent need to find a niche for everyindividual in a developing country'seconomy.

2. Changing and expanding roleof teachers.

It is a truism that changes insociety affect schools and society'sexpectations of teachers.Roles of teachersare increasing in variety and complexity.The traditional function of schools hasbeen the conservation and transmissionof coltural heritage. To this was addedthe function of providing the studentswith skill and knowledge to cope withchanges and to think for themselves.What experiences should be included inthe teacher education program to developamong prospective teachers an adequateunderstanding of these complex 4ndmultifarious roles?

To what extent is the teachereducation program helping prospectiveteachers "become" teachers rather thanmerely teaching them how to teach? Hasit considered the adoption of tile "self asinstrument" concept to teacher-educa-tion? 2

3. Curriculum development andresearch in the differentsubjects and related disciplines.

In countries like the UnitedStates, the last decade has witnessedtremendous curricular development inthe different subjects. Research offeringnew insights into learning, structure ofsubject matter, cognitive organization,readiness, motivation, teacher behavior,and classroom communication are on-going studies. In the Philippines since themiddle 60's several agencies have alsobeen involved in curricular projects

RAMOS & SAVELLANO

especially in the sciences, mathematics,health education, social studies andEnglish. Have teacher-education programsbeen cognizant of these developmentsand of research?

C. Status of Curriculum Evaluationof Teacher Education in thePhilippines.

To date, no systematic, coordinatedefforts to evaluate Philippine teacher educa-tion can be reported, be it on a nationalor school level. However, some past attemptsto study the problem on selected aspectsmight be mentioned.

One such attempt is the study of theprofessional preparation program of theBachelor of Science in Elementary Educa-tion curriculum in 1968 at the Universityof the Philippines.3 Its objective was todetermine how students, alumni andfaculty members view the professionalpreparation program of the BSEEd curricu-lum. The study also attempted to get theirview of the proposed program.

This study was limited to the professionalcourses in the curriculum. On the basis ofcriteria adopted for the professional prepara-tion of prospective elementary schoolteachers, a questionnaire was prepared.Twenty students, twenty three alumni andten faculty members constituted tilerespondents.

At this juncture, it should be noted thatthe BSEEd program in the University of thePhilippines was initiated only in November1961, and has not attracted a sizablenumber of students. The present enrollmentis only 17, a very small number whencompared to Bachelor of Science in Educa-tion program for future secondary schoolteachers which has an enrollment of 110.

Findings based on the questionnaireshowed that the alumni tended to thinkmore favorably of the program than thestudents. Attitude levels ranging fromfavorable to highly favorable were observedregarding the different professional courses.

On the whole, the respondent groupfavorably rated the professional preparationprogram.

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The conclusions arrived at reflectedcertain needs among which are a need for acontinuing evaluation of the program bythe college staff and alumni, a need formore relevant involvement of laboratoryschool teachers in the teaching ofprofessional courses like the methodscourses and a need to study the possibilityof a major in the BSEEd program.

This study was cited because, while itwas limited to the professional preparationprogram, it attempted to involve thedifferent groups of respondents in line withour democratic values.

Another survey worth mentioning is thestudy of the teacher education programsin the sciences and mathematics conductedin 1968-69 by the National Science Develop-ment Board and the Science EducationCenter of the University of the Philippinesin cooperation with the Department ofEducation.4 One purpose of the study wasto gather information which could be takenas the basis for the selection of teachertraining institutions that might be developedinto regional science teaching centres.

Through questionnaires, checklists andobservation visits of survey teams, thenecessary information was gathered.

The number of institutions finallyincluded in the study was trimmed fromthe 185 that answered the questionnaire to57 recommended by the Steering Com-mittee. Factors relating to geographicallocation, ease of communication, and poten-tialities for development and adminsitrationwere considered. Of fifty seven, twenty twowere finally selected for visits of surveyteams.

The twenty two institutions showedlimited enrollment in sciences and mathe-matics, especially the latter. More schoolsoffered majors in biology, general scienceand mathematics than physics andchemistry. The number of science subjectsoffered ranged from 10 to 39 and from10 to 14 in mathematics.

The survey teams also attempted toevaluate the institutions in terms of po-tentialities for leadership in teacher-educa-tion, attitudes and ideas of staff on their

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G9

role in science education, their conceptionof science education and the extent to whichthe school structure could lend itself toeffective implementation of teacher-education programs.

The limited faculty in science and mathe-matics and the meager enrollment in theseareas in teacher -education institutionssurveyed is quite disturbing especially ifconsidered in the light of the curriculumprojects in these subjects. In spite of thenumerous materials available to teachers,the teacher-education programs seemed notto accommodate them for the training ofprospective teachers.

Based on projections of teachers neededin science and mathematics in the futureyears, the situation seems critical.

This study was mentioned because itreflected an urgent need of the country tolook more carefully into its teacher-education program.

In 1969, three units of the U.P. ScienceEducation Center, College of Arts andSciences and the College of Educationinitiated a program on the graduate levelfor teacher educators from the 10 teachertraining institutions recommended by thesurvey. It is encouraging to note that inaddition to thG present sponsors of theprogram, NSDB, UNICEF and Departmentof Education, other international and privatefoundations have shown interest in theproject. The participants are enrolled atthe University of the Philippines for threesemesters and a summer to earn a Masterof Arts in Teaching degree, a program withabout 50 per cent of the total units takenin the subject area. The participants areprovided with actual experience in the useof recently developed curriculum materialsin their field. Each participating institutionat the end of the three-year program wouldhave a corps of trained science educatorswho would then be in a position to dis-seminate the results of their training to otherscience and mathematics teachers in theirregion.

Perhaps the most significant study inteacher education in the Philippines is theone currently being undertaken by thePresidential Commission to Survey Phili-

ppine Education. The President of theRepublic of the Philippines gives thefollowing as the objectives of the survey:

1) analysis of the performance of oureducational system and its relevanceto development goals,

2) formulation of specific ways ofimproving the system by emphasis onthe development of policies andmechanisms for chanelling resources,and

3) identification of critical areas requiringmore detailed research and study.5

Teacher education is one of eight areasof the comprehensive study. The problemsof teacher education are being studied inthe light of:

a) teacher supply and demand,

b) quality of student recruits in teachereducation programs,

c) quality of the faculty of teachertraining institutions,

d) quality of teacher education curricu-lum, and

e) quality of inservice education pro-grams.

The teacher education curriculum shallbe evaluated using the following criteria:

1) extent to which objectives of teachereducation in selected teacher traininginstitutions parallel the objectives ofhigher education and teacher educa-tion as formulated by the Board ofNational Education.

2) extent to which the relative distribu-tion of courses in general education,field of specialization and professionaleducation conform to the suggesteddistribution of teacher educationcourses in the programs recentlyformulated by the Board of NationalEducation,

3) extent to which courses in teachereducation programs are designed toequip prospective teachers with the

RAMOS & SAVELLANO

skills and attitudes of inquiry.

4) extent to which the general educationcomponent and the field of specializa-tion component compare favourablywith similar components in otherdegree programs in terms of unitrequirements,

5) extent to which courses in generaleducation and in the area of concen-tration are designed to meet the needsof student teachers in professionaleducation course and

6) extent to which courses reflect currenttrends in elementary and secondaryschool curricula.

As envisioned, this survey hopes tosuggest areas for depth studies.

A doctoral study which hopes to be apreliminary step in the formulation of aviable theory and program of teachereducation in the Philippines is now beingundertaken by Priscila Manalang.6 Thisstudy aims to describe and analyze aPhilippine rural school in order to infer itscultural dimension: the meanings, cognitiveorientation, and values attached to theschool by the teacher, school administrator,pupil, parent, community leader and othermembers of the community. The schoolis approached as a social institution function-ing as a part of the wider social system inthe community. The meaning of the schoolfor the teacher will be carefully examinedon a more limited focus.

For purposes of this paper, it is worth-while to mention the status of accreditationof teacher education in the country. Whilenothing much has been done in this area,the only accrediting association in thePhilippines will soon be sponsoring a con-ference foi administrators of teachereducation institutions, both public andprivate. The conference shall explore teachereducation accreditation how it shoulddevelop and the direction it should take.

The Philippine Accrediting Associationof Schools, Colleges and Universities wasestablished in 1957 with eleven chartermembers. 7 As of April 1970,28 institutionshad been accredited 17 at college level

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and 11 at secondary level. Liberal Arts,Commerce and Education are the onlyinstitutional programs accredited at collegelevel.

D. Some Possible Guidelines forCurriculum Evaluation in TeacherEducation

In the light of conditions obtaining inPhilippines education today, the followingguidelines may be proposed for considera-tion in evaluating teacher educationprograms:

1. RelevanceEducation to be valid and effec-

tive must be related to life and itsrealities. It must reflect a people's idealsand higher aspirations.

The term relevance is used hereto refer to two things, relevance to needsand changes in society, and relevance towhat actually happens and takes placein the classroom. It has been stated thatstudents today. clamor for changes in thecurriculum to make it more relevant tochanges in society. Among the importantchanges in the social scene with implica-tions for teacher education are excessivepopulation growth, increased lifeexpectancy, complexity of human organi-zation, increasing influence of massmedia, technological innovations, risingexpectancies among the underpriviledgegroup. What actually takes place andhappens in the classroom is somethingthat our present teacher-educationprograms have not done much about.With extensive research in the area beingdone at present, the extent to whichteacher-education has utilized results ofsuch research is still debatable. Resultsof research in lesson analysis, teachercompetencies, observation procedures,classroom communication, and teacherbehavior should find their way in ourteacher-education programs.

2. Orientation to special goalsof country and of educationand the teacher-educationprograms.

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71 ,

As mentioned earlier, nationaldevelopment constitutes the basic goal ofthe Philippines today. How much andhow can teacher education contributeto the attainment of this goal? Whattypes of teacher and what kind oftraining would make maximum contri-bution to national development? Whattype of program is necessary to achievethe goals of education and teachereducation as defined by the NationalBoard of Education?

3. Orientation to socio-economicand cultural background.

Teacher-education programsshould be compatible with the culturalbackground of the country. They mustbe deeply rooted in the values, ethicalbeliefs, commitments, customs, mores,and concepts of the good life of thepeople in a given society.

Philippine education has oftenbeen criticized for its colonial orientation.In teacher education it has often beensaid and observed that we utilizedresearches performed on Americanchildren and in American schools onFilipino children. Of late, however, weobserve a growing interest on the part ofour educators and some educationalagencies to conduct studies on Filipinochildren. A legislative act established theNational Coordinating Council for theStudy and Development of FilipinoChildren and Youth. This governmentagency undertakes and coordinatesresearch on Filipino children and dis-seminates results of its studies to schoolsand other institutions. Do our presentteacher-education programs provide ourprospective teachers with an under-standing of our local culture, conditionsobtaining in our schools and problemsthey might anticipate as a result of theinteraction fo socio-economic factors?Which variables influence the Filipinochild's way of thinking and the develop-ment of his skills and attitudes? Howdoes he behave in school? At home?While there is still a dearth of informationin these areas, it is encouraging to notethat government and private agenciesare taking more interest in this field.

4. Impact of curriculum projects.Curriculum materials reflecting

modern trends and approaches and up-dated content must find their way inour teacher-education programs. In ourcountry, several agencies as the ScienceEducation Center nd Health EducationCenter of the University of the Philip-pines, Bureau of Public Schools, andBureau of Private Schools are activelyinvolved in developing materials in thedifferent subejcts for the elementary andsecondary schools. Some projects areadaptations of curriculum projectsabroad. Have our teacher-educationprograms accommodated these curricu-lum materials? If teachers are to developthe skills which these new materialsstress, then their pre-service educationmust acquaint them with the objectiveand use of these materials.

Three phases of the teacher-education program might be looked intoas far as this guideline is concerned:

(a) courses taken in the fieldof specialization,

(b) methods courses,

(c) student teaching.

Courses in the field of specializa-tion should be chosen on the basis ofthier relevance to the elementary orsecondary school curriculum. A thoroughstudy of aspects of subjects included inthe elementary and secondary curriculumwould develop the prosepctive teacher'ssubject matter competency. This wouldmean involving the faculty of otherdisciplines in the development of teacher-education programs.

The methods course shouldprovide for preparation in instructionalprocedures especially appropriate to thesubject to be taught using recently deve-loped curriculum materials. An under-standing of the rationale of these newmaterials, their structure and organisationmust be adequately provided for in thecourse. Observation of the actual use ofthese materials by experienced teachersshould be one of the suggested activities

of the course.Student teaching experiences

must include provision for actual use ofmaterials by the prospective teachers,Use of new evaluation proceduressuggested by these new materials mustalso be provided for.

5. Desirable experiences insf.'" ^nt teaching.

_le seems to be no disagree-ment on the important place occupiedby student teaching in teacher-educationprogram. Practices, however, vary withregards to practices in supervision, lengthof internship, and requirements. In thePhilippines, this is done both in thelaboratory school and in a cooperatingschool. There is increasing use of publicschools for internship purposes. Thelaboratory school is still an importantunit in every teacher training institutionin the Philippines.

If we recognize the uniquenessand individuality of each individualstudent teacher, greater flexibility instudent teaching programs must be aguiding principle. Opportunities in andoutside the classroom to deepen insightsand gain understanding of the nature ofthe learner are requisites. To what extentdo teacher-education programs provideexposure to and experience in themultiple facets of the teacher's job?Do student teachers get to know thetotal school situation? The developmentof the community school concept andthe increasing use of the school as aninstrument for community improvementhas required a new outlook in teachereducation.8

The influence of the supervisingteacher /cooperating teacher on hisstudent teacher has been the subject ofseveral studies. Such studies have shownthat prospective tteachers are greatlyinfluenced by their supervising teacher/cooperating teachers in their methods ofteaching and relations with students. Doour teacher-education programs have anyprovision for proper selection, recruit-ment and training of supervising andcooperating teachers?

72,65

6. Evidences of cooperativeefforts in developing teacher -education program.

What resources and talents areutilized by teacher training institutionsin developing and enriching theirprogram? Do the teacher educators keepthemselves abreast of developments intheir fields? Do they demonstrate thevalues which they want prospectiveteachers to possess?

Do the institutions provide asuitable atmosphere which would beconducive to the personal developmentof each prospective teacher? To whatextent is there a sharing of ideas andresearches amongst teacher educationinstitutions with an end in view ofstrengthening their programs?

The Philippines producesthousands of teachers every year butwhat it needs are good teachers. Thereis an urgent need for organized effortson the evaluation of existing programsin teacher education. A closer collabora-tion amongst teacher education institu-tions to improve the quality of teachingshould be planned. A sharing of theircommon problems and a more organizedresearch-oriented approach to than maybe more fruitful of positive results. Thisconsortium of ideas based on researchand study should be extended to othercountries.

Bribliography

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This is the rationale of thisconference to share kit: f-xperiences onevaluation of teacher education programsin our respective countries. Although werealize the importance of evaluation,littlehas been done about it in teachereducation.

In our effort to evolve a modelfor the evaluation of Jrricula for teachereducation, we should always bear inmind that our ultimate goal is theadvancement of not only teaching butalso learning. Our task is not to teachour students how to teach but to helpthem become teachers. Becoming is aprocess of growth on self-building. Ittakes place primarily through the effortsof the lnrner; thus it is an active process.It cannot be "given" by one person toanother; it is not a set of proceduresto be carried out or a product to beachieved. It is a dynamic process ofdevelopment in which the student acceptsor rejects new information, new attitudesand new practices as he prepares himselffor his role as a teacher. As teachereducators, we still have a vital role inassisitng the student teacher to becomea good leader. However, in the per-formance of this role, the capacity ofthe individual for self-direction or hisfree will should be enhanced. This maybe developed through a teacher educationprogram which receives its impetus andinsights from the living realities anddemands of society.

1 Final Report, Regional Meeting of Teacher Educators in Asia, Theme: "Curriculum Development inTeacher Education in Asia," Asian Institute for Teacher Educators in cooperation with UNESCO,September 23October 3, 1969, University of the Philippines.

2 Taylor, Harold, "Colleges for Teachers," The World and the American Teacher, American

3

RAMOS & SAVELLANO

Assoication of Colleges for Teacher Education, Washington, D.C., 1968, 311 pp.3 Barrozo, Aurora and Tablante, Isabel, "Th. Professional Program of the U.P. BSEEd Curriculum,"

Education Quarterly, College of Education, University of the Philippines, Vol. 16, No. 4, June1969, pp. 6-29.

4 Hernandez, Dolores, "Teacher Education in the Scieqces and Mathematics in the Country Today,"Education Quarterly, College of Education, University of the Philippines, Vol. 17, Nos. 3-4,MarchJune 1970, pp. 30-47.

5 Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education, Teacher Education Work Group, TeacherEducation, 1970 (Mimeographed copy).

6 Manalang, Priscillia, "A Philippine Rural School: Its Cultural Dimension," (Dissertation Outline),International Education Development Program, University of Pittsburgh, 1969.

7 Manual of Accrediting for Colleges and Universities 1969, Philippine Accrediting Association ofSchools, ('alleges and Universities, 1969.

8 Isidro, Antonio, Trends and Issues in Philippine Education, Phoenix Press Inc., Quezon City,Philippines, 1968.

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OBJECTIVES IN TEACHER EDUCATION: A PRE-EVALUATION TASK

In regard to the general topic of thisconference 'Curriculum Evaluation inTeacher Education in South-East Asia' itis pertinent to note that evaluation is onetask in a series, and presupposes theexistence of aims or objectives which serveas sources of criteria against which toevaluate.1 In fact, without aims or objec-tives stated in some explicit form, evaluationis a process of doubtful legitimacy andquestionable usefulness. Partly for thatreason, and partly because I have beenconcerned with identifying objectives inthe social science area at both the secondaryand teacher education levels, the task under-taken in this paper is to indicate a basis onwhich some specific and possibly measurableobjectives in teacher education can beformulated.

In turning to consider objectives in oneaspect of teacher education we need torecognize that a thorough consideration ofthis question involves consideration of otherquestions relating to objectives in educationgenerally, the role of the teacher in theeducational process, and the function oftraining institutions in the preparation ofteachers. I propose to pass over a detaileddiscussion of those issues by making threeassumptions which enable us to move tothe points which I want to discuss. If youfind these assumptions unacceptable, orunsatisfactory to some extent, we can,perhaps, return to consider them at a latertime.

The three assumptions are:

Education is in part a social processand, at the same time, an integral partof the larger society in which it occurs.

An understanding of social aspects ofeducation contributes positively toeffective teaching and other associatedresponsibilities.

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Dr. F. John Hunt,

Faculty of Education,Monash University, Australia

Understanding of social aspects ofeducation is achieved most effectivelythrough the conceptual frameworksand inquiry strategies of the severalsocial science disciplines.

Although these assumptions are veryimportant in relation to the discussion thatfollows, it is possible only to illustrate themhere and leave members to appraise theiracceptability independently.

The first assumption has a hallowedcharacter, being an observation made by asociology father in Durkheim.2 It scarelyneeds documentation these days in the lightof research that has been done on the socialdynamics of the classroom, the school as asocial system, and relations between socio-cultural background of children (andteachers) and performance in school.Testimony to the recognized importance ofthis characteristic of education is given bythe presence of courses in the social founda-tion of education, sociology of educationor comparative education in teacher educa-tion programs around the world.

What is not so widely recognized, and apoint I wish to stress, is that the socialcharacter of education and its relations withthe larger society in which an educationsystem functions are far more complex thanis apparent from the topics and coursescited above. Comparably important, but lesswidely recognized and correspondinglyneglected on many occasions, are cultural,political and economic dimensions ofeducation. This point can be readilyillustrated.

Education involves, among other things,the transmission of values, attitudes, beliefs.perspectives and other elements of a culture,and the school is an agency of major im-portance in the transmission of the cultureof a society. Furthermore, selections of

curriculum content, with implied values andassumptions, often reflect the dominanceof particular sectors of a society acolonial power, an urban as against a ruralsector, or socio-economic, religious or ethnicgroups. In those circumstances the educa-tional system can function with differentrelevance for members of particular groups,influencing their prospects of developingas people or for participating in the life ofthe society. Even in more homogeneoussocieties, characterized by relatively un-complicated forms of change, the schoolcan be a setting for clashes in values andfunction to transmit several sets of valuesand discontinuities between values, asSpindler and other anthropologists havenoted.3

Education also involves decision-makingand, certainly at the level of policy making,educational decisions and practices oftenflow directly from political policies.Decisions of national, state or provincialgovernments on desegration, aid for privateschools or equalization programs areexamples of political decisions which bearupon the management and functioning ofschools and educational systems, and evenupon the performance of teaching tasks. Lessapparent but no less significant for theoperation of schools are conditions orrequirements pertaining to curriculumcontent, the training of teachers and theformal status and role responsibilities ofteachers. In several Australian state systemsof education, for example, governmentalregulations set out responsibilities of theteacher in relation to the teaching ofreligious and political issues in the school.

The third dimension of education towhich I wish to refer is economic andinvolves relations between the economy andthe education system, schools and teachers.A most obvious relationship stems from thewealth or poverty of a society and theamount of resources that can be allocatedto the education system.4 But again thereare more subtle relationships between theeconomy and education in the form ofeconomic values and perceptions of therelevance of education to society and theindividual, giving rise to beliefs about therelevance of education to employment orthe economic value of education.

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The examples cited relate in. the mainin consequences for education that derivefrom the functioning of the cultural system,the economy and the political system. It isimportant to recognize, however, that theinfluence is not a one way relationship andthat the functioning of the educationsystem has important consequences for thefunctioning of society its economy,political system, religion and social andcultural continuity and change. Aspects ofthose consequences have been discussed inthe literature in terms of political socializa-tion, the role of the school in religiouseducation and human resource develop-ment.5 From the discussions it is clear thateducation is both acted upon and acts uponsociety and its sub-systems, and that anyoneaspiring to understand education or to workeffectively as an educator must take accountof both directions of influence if he is to becomprehensively informed.

In reaching that observation, we havearrived at the second assumption thatknowledge and understanding is a necessary(although not necessarily a sufficient)condition for effective performance ineducation. Almost certainly, knowledge andunderstanding of particular matters would bedifferentially relevant to people in differentpositions in educational systems, and againto people in educational systems in differentsocieties. The teacher uses psychological,sociological and, in some societies morethan others, anthropological insights andunderstanding. Both as a teacher and in hiscapacity as a citizen or member of a pro-fessional association, concerned to improvethe quality of the functioning of theeducational system, the teacher may alsomake considerable use of economic andpolitical insights and understandings.

The relevance of each type of insightand understanding is different for adminis-trators in different systems and societies.Administrators must know something of thechild, the learning process, teachers andtheir associations, the community, organi-zational theory, finance, and the functioningof the economy and the political system.In some societies more than others, it isimportant to know distinctive values, beliefsand customs of different social and ethnicgroups in a society.

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In brief, there can be no argument aboutthe importance of socio-cultural, economicand political insights and understandingsto educators and it should be sufficienton this occasion simply to indicate what ismeant by the second assumption and thento move on to consider the third that anunderstanding of social aspects of educationis achieved most effectively through theconceptual perspectives and inquiry strate-gies of the several social science disciplines.

This assumption is not likely to be soreadily accepted as the previous ones andcertainly cannot be so readily demonstrated.In order to indicate the importance of adiscipline approach I propose to discussdisciplines, drawing on work undertaken incurriculum development projects in thesocial science area.6 Again, in order to movethrough a complex area fairly quickly, Ipropose to offer two generalizations asassumptions which can be more closelyexamined on other occasions, but whichserve as the basis for this discussion.

The first assumption is that education,whether for pupils in schools or teachersin training, is concerned with the develop-ment of students as individuals and, in thelatter case, in relation to responsibilities theywill assume as teachers. Further, suchdevelopment can be specified in more preciseterms as Bloom and his colleagues haveindicated.? They have analyzed behaviourinto cognitive, affective and psycho-motoraspects arid specified the first two in moredetail cognitive behaviour in terms ofknowledge, comprehension, application,analysis, synthesis, and evaluation andaffective behaviour in terms of receiving,responding, valuing, organizing andcharacterization of a value or value complex.

The psycho-motor area has beenneglected but conceivably it could also befurther analyzed.

While such a taxonomy is useful indirecting attention to particular aspects ofbehaviour, it is incomplete in that it doesnot indicate specific areas of knowledge orabilities which might be developed. Theyhave to be specified independently of theBloom taxonomy.

This observation brings iis to the second

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point: that areas of knowledge, sets of skillsand affective attributes may be identifiedfrom the various disciplines a positionor interpretation that may be more readilyunderstood following a brief discussion ofthe several social science disciplines. Inparticular it is useful to identify their majorcharacteristics8 as follows:

A particular point of focus or area ofinterest such as social structure andinteraction, culture, the economy, thepolitical system, the human/socialpast, man's physical environment andrelations between particular areas ofphenomena or sets of phenomena.Social science may be identified asfocussed on the totality of these areasor on what might be identified brieflyas the social domain.

An orientation and commitment tomaking sustainable inferences,generalizations, or ,conclusions aboutthe area of interest. In this contextfreedom to discuss and to inquire andobjectivity are necessary conditions forachieving desired ends.

Sets of concepts, conceptual modelsand conceptualizing processes forfacilitating precise discussion ofphenomena and processes of interest,and undertaking a rigorous examina-tion of their characteristics andbehaviour.

Sets of techniques and strategies ofinquiry for observing phenomena andevents, recording, analyzing andinterpreting information, and commu-nicating outcomes of the inquiryprocess.

Content in the form of findings, con-clusions, theories, hypotheses andother types of theoretical formula-tions. This part of a discipline isoften referred to as a body of know-ledge. It is important to recognizethat this 'body of knowledge' isarrived at by means of sophisticatedtechniques and processes, and canonly be accepted on the basis ofassumptions about definitions, techni-ques and other elements of the inquiryprocess. Largely for that reason, the

inclusion of this element of a dis-cipline or set of disciplines in aneducational program is a questionablepractice, particularly if done withoutreference to means by which thefindings have been arrived at.

From this perspective, the social sciencedisciplines constitute systems of inquiryfocussing upon particular aspects of manand his social environment and serve tofacilitate learning by direct study and fromthe experiences of one's self and of others,and as aids in the process of arriving atvalid and reliable interpretations or inassessing the validity and reliability of theinterpretations of others.

it is on that basis, that the assumptionor generalization concerning the usefulnessof the social science disciplines to educatorsis offered. Given that assumption, certaineducational objectives can be indicated andexpressed in terms that permit the develop-ment, teaching and evaluation of programswith some degree of preciseness.

A task that now confronts us is toindicate elements of the social sciences thatare particularly relevant to a program foreducators, and to state those elements interms that are amenable to teaching andevaluation. I propose to do so by nominatingand discussing two concepts and somepoints of techniques as organizing ideas inthe understanding and practice of education.

One concept I would suggest is socializa-tion. It is a difficult concept to definebecause socialization is used to refer todifferent things by different types ofspecialists. Among psychologists socializa-tion commonly is used to mean sociallearning and to refer to learning to expressaggression or to perform toilet operationsin socially acceptable ways. Among socio-logists socialization is commonly used tomean learning knowledge and skills relevantto occupying a particular position and tobeing a member of the associated group.Among anthropologists socialization is usedto refer to the learning of values, beliefs,customs and other elements of the cultureof a society.

One further point concerning the useful-

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ness of socialization derives from the factthat a considerable amount of research hasbeen undertaken into factors seen to operateupon the socialization process. Socializationcane be regarded as the dependent variableand factors such as ethnic, religious andsocial background, or the family, peer groupand other socializing agencies studied fortheir influence upon the socializationprocess.

When account is taken of work that hasbeen done on those factors, on thefunctioning of socializing agencies, includingthe school, on the socialization process initself, and on the consequences of thatprocess, it is evident that socialization is aconcept to which a considerable amount ofresearch and theory relevant to educationis related, and an understanding of whichis basic to performance in education.

A second concept I would suggest issocial system. It, too, is a concept with adiversity of usages: it has been used to referto such diverse units as a two person groupand a large complex society. The usefulnessof social system as a concept is in directingattention to certain common features ofthose diverse entities membership,boundary, shared values, beliefs, definitionsand other elements of a culture, andfunctioning generally to constrain theindividual to some degree in order tomaintain the continuity and perhaps deve-lopment of the group, uisng socializationalong with other means. Particular socialgroups such as the family, the school, thecommunity, religious, ethnic and, possibly,socio-economic groups, the tribe, thecorporation and other forms of formallyorganized social units can be considered inrelation to the educative process. In under-standing social systems one gains someunderstanding of the social environmentsin which man lives and works, and theproblems of living and working in a diversityof social environments. Social systems arealso the units by means of which a societyfunctions where decisions are made, goalsselected, resources allocated, coordinationaffected and performance achieved.

Social system can also be regarded asthe dependent variable or, in systemsanalysis terms, the receiver of inputs. This

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conceptualization directs attention tovariables that act upon social systems inthis as to demographic, economic,religious, political, and other factors in theenvironment of schools and educationalsystems. In being a concept to which muchin education can be related, social systemstands as a second major concept relevantto the understanding of education and toeffective educational performance.

It is now time to recall that the focalpoints of interest and concepts such associalization and social system are only partof the contributions of disciplines. Inaddition, and understanding of researchtechniques and inquiry strategies is necessaryif the usefulness and limitations of conceptsand theories are to be grasped. What is'known' in soical science, as in otherdisciplines, is known on the basis of theresearch techniques and inquiry strategiesemployed in particular studies. Becausesocial situations are so complex, researchprocedures available are so far from adequatein many cases, and because of the humanfallibility of many research workers, findingsfrom research must be accepted tentativelyand with an awareness of the qualificationsto be made or conditions under whichfindings, generalizations or inferences canbe held. For those reasons, a grounding inresearch techniques and inquiry strategiesis an important part of the training ofeducators who use the results of research.

One particular element of the researchapproach, namely a concern to makesustainable statements about the area ofinterset warrants a special comment. Thatconcern is basic to the development ofrigorously defined concepts, careful hypo-thesizing and selection and use of techniquesfor gathering, analyzing and interpretingdata. Social science disciplines, as others,require an attitudinal commitment that isapparent in the effort made to producesustainable statements and, incidentally, toexemplify academic values in free discussionand inquiry, and objectivity.

Finally it is important in the training ofeducators to go beyond theory and hypo-thesizing to policy making and planningthe selection of goals and the formulationof courses of action to achieve those goals.

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I would hasten to add that policy makinginvolves more than the social sciencescontribute. Nevertheless their contributionsare important ones in relation to establishingthe tenability of fact assumptions on whichpolicies are based in part. Accordingly, thenature and limitations of social sciencecontributions need to be known if planningand implementation are to be undertakenon an empirically sound basis.

The point of this analysis is to drawattention to certain elements of disciplineswhich relate to aspects of cognitive, affectiveand psycho-motor behaviour (to followBloom) where development can be specifiedin respect of student teachers. At leastcertain abilities and skills, as with statisticaland other forms of inquiry, analysis andinference techniques, and means of reportingand communicating information, findings orrecommendations, can be specified in termswhich permit teaching to develop knowledgeand understanding, skills and abilities inasking and responding to questions, andevaluation of progress to be made. Specifica-tions can also be made of concepts andtheories and in terms which offer a startingpoint and an order of progress, and a basisfor assessing the development of students.

Thus, we have a rationale from which todevelop educational programs that can beassessed for their usefulness in achievingincreased skills and abilities in specific areas,That is, the effectiveness of at least certainaspects of teacher education programs couldbe assessed in terms of their impact uponstudents. This situation should appeal to thecurriculum evaluator, particularly when itis anticipated that he would be a member ofor consultant to any group undertakingdevelopment of statements of objectivesand programs to be taught in relation tothose objectives.

In considering evaluation account mustbe taken of the fact that evaluation at theend of a training program is but oneoccasion when it can be undertaken. If animportant objective in teacher education isto prepare people who will be effective intheir work, then a thorough-going andcomprehensive evaluation of a teacher'spreparation should take account of his

performance after some time has been spent`on the job'. Although factors such assubsequent experience intervene to createdifficulties in assessing the relevance ofthe pre-employment programs, techniques

REFERENCES

HUNT

such as matching samples from differenttraining Institutions permit some of thesetechnical problems to be handled. In anycase, the task should be tackled rather thanput. to one side in the 'too hard' category.

1 Steps in curriculum development have been discussed on several occasions. Note, for example,R.W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum Development, Chicago, University of Chicago Press,1950; Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York, Harcourt, Braceand World, 1962; and D.K. Wheeler, Curriculum Process, London, University of Lonaun Press,1967. A useful concise review is given in M.L. Turner, "The Development of Courses forAustralian Schools," Quarterly Review of Australian Education, Vol. 2, Na. 3, March, 1969.

2 Emile Durkheim, Education and Sociology, translated by Sherwood D. Fox, Glencoe, Illinois,The Free Press, 1956, Ch. 1.

3 G.D. Spindler, Education and Culture, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963.4 See, for example, V.E. Komarcy, "The Relation Between Economic Development and the Develop-

ment of Education," and Frederick Edding, "International Trends in Educational Expenditures,"Readings in the Economics of Education, Mary J. Bowman, ed., Paris, UNESCO, 1968.

5 For examples of discussions of religious, political and economic consequences of education, see A.M.Greeley and P.H. Rossi, The Education of Catholic Americans, Chicago, The aldine Press, 1965;James S. Coleman, ed., Education and Political Development, Princeton, New Jersey, PrincetonUniversity Press, 1965; and Mary J. Bowman, ed., Readings in the Economics of Education, Paris,UNESCO, 1968 respectively.

6 Contributions of social science disciplines to school curricula are discussed in Irving Morrissette, ed.,Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula, New York, Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1967; Edwin Fenton, Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools, New York,Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Part II; and David G. Dufty, ed., Teaching About Society;problems and Possibilities, Adelaide, Rigby, 1970.

7 Benjamin S. Bloom et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I Cognitive Domain,London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1956 and David R. Krawthwohl et al., Taxonomy of Educa-tional Objectives: Handbook 2 Affective Domain, London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1964.

8 This interpretation is given in more detail, and used as the basis for a social science educationprogram, in F.J. Hunt et al., Social Science and the School Curriculum, (in press).

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RELEVANCE OF PIAGETIAN THEORY TO THEEVALUATION OF TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULA

EDITORIAL NOTE:Since the above paper was unavailable, onlya report of the speech delivered by Dr.Anastasiou, who will be referred to as"CA", will be given in what follows. Shouldthere be gross errors in reporting, we tenderour apologies.

CA remarked at the outset that one ofthe problems with discussion on Piaget isthat in the first place his name itself suggestscontroversy. As a man who has been, andis still, talking about his many ideas forover 50 years and expressing them in somany words, his theory has been interpretedby so many people that practically nobodyunderstands what he really means in termsof his theory except Piaget himself. CApointed out from personal experience thateven when one spend:- eleven months withPiaget, things change gradually from weekto week so that towards the end one tendsto become quite confused.

CA however struck a reassuring notewhen he pointed out that there was onething which b?r, not changed with Piaget,namely his clinical method of ascertainingchildren's thinking by talking to them andallowing them freedom to answer in theirown way. And this approach is what, inCA's view,endears him to the classroompractitioner. Piaget has of course beenseverely criticised by theorists and researchspecialists for his lack of well-thought outand carefully controlled investigations.Skeptics have wondered how he was able tolearn anything at all about children, and tobe sure of his findings with the methodologyhe employs. And yet, according to CA,Piaget is capable of saying confidently toanyone something like this: "Look, if youcan go out into this particular school inGeneva and if you take a seven-year oldchild from that school and present him withthis particular apparatus this is what thatchild's response is going to be to a particular

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81.

Dr. Clifford J. AnastasiouSchool of Education,

University of British Columbia, Canada.

question," even though he has never seenthe child. In fact, CA doubted if Piaget hasactually visited a school to talk to childrenduring the last fifteen years, and yet hisprediction of the precise behaviour ofchildren in response to various Piagetiantasks is generally accurate.

One peculiar characteristic of Piaget,according to CA, is his insistence on writingin French, as is typical of Genevan Frenchpeople, even though CA rather suspects thathe probably writes in English and translatesinto French. The problem lies in the factthat there are many French words whichhave no English words and things areexpressed in the longest possible way. CAhowever quipped that this ambiguity mightbe what great people thrive on, for if onecan find a way of pleasing himself whileone's critic can also find a way that pleaseshim, then what he writes would work outbeautifully.

Returning to the main topic of the paper,CA doubted if much of Piaget's findingscould be effectively applied in the secondaryschool classrooms, and hence he would beconfining his remarks to the primary schoollevel. Since many who have heard of Piagetdo not really understand the structure thathe describes for the development ofchildren's logical thinking, CA thought thatit would be appropriate for him to reviewPiaget's concept of stages. Wroking with hisown children, Piaget found that he was ableto identify qualitative stages of development.For instance, he found that the infant didnot seem to have established the permanenceof objects, for as long as the mother waspresent she existed but once she was out ofsight she was also out of the infant's mindso to speak. This first sensori-motor stage,as CA explained, is a non-verbal one, butthe infant possesses some thought structureswhich are expressed through certain reflex

actions. The thought structures are whatPiaget calls "Schemes" which he insists isdifferent' from the English rendering as"schemas". CA went on to say that these"schemes" are based on action, and thefirst action is one of grasping anythingwhich touches the child's hand. New"schemes" are developed through modifica-tion of old ones and soon the child developsthe concept of the permanence of objects,then of certain primitive concepts of space,time and causality, and eventually developsverbal thinking.

CA then indicated that at the end oftwo years the child begins to think in termsof signs and symbols, for he has developedimages of things in his mind through veltetexpresssion.At this stage of pre-conceptualthought, the child is involved in imitatingthe sounds and actions be perceives, whetherthey be from his mother, his father or thepussy cat. CA further explained that thechild who sees different beetles at differentplaces in the garden would typically thinkthat it is the same beetle, for he does notthink in terms of a large class of beetles. Onthe other hand, if he has a group of objectsin front of him, he would think that thegroup changes when the objects are merelyrearranged. As a further illustration, CApointed out that a child who is being drivenround from one side to another side of amountain would similarly think in terms ofa new mountain. CA stressed that in spiteof these difficulties, the child is developinga very strong basis of symbolic thought,which is expressed in language.

When the child is able to form a consis-tent class at about age four, the child movesinto what is called the stage of intuitivethought. Unlike the child at the stage ofpreconceptual thought who tends to adhereto his first decision, the child at the stage ofintuitive thought changes his opinion becausehe centers on different aspects of the sameproblem. CA illustrated this by referring tothe conservation task. Thus when an inter-viewer changes a ball of plasticene into asausage-like shape, the child tends to saythat there is more plasticene in the sausagethan in the ball. Then when the interviewercontinues to make the sausage longer untilit is as thin as a pencil, the child suddenly

ANASTASIOU

changes his mind and says that there is lessplasticene in the elongated object becauseit is too thin. CA further explained thatthe child is incapable of focussing on twodimensions at a time, nor is he able toconsider more than one quality of objectsFor example, when questioned as to whetherthere are more boys or children in a class of25 boys and 5 girls, the child tends to saymore boys, forgetting that boys are includedin the class of children and focussing insteadon the proportion of boys as comparedwith girls.

CA went on to explain that the childreaches the stage of concreate operationalthought when he starts to be able to focuson two factors at the same time, when hestarts to be able to reverse processes in hisown mind. CA however hastened to say thatthis does not always occur in all childrenat precisely the same time nor to childrenfrom different cultures, although there is afairly consistent pattern within the sameculture. The child can only deal with thoseideas he can visualise or manipulate, but heis unable to consider more than one variableat a time nor to construct a hypothesis.CA pointed out that even though the primaryscience curricula are based on experimenta-tion, the child at the concrete operationalstage is still unable to carry out a realexperiment effectively. CA remarked thatthis was not a criticism of the sciencecurricula, but he felt that it was importantfor us to adjust our expectations. It is onlyat the stage of formal operational thoughtthat the child, now an adolescent or anadult, is able to deal with hypotheses, toanalyse variables, and to make logicalcomparisons without reference to concreterepresentation.

In terms of its educational relevance, CAfelt that the stages per se are not veryuseful, but the way in which they aredetermined by talking to children with theuse of materials has useful implications.CA therefore insisted that in evaluating thecurriculum, it is important to get thechild's view of what is happening and notto reject children's responses which do notresult in desired end-product behaviours, butrather to make adjustments and try again.How often, CA asked, do we actually sit

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down with the child on a one-to-one basisand follow through discussion the child'slogic for the conclusions he reaches aboutthe materials and the problems presented?Fortunately, as CA observed, many newcurricula in the USA, Canada, Great Britainand elsewhere are beginning to realise theimportance of this approach and adoptingit whenever feasible. CA suggested thatinstead of giving a test and seeing what thechild writes down, the Piagetian procedureadocates allowing the child to go in thedirection that he wants to go, therebygetting a n .tch broader picture of thechild's thinking. According to CA, whenwe sit down with a child with a lot ofpreconceived ideas, the child is also tryingto size up the interviewer, looking for cluesor cues as to what answer he wants.

CA intimated that every teacher isactually a curriculum developer and acurriculum manipulator and he shouldfunction on the basis of the needs ofchildren, as can only be ascertained bysitting down and working with individualchildren. He therefore recommendedstrongly that teacher trainees should haveample opportunities to experience workingwith children on a one-to-one basis, eventhough they must do so within the realisticcontext of a class size of 40 or so children.

CA then recountered an experience hehad with a primary infant class in Britain.The teacher was teaching units of measuringvolume in a relatively structured way. Shefilled up a pint bottle with water andpoured into a quart bottle and repeatedthis process. Then she asked the childrenhow many pints are there in a quart andwas self- satisfied with the expected responseof pupils thinking that her pupils knew allabout volumes. CA however sat down withsome children and using a thin pint bottlewhich was as tall as the quart bottle, hefilled both of them up with water andasked which had more water. The childrennow responded that they contained thesame amounts. Astonished, the teacher thentried to teach the children by means oflittle centimetre square blocks. She piled atall thin column of blocks beside a thickcolumn just as tall but with twice as manyblocks. Then she made them count and

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asked the question of whether the pint orthe quart bottles, which resembled therespective columns of blocks,contained thesame amount of water. This time thechildren admitted that the quart bottle hadtwice as much water. But when CA posedthe question differently, for example, interms of pouring apple juice into bothbottles and asking the children which theywould rather have if they were really thirsty,the children tended to say that it made nodifference which bottle they had, CAindicated that this example was merely toshow that the only way to be convinced asto what children can or cannot do is tosit down and talk to them and that in orderto be sure what a given curriculum is doingis to find out how the child is analysingwith his little computer that particularcurriculum.

As another illustration, CA recalled thatin Geneva he had different groups of sixchairs each shown to Standard I childrenand asked them what was common amongthe groups of desks. They all replied thatthey all had six desks. Then he spread outa group of desks and the children nowthought that this group of desks had moredesks than other groups of desks which werenot spread out. When they were asked tocount they admitted that the spread outgroup had six desks but insisted that it stillhad more desks than the others. In otherwords the children had not attained theconcept of the conservation of number.

Taking older children say in Standard V,CA pointed out that in the case of the simplependulum, children, like Aristotle, tend tothink that the greater the speed of apendulum the shorter time it takes toexecute each swing, even though the pendu-lum bob has to cover a longer distance.CA emphasised that rather than thinkingthat children are stupid, one has to changeone's expectation of what children arecapable of thinking at different stages ofdevelopment. And one is able to changeone's expectations only by talking to andworking with children individually. It isthrough questioning of children, who areconfronted with materials which they areallowed to manipulate without any directhelp that the Genevan school has been able

to engage in "apprentisage" or learning,thereby getting children to proceed fromone stage or sub-stage to another. Althoughthe Genevan school would not regard thisas teaching, CA felt that it was the bestform of teaching which should be recom-mended to teachers and teacher educators.

CA then elaborated on the four factorswhich Piaget considered essential in propel-ling a child from one stage of developmentto another. Maturation is one of them andPiaget maintains that maturation of the nervecells alone is necessary but not sufficient.Although Piaget is generally pessimistic aboutacceleration of cognitive development, CAfelt that Piaget seems to be changing hisview a little as a result of recent Genevanstudies on learning.

According to CA, Piaget would similarlyadmit that physical experience is verycrucial, but he would insist that the childbe allowed to work out his own structure.CA pointed out that those who are anti-structure might think that Piaget is on theirside, whereas in fact Piaget does envisagean extremely complex structure for learningto take place. Structure would not be interms of the way we talk to children, butrather the way in which we structure theenvironment for the child and the wayin which we change the materials in theenvironment. In a deprived environmentthere can be a lag in cognitive developmentof as much as six years and CA suggestedthat it would be interesting to find out ifthere is a lag between children from KualaLumpur and children from an isolatedkampong, and if so by how many years.According to CA, there is documentedevidence to suggest that even some universitygraduates have not been able to attain fullythe stage of formal operations and havebeen able to get by because they have notbeen confronted with challenging problems.

The third factor is that of social ex-perience, as brought about by educationwhere the child interacts verbally withothers. CA referred to the recent studiesby Sinclair who found that in focussingon certain language sub-systems, such asare in terms of a series of sizes rather thanabsolute sizes, children are able to interpretvarious problems more quickly and hence

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are able to reach the next stage a littlebit more quickly. However Sinclair andothers have found that language and socialinteractions are not really necessary at all.CA also pointed out that the work of HansFurth with deaf and dumb children whowere isolated from people confirmed thatmany were able to reach even the stage offormal operations without language.

The fourth factor is that of equilibrationwhich Piaget regards as the most importantand according to CA, Piaget is currentlywriting a large volume on equilibration itself.Due to his earlier training as a biologist,Piaget compared the development of achild's intelligence to movement of snailsfrom one state to another. The twinprocesses of assimilation, where the childchanges the objects to conform to his mentalideas or "schemes," and accommodation,where the child changes his conception ofthe objective world to fit the objective worlditself, can occur at the same time and Piagetsays that the result of this is one of adapta-tion. According to CA, Piaget suggests thata child is likely to learn if a new situation ispresented which ,.:unflicts with the operationof the existing "schemes". CA observed thatthere have been several primary and infantschool programmes which deliberatelyattempt to develop conflicts where differentchildren in the same class are encouraged tocome up with different ideas and throughsocial interaction, equilibraiton would takeplace.

CA however poll, ted out that Piaget doesmaintian that the child must have the basicstructure or maturation and that one canonly move from one step to the next. If theexperience is too greatly divorced from theexisting structure, the child simply does notadapt. CA explained that as a result thechild simply rejects the idea totally or heforms a false accommodation that wouldinhibit later equilibration.

CA emphasised that one can only findrelevance in Piaget's work by actually goingout and talking to children, using if necessarydifferent tests. Various people have attempt-ed to replicate his studies and some haveobtained slightly different results. TheGenevan School itself has been investigatingthe effects of teaching one type of Piagetian

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task on another type of Piagetian task, suchas the effect of being taught conservationof volume on the conservation of matter,weight, number, length, etc. CA concludedby saying that in order to evaluate the

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curriculum of teacher education one has toconsider the extent to which trainees areencouraged to work with children to findout how they are thinking, or in other wordsto evaluate the child's curriculum.

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATIONIN SINGAPORE

Introduction1. Let me first give a very brief accountof the aims of education and the educationsystem in Singapore before I speak onteacher education and the evaluation of itscurriculum in the Singapore context. I shalltake this opportunity of thanking someof my colleagues in the College and theInspectorate for their help in the preparationof this paper.

Aims2. The main aim of education in Singa-pore is to develop to the fullest extentpossible the potentialities of every childmentally, physically, morally and sociallyin accordance with the needs and interestsof society and ensuring the optimumacquisition of experience, knowledge andskill, each according to his intelligence,ability, aptitude and interest. This entailsthe inculcation of sound habits, values andattitudes which would lead to the develop-ment of creativity, moral rectitude, socialresponsibility, a sense of service an mutualunderstanding within a multi-lingual, multi-racial and multi-religious society. This entailsthe instillation of the love of freedom,truth and justice with respect for fundamen-tal human rights. It entails the transmissionof knowledge and the development of skillssuited to the needs of a rapidly industriali-zing and technological society. It entailsthe preparation for changes in society. Italso entails the acceptance of the democraticway of life, the inculcation of love forSingapore and the fostering of a strongsense of national identity and loyalty.

3. Besides pointing towards the generalaim of education, Singapore has, since sheattained self government in 1959 and in-dependence in 1965, set herself to achievemany specific objectives. First among theseis national identity and loaylty, This is ofparamount importance in a society with four

Mr. Chan Kai Yau,

Ministry of Education, Singapore.

official languages, many cultures, manyreligions and many races. With one quarterof the entire popriation in school, educationplays a very important role in this taskas it must serve at once as an instrumentof bringing the pupils together through theschool system and of retaining the culturalheritage of the three major races. In orderto achieve this aim the following innova-tions, among others, have been tried out.

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3.1 A policy of School integration hasbeen implemented since 1960 withthe main purpose of breaking downthe language or communicationbarrier. A school is said to beintegrated when pupils and staffof two or three different languagestreams of education work andlearn in one school building, shareall facilities and come under thesupervision of one principal. Forexample, in an English-Malayintegrated school, generally half thenumber of pupils receive theirinstruction in the English mediumand the other half, in the Malaymedium. They will all follow thesame curriculum of study, takepart in the same games together,share the same canteen and obeythe same set 'of school rules andat times be taught by the sameteachers. At present, 25% of ourschools are integrated schools, eachwith one of the following languagestream combinations: English-Chinese, English-Malay and English-Chinese-Malay. It has been foundthrough a survey that social distanceis shorter in integrated schools thanin non-integrated schools. This isa positive step in bringing aboutgreater understanding, bettertolerance and more mixing andsharing among pupils whose media

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of instruction are different. Thesame can be said of the teachers.

3.2 A concerted effort to produceeffectively bilingual school-leavershas been made for many years witha major aim of insuring bettercommunication (and hence betterunderstanding and acceptance?among future citizens of differentracial origins the reason beingthat in a compact multi-lingualsociety not everybody is expectedto be quadrilingual and no one canremain monolingual. The study ofa second language is made com-pulsory throughout all levels ofeducation in schools. To furtherstrengthen the learning and the useof a second language and to bringthe staff and the pupils of differentlanguage streams closer, certainschools subjects are being taughtin a second language.

3.3 In all extra-curricular activities,such as sports and games, musicand dance and uniformed organiza-tions, pupils are usually grouped orteamed up according to theirinterest and not on a racial orlinguistic basis. On the paradeground and in the playfields ordersand directions are given in Malay,the national language.

3.4 The teaching of civics, the weeklyassembly at which the principalor a senior teacher exhorts thepupils and the daily flag raisingand lowering ceremonies accom-panied by the national anthem inschools are some means to helpfoster a sense of national identityand loyalty.

4. Another important specific aim is theprovision of at least eight years of educationfor every child from the age of six withoutregard to race, language, religion, sex,wealth or status. The consequence of thisaim is the building of both primary andsecondary schools in sufficient number tocater for all school-going children in thefour language streams (Malay, Chinese,Tamil, English), the large scale training of

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teachers to meet the rapid demand forschool education and the provision of equalopportunity for tertiary education amongall school leavers. Singapore has been ableto achieve this specific aim after years ofconcerted and determined effort.

5. As Singapore is rapidly becomingindustrialised, more conscious of technologi-cal developments and export-orientated,educational priorities have shifted fromquantity to quality and from general totechnical and vocational education. In orderto attain the general aim of quality ineducation, the large scale re-education ofteachers, the regular revision and up-datingof the school curricula, syllabuses and text-books and the constant process of evaluationin education are some of the specificobjectives. In order to strengthen technicaland vocational education, novel curriculardevices, new teacher training schemes andcomparatively large financial and personnelprovision are brought to bear. Here theschool is considered a social institutionresponsible first for developing youngpeople to fit into the existing society andsecondly for developing young people whowill seek to improve the society in whichthey will find themselves.

System6. Children of Singapore citizens andthose born in Singapore are entitled, fromthe age of six years of free primary educa-tion. Parents have complete freedom inputting their child in the school with thelanguage medium of instruction of theirchoice. The maximum age in primary schoolsis 13+ and overaged pupils (that is, pupilswho have been retained for one or twoyears) must pay a nominal fee. Every pupilis, however, charged a nominal fee of $3."0per term for games, equipment and librarybooks. At the end of six years of primaryeducation, pupils sit for a public examina-tion known as the Primary School LeavingExamination in one of the four officiallanguages. Pupils on passing this examination(about 60%) are given places in secondaryschools. Those, who have failed but are notover-age, repeat the course at the primary sixlevel and those who are over-age go on toopportunity classes organised by the AdultEducation Board.

7. At the secondary level, there are twoyears of lower secondary education with acommon curriculum in which pupils learnboth general and technical subjects. This isfollowed by a programme of diversifiedsecondary education. Pupils who have theaptitude and the ability for academic workwill continue to pursue their secondaryeducation in academic, technical or commer-cial schools for another two years. At theend of this period, they sit for the SchoolLeaving Certificate Examination in thesubjects (usually between six and eight)and in the language of their choices. Thosewho have done well may continue theirsecondary education for two more years inpre-university classes. Some who havepassed will seek employment and otherswho have failed but are not over-age(maximum age is 17+) may repeat the oneyear's course at the school certificate level.

8. Pupils who have the aptitude and theability for technical subjects and crafts willnormally continue their secondary education(after the first two years of lower secondaryeducation) in vocational institutes for twomore years or in industrial training centresfor six to twelve months of craft or tradecourses. Those who have done well at theend of their training in vocational institutesand are keen to pursue further may continuetheir technical or vocational education inthe Polytechnic or the Technical Institute.However, most pupils seek employment oncompletion of their secondary educationand training in vocational institutes andtraining centres.

9. The pre-university classes offer artsor science or commercial courses. At theclose of a two-year pre-university course,pupils sit the Higher School Leaving Certi-ficate Examination in the subjects (notmore than four) and in the language oftheir choice. The examination and itsresults are generally used by our universitiesand colleges for the purpose of admission.

Teacher Education10. Before the Second World War teachertraining was carried out at different institu-tions for different categories of teachers.Teachers for English medium secondaryschools were trained at the Raffles College,

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the predecessor of the present Universityof Singapore and the University of Malaya.It provided a four-year liberal arts or sciencecourse with education as an optional subjectin the final year for those who intended tobe teachers. This education course was verysimilar to the third year of the Normal Classtraining. The training of teachers for Englishprimary schools was the responsibility ofthe Government Education Departmentwhich organized and conducted NormalClasses for student teachers. These studentteachers were given a three-year part-timein-service normal training course in theafternoons while they worked in themornings. The lecturers were mainly ex-perienced teachers or school inspectors. Thisform of pre-service training has theadvantages of:

10.1 immediately procuring the servicesof the teachers who have signedup as teachers and are undergoingtraining.

10.2 giving the teachers-in-trainingample practical experience andproviding the supervisors andprincipals adequate opportunitiesof guiding and helping them in the"tricks of the trade".

It has, however, the disadvantages of:

10.3 taxing tired teachers-in-training whoare expected to do well both asschool teachers and as trainees atask may find difficulty infulfilling.

10.4 limiting the training course to basicfundamentals aimed at producing"teaching mechanics" and noteducators no time is given forthe trainee to ponder over whathe has learnt.

On the other hand, Malay primary schoolteachers were trained at two residentialcolleges located in Malaya. Students forthese colleges were admitted after they hadcompleted a seven-year primary education.The majority of Chinese school teacherscame from China. They were either un-trained, not trained by the local educationauthorities. Likewise, Tamil primary school

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teachers who came from India were un-trained.

11. After the war with its attendantpolitical and socio-economic changes, thetraining of teachers to meet the greatdemand for education became the businessof the Government. The Teachers' TrainingCollege (T.T.C.) and the University Schoolof Education (U.S.E.) were established oneafter the other in the year 1950. For tenyears the .londucted full-time pre-service teacher '3,,ra'ig known as theCertificate Course N.Vbileits,continued to runthe part-time in-servide Ni))-krial Course. Itwas during these formative and, momentousyears that the T.T.C. expanded both inenrolment and in scope of training. 6.3 1959the T.T.C. was providing both in-service ndpre-service training for teachers of all fon:streams of education in Singapore. Withthe achievement of self-government in 1959,Singapore launched the ambitious pro-gramme of providing universal primaryeducation and was faced with the acuteshortage of teachers. This resulted in thesuspension of the two-year full-time pre -service training course and the great ex-pansion of the three-year part-time in servicetraining course. Simultaneous with the in-creasing demand for primary school teacherswas the increasing demand for secondaryschool teachers, so the T.T.C. also undertook the training of secondary schoolteachers. Side by side with the one-yearfull-time pre-service diploma course run bythe U.S.E. for graduates, the part-time in-service training of graduate teachers forboth the Chinese and the English mediabegan in the T.T.C. in 1960. By 1965 whenSingapore achieved independence the enrol-ment in the T.T.C. had trebled and itstraining duties included part-time in-servicescourses for teachers of lower secondary,technical, home economics and music classesin schools.

12. When the teacher supply and demandsituation in schools eased somewhat aboutfive years ago a return to the two-yearfull-time pre-service training was made, whilemost of the training was still of an in-servicenature. The gradual switch from part-timetraining to full-time training was made overthe past five years so that from this year,

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with the exception of the last remainingpart-time classes and a few special courses,all trainig is full-time. In other words,Singapore has come to the close of animportant chapter in her history of teachereducation whereby the part-time in-serviceteacher training as a means of pre-serviceteacher training will be a pattern of thepast by the next College year.

13. The training of graduate teachers isnow jointly conducted by the T.T.C. andthe U.S.E. at the T.T.C. The training coursemay be part-time or full-time depending onwhether the student is currently teachingor not teachign. Because of the exigencies ofthe service this pattern of graduate teachertraining will continue for some time tocome. Owing to the need for practicalknowledge and skill in the training of craftand technical teachers, who will have toWork in factories, shipyards etc. a patternof \M-service training must necessarilycontmuf Though there will no longer bein-services -initial training of teachers, there-training anal further training of teachersin service have -,been correspondingly in-creased since 1963. As a result of theswingtowards technical education somere-training courses were droanised for generaleducation teachers to enable them to teachtechnical subjects. However, the majorityof in-service courses are of a refreshernature aimed at the imporvement of thequality of education. By this we meanhaving teachers who are more dedicated,who are better trained and who keep abreastof the latest advancements in education.

Evaluation14. Since the T.T.C. is the sole institutionof teacher training in Singapore and sinceit is also an integral part of the Ministry ofEducation, what happens in schools has aprofound and direct effect on it. Amachinery of evaluation has been establishedin the administration of education for thesystematic and continuous process of factfinding and data gathering in order to aiddecision making with respect to policy andits implementation. The Advisory Commit-tes on Curriculum Development composedof professional officers (the director ofresearch, heads of professional divisions,

some T.T.C. members, school principals andteachers) is a body actively engaged inguiding the development of school curricula.It has some 17 subject standing committeeseach of which is charged with the responsi-bility of evaluating its particular field ofstudy of preparing a workable syllabus forschools at different levels, of reviewingtext-books and of giving professional advicepertaining to the subject. In short, theAdvisory Committee serves as a clearinghouse fc9r all curricular matters on the onehand and gives views and proposals onprofessional matters for the decision makerson the other.

15. The Research Unit in the Ministry ofEducation is mainly concerned with appliedand administrative research in order to helpsolve certain immediate problems (or tohelp find a way out of predicaments) andto guide the making of certain administrativedescisions. The T.T.C. Research Unit con-centrates on teacher education and is givena free hand in choosing research topics.The U.S.E. research activities are mainlythe work of its staff and higher degreestudents. Though the educational researchsituation has improved over the last fewyears, much research and practical surveyson curricula, syllabuses, textbooks, teachingmethods, examinations and pupils' per-formance etc. have still to be done inorder to provide a sound basis for evaluationour educative processes.

16. The aims of teacher education inSingapore have so far not been explictlystated. However, they include the provisionof adequately trained teachers in sufficientnumber to meet the needs of the profession,the instillation of a sense of professionalismin the teacher and a realization of themagnitude of his future tasks and theinculcation of desirable, perhaps essential,qualities such as uprightness of character,courage to speak the truth, devotion toduty, adaptability to changes, tolerance todifferences, thirst for knowledge and loyaltyto the nation. To these ends the curriculaof pre-service training courses include theoryof education, educational psychology, educa-tional sociology, methods of teaching,language studies, physical education, artand crafts, audio-visual media, civics andgovernment and various optional subjects

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in the humanities, the sciences and educa-tion. Co-curricular activities such as tutorialsand seminars, student council activities,sports and games, student societies, com-munity services, form an important part ofa trainee's education in the T.T.C. Thecurricula of in-service training coursesusually concentrate on special areas ofinterests and needs of the teachers. Thequestion to be asked is how well have wesucceeded in achieving these aims.

17. To begin with the T.T.C. being thesole institution for teacher training inSingapore, has at present more than tentypes of courses to cater for the requirementof different types of teachers in schools.They are broadly grouped into the followingcategories:

17.1 Certificate in Education (General,Commerce, Music, Home Econo-mics and Technical). These two-year full-time courses are offeredin four language media whereverpossible and the minimum entrancerequirement is a School Certificatewith a credit in the language ofinstruction, a credit in mathematicsor a science subject and one othercredit. While students in theGeneral course are trained for theprimary schools those in othercourses under this category aretrained to teach special subjects inthe secondary schools. The curricu-lar structures have taken duecognizance of the future roles ofthese trainees.

17.2 Certificate in Education (H.S.C.holders). This is a two-year full-time course offered in the Chineseand the English media and thestudents are trained for the lowersecondary classes.

17.3 Diploma and Certificate in Educa-tion (university graduates). Thesecourses range from one year tothree years and they preparestudents for the upper secondaryclasses. As most of them teach inschools these course are run on apart-time basis.

17.4 Special Courses (Adult Education

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Board teachers, Craft teachers).These are pre-service trainingcourses tailored to the special needsof the trainees.

17.5 In-Service courses for all categoriesof serving teachers. Each of thesecourses is organised at the requestof the Inspectorate, the schoolprincipals or the teachers andattendance is voluntary.

18. Certain built-in processess of evalua-tion of the curriculum exist in the T.T.C.:the formal boards in charge of administra-tion, examinations, studies and otheractivities and the informal feed-back throughtutorials, discussions, and meetings withcollege staff and students, school principalsand teachers and Ministry officials. However,there must be enough qualified professionalsto make a proper curriculum evaluation ofteacher education. The following are someexamples of processes of curriculum evalua-tion in the T.T.C.:

18.1 To attain one of the main aims ofteacher .education i.e. the inculca-tion of desirable qualities, a studentcouncil with elected representativeshas been established. Opportunitiesare therefore provided to thestudents to exercise self-governmentin student affairs and to organisevarious sporting, professional andsocial activities including communi-ty services. In order to help theadministration and the studentbody to develop mutual under-standing and to evaluate thetraining programmes effectively,and to help students to grow andaccept responsibility, electedstudent representatives sit as fullmembers on the Board of Ad-ministration.

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18.2 As a result of trainees' (both pre-service and in-service) commentsand suggestions through question-naires, at the completion of theirtraining courses, many trainingprogrammes have been revised andimproved.

18.3 Regular seminars and discussions

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among staff members on curricula,methods and college procedureshave brought about many innova-tions and much improvement inour training programmes. There isnow more flexibility in the size ofa class and in the methods usedfor college teaching, more ex-perimentation in training pro-grammes and student assessmentand more long-term planning andre-appraisal of what the T.T.C.does and should do than everbefore.

18.4 A forum or platform for theexpression and exchange of viewsand ideas is provided through theCollege publications. They includefindings of the Research Unit, andexpository papers and commen-taries by staff members and otherlocal educationists on currentmatters pertaining to teachereducation. Many future courses aremodified through these writings.

18.5 A conscientious effort is beingmade to up-grade the professionalqualifications of teacher trainers, toensure that they keep abreast withthe latest advancements in educa-tion and to define their role asteacher educators in a changingsociety.

Conclusion19. It must be pointed out that teachereducation programmes generally suffer fromthe common ill of not having clear-cutobjectives and those obtaining in Singaporeare no exception. Our training programmesdo not cater for indivicival differences andare still not innovative enough. We tend togive the impression that we are producingteachers who are at once sound in educa-tional theory and good at classroomteaching out of school leavers after only ashort period of two years. We further tendto perpetuate the impression among ourteachers that once they have been throughan in-service refresher course they areautomatically catapulted into the vanguardof education. We would have gone a long

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way towards achieving our implicit goals enquiry, the humility of learning and theof teacher education if the products of our original zeal for teaching and possess thetraining programmes retain the spirit of courage to change throughout their life.

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CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION IN THAILAND

De Lamaimas Saradatta and Dr. Poj Sapianchaiy

College of Education,Prasarninitr, Thailand

Institutions and Programs of TeacherEducation

In the National Scheme of Education,B.E. 2503 (1960), the Thai Government'spolicy concerning teacher education is statedas follows:

"The state is responsible for the trainingof teachers, and should produce those withqualifications befitting their tasks so thatthe aims of education may be fulfilled".

Thus, the preparation of teachers is

exclusively provided by governmentalinstitutions. These may be classified intotwo types: certificate-granting institutionsand degree-granting institutions. The formerconsist of junior teacher colleges and teachertraining schools which are in the main underthe Department of Teacher Training of theMinistry of Education. The Departments ofVocational Education, Physical Education,and Fine Arts also have under their juris-diction institutions of this type for thepreparation of teachers in specialised areas.The latter type of teacher training institu-tions consists of the College of Educationwhich is under the Department of TeacherTraining and the Faculties of Educationin most of the universities which are underthe Office of the Prime Minister.

The programs offered by the certificategranting institutions are of two levels. Theseare

a) The Certificate in Education programs.These consist of two-year programs forstudents who have completed lower secon-dary education (Grade 10), and a specialone-year program for those who havecompleted upper secondary education(Grade 12). The purpose of these programsis to prepare teachers for the lower ele-mentary schools or the first four year ofschooling.

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b) The Higher Certificate in Educationprograms. These are two-year programsoffered by junior teacher colleges for studentwho have completed the Certificate pro-grams and also for those who have completedupper secondary education. The aim of theseprograms is to prepare teachers for theupper elementary (Grades 5-7) and lowersecondary schools (Grades 8-10).

The degree-granting institutions providetraining programs at three levels, namely,

a) The B.Ed. programs which take fouryears of study beyond the acquisition of asecondary school certificate or a certificatein education. Most institutions also admitpersons holding higher certificates ineducation to the third year courses. Thaprograms offered at this level are elementaryeducation, secondary education, vocationaleducation, rural education, and educationaladministration.

b) The graduate diploma programs whichare one-year courses of study in concen-trated fields, for example, English, Mathe-matics, Audio Visual Education, EducationalEvaluation, etc. Eligible for admission tothese programs are persons holding a bache-lor's degree. The purpose of these programsis to develop proficiency in specialized fields.

c) The M.Ed. programs which are two-year courses of study designed for personsholding bachelor's degrees. If a bachelor'sdegree is not in the field of education, itis required at the College of Education thatthe applicant must have had a minimumof 45 quarter credit hours of study ineducation or in related fields, such as inpsychology. Persons holdng a graduatediploma are also eligible for admission tothe M.Ed. programs. These students areusually exempted from academic majorswhich are required of the other students,

and may complete the M.Ed. programs inone year beyond the graduate diplomaprograms.

Some General Features of TeacherEducation Programs

All programes mentioned above, exceptthe grao.:ate diploma and the M.Ed. pro-grams, have certain features in common.

LAMAIMAS SARADATTA & POJ SAPIANCHAIY

Among these are the requirements for (1)general education, (2) an academic majorand sometimes also one or two minors, and(3) professional course work and studentteaching. The proportion of each of thesefeatures, however, may vary at differentlevels, and from one program to another,The table below shows a rough approxima-tion of each of these features at differentlevels.

Level GeneralEducation

Major andMinor

ProfessionalEducation

Certification in Ed. 58% 27%* 15%

Higher Cert. in Ed. 23% 62%** 20%

B.Ed. 45% 29-35%*** 20-26%

*These are special subjects, namely, agriculture, home economics, handicrafts, physicaland health education, music and drama, Boy Scout or Junior Red Cross, and library sciences.

**There include one major and two academic minors.

***Secondary education students are required to take one major and one academic n.inor,while those in other areas of specialization are required to take only one academic major andmay elect other academic courses to complete the required number of credit hours.

The graduate programs, i.e., the one-yeardiploma and the two-year M.Ed. programs,which are offered only at the College ofEducation and at the Faculty of Education,Chulalongkorn University, have differentfeatures from those already mentioned.Generally, a diploma program concentrateson the particular subject, such as Geography,Mathematics. In some of the programscourses in related fields essential to thestudy of the subject may be included. Forexample, a diploma program in EducationalEvaluation focusses on Test and Measure-ment, Statistics, and Research Methodology,with an addition of a few courses inPsychology.

All M.Ed. programs require a thesis. Atthe Faculty of Education, ChulalongkornUniversity, an MEd. program is composedof a chosen area such as Elementary Educa-tion (between 40 and 60 per cent of thetotal program), related fields of studyspecified by the Faculty (between 20 and40 per cent) and a thesis (20 per cent).Some of the M.Ed. programs offered by theCollege of Education have similar features,

for example, a program in Guidance, butthe ratio between the chosen area and therelated fields of study varies from oneprogram to another and the thesis consistsof 17 per cent of the program. Three of theprograms, namely, Teacher and HigherEducation, Secondary Education, andElementary Education, an academic field isrequired. These programs consist of pro-fessional education (33 per cent), an acade-mic field (40 per cent), elective courseseither in the professional or the academicfields (10 per cent), and a thesis (17 percent).

Some Problems Concerning TeacherEducation Curriculum

The following are some of the curricularproblems voiced by teacher educators.

1. The contents of the science and themathematic courses are mostly descriptivein nature and somewhat disconnected. Out-dated materials are sometimes included.

2. There are unnecessary duplications in

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the contents of some professional courses.

3. In many courses, the content outlinesconsist of lists of topics taken directly fromtext-books, and seem to have very littlerelationship to the main objectives thecourses of study. Most of the sciencecurriculums give emphasis to developmentof the scientific attitude and the scientificmethods in solving problems as part ofthe objectives; the general practice, however,seems to deviate from these important aims.

4. The curriculums are mostly prescribedand crowded with too many requirements.Individual planning with each student isalmost non-exist. Each quarter a studentis required to take 20-28 credits for under-graduate level and 15-18 credits for gra-duate level. Individual work or independentstudy is rather limited since students spendalmost all of their time during a week inlistening to lectures.

5. Facilities for the teaching learningprocess are inadequate. Owing to limitedbudgets, text books, laboratory apparatusand teaching aids are not sufficient in mostschools.

6. Thai text-books are very limited innumber. Most of good text-books are inEnglish and are not much used because ofthe language barrier.

7. The shortage of qualified instructorsin specialized fields, especially in thesciences, mathematics, and languages is aserious problems.

8. In most institutions instruction ismainly by the lecture method. Facts andconcepts are usually verbally explained. Theinquiry method and active participation onthe part of students are seldom used ingeneral learning situations.

9. Generally speaking, students enteringteacher training institutions are not amongthe best ones. This usually is the mainproblem in upgrading the programs.

10. The upsurge of students in eveningclasses in the various institutions increasesthe teaching loads of instructors. It does notpermit him enough time for thoroughpreparation of their lessons, trial of newtechniques, or careful evaluation of their

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own work and students' achievement.

11. Continuity from one level to anotherseems to be lacking in many of the pro-grams. In some programs integration bet-ween formal course work and practical workis to be desired.

Attempts to Evaluate Teacher Educa-tion Programs

From time to time there have beenattempts to restructure and revise thecurriculums for teachers with the hope ofremedying the situations. These are, how-ever, piecemeal and mainly patchwork.Fundamental analyses of objectives andgoals, of the means to these, of the students,and of the various conditions of the school,which will serve as bases for the designsof programs, are needed.

So far, there have only been scatteredstudies, mostly made by students for theirtheses.

Recent DevelopmentsRealizing the potentiality of the M.Ed.

students for research, the College of Educa-tion has, since the end of last year, beenencouraging these students to plan and worktogether in teams in doing their theses,so that this studies may be more extensiveand yield more substantive results. Wherea nation-wide study is called for, a group ofstudents may share the responsibilities ofcollecting and analysing data.

The first team-studies being presentlyundertaken by some of the students centeraround teacher education. An outline of thevarious aspects of teacher education inclu-ding problem areas was cooperativelyworked out by writers and the students.However, the latter were given freedom tochoose whatever aspects or problems inwhich they were most interested, and designtheir own studies with guidance from thewriters and other instructors. Among thesestudies is a follow-up study of the generaleffectiveness of the certificate programs.The study is undertaken on the request ofthe Supervisory Division of the Departmentof Teacher Training with the aims of findingout how satisfied the principals of the variousschools are with the competencies and

behaviors of the teachers who were gra-duated from these programs and are nowworking in the schools, how adequate theteachers themselves think are the prepara-tions they received from the programs,and how much agreement there are betweenthe opinions of the principals and theseteachers concerning the latter's perfor-mances.

Two other endeavors to evaluate thecurriculums in teacher education should bementioned at this point. Recognizing theneed for a re-examination and reorganizationof the curriculums for all levels of education,including that of prospective teachers, theMinistry of Education has recently appoin-ted a committee for this matter. Assumablyworking groups will eventually be formedto carry out the spadework. The otherendeavor is the plan proposed by theCollege of Education for a national seminaron Curriculum Development in TeacherEducation which will be jointly sponsoredby Unesco and the Ministry of Educationlater this year. The seminar has as its focusthe preparation of secondary schoolteachers. The objectives are:

(1) to re-examine the objectives of theprogrammes for the pre-service educationof secondary teachers in light of the changingsocial and economic condition of Thailand.

(2) to analyse and evaluate the aimsand objectives, content, teaching methods

LAMAIMAS SARADATTA & POJ SAPIANCHAIY

and evaluation procedures of the pro-grammes currently offered by the variousinstitutions engaged in the preparation ofsecondary school teachers.

(3) to explore ways and means ofutilising new tools and techniques ofinstruction derived from modern technologyto improve the education of these teachers.

(4) to make suggestions for the re-organization and improvement of thecurricula for the preparation of secondaryschool teachers.

Conclusion

From what has been described above itseems fair to say that attempts to sys-tematically evaluate the curriculums inteacher education in Thialand are stillmeager and insubstantial. This may be dueto the need for rapid expansion of teachereducation institutions in order to meet theurgent demands for an increasing numberof teachers. Judging from past trends, it isestimated that about 10,000 teachers areneeded each year for elementary schools andabout 40,000 for secondary schools andteachser taming institutions at the certificatelevels, apart from those for higher institu-tions. However, the writers firmly believethat a careful and thoughtful effort tosystematically analyze and evaluate theexisting programs are fundamental for theirreorganization.

. 06 89

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATIONIN THAILAND: A CASE STUDY

IntroductionThere are, at present, two types of

institution of higher learning preparingteachers at the degree level: the College ofEducation of the Ministry of Educationand the universities under the jurisdictionof the Prime Minister's Office. Among thenine existing universities, five are engagedin preparing teachers at the undergraduatelevel and one offers both the undergraduateand graduate programs leading to the Masterof Education Degree. These six universitieshaving the Faculty of Education include:

1. Chulalongkorn University startingprogram in 1957 and M.Ed. programin 1961

2. Chiengmai University starting B.Ed.program in 1966

3. Songkhla Nakarin University startingB.Ed, program in 1968

4. Khonkhaen University starting B.Ed.program in 1969

5. Kasetsart University starting B.Ed.program in 1970

6. Silpakorn University starting B.Ed.program in 1970.

Of these six universities, only Chula long-korn and Chiengmai have already producedgraduates with Bachelor's Degree in Educa-tion. The other four universities will even-tually produce their first group of graduatesin 2 or 3 years. This signifies that teachereducation is still in its infancy in most Thaiuniversities having the Faculty of Education.The teacher educators are, therefore, moreconcerned with the implementation aspectof curriculum development in teachereducation than its evaluation phase.

It is interesting to note that since the

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97

Dr. Wichit Srisa-an,

Faculty of Education,Chulalongkorn, Bangkok.

introduction of the baccalaureate programof teacher education into the university inthe past decade, the curriculum evaluationprogram has not been given due attentionand consideration. This is due to a pressingdemand for qualified teachers and the heavyburden imposed upon the teacher traininginstitutions to expand quantitatively. Amongthe six universities preparing teachers, ithas been found that only at the Faculty ofEducation of Chulalongkorn University thata somewhat systematic evaluation of theteacher education curriculum was launchedin 1968 and still in operation. It is, therefore,the purpose of this paper to focus on theevaluative aspect of the curriculum develop-ment in teacher education of this particularinstitution presenting as a case in thecountry report.

Curriculum development strategiesThe Faculty of Education, Chulalongkcrn

University advocates the following view-points with regard to curriculum develop-ment and evaluation:

1. Curriculum development is a con-tinuous process

2. Curriculum evaluation is just onephase of the total process of curricu-lum development.

3. The "system-wide" approach to curri-culum development is more appro-priate and effective than otherapproaches.

With these underlying principles, aCurriculum Committee was set up in 1968to do the overall curriculum planning forthe Faculty. The immediate task was todraw up the master plan for curriculumrevision. The committee adopted a three-phase plan for curriculum improvement

comprising:

Phase 1 : Status assessment

Phase 2 : Reconstruction of theexisitng curriculum

Phase 3 : Implementation

These three phases can be put in the formof cyclic order:

(1)Assessing

Implementing(3)

Reconstructing(2)

This means that the curriculum develop-ment must have gone through theseprocesses. To date, we have completedphase one and part of phase two. The phaseone activities were evaluative in nature. Inorder to obtain as much information aspossible, about the strengths and weaknessesof the existing curriculum, four groups ofpeople were asked to provide the feedbacks.They were (1) all the instructors of theFaculty, (2) the graduating classes who hadgone through the student teaching program(3) representative sample of the graduates(4) representative sample of the employers.The assessment data were obtained throughuse of questionnaire interview, and organi-zed seminars for the curriculum evaluationpurposes. Two seminars were conductedtowards the end of last year: The AlumniSeminar and the Faculty Seminar. Through

WICHIT SRISA-AN

these means the assessment data werecompiled and used as a basis for the secondphase of curriculum development, that isthe reconstruction of the curriculum.

The status assessment yielded four sig-nificant findings:

1. There was a call for more depth in thespecialized teaching area.

2. It was found that there were unnece-ssary duplications of the contents inthe professional courses.

3. There was a very remote relationshipbetween theories and practices. Mostof the theories could not be appliedto the real situation.

4. There was a serious concern on thepart of the instructors and the em-ployers about the graduates' pro-fessional attitude and ethics.

Some concluding remarksEven though a somewhat systematic

evaluation of teacher education curriculumfocussing on product evaluation has beenundertaken, it is just a beginning and stillfar from being adequate substantively andmethodologically. Lack of the performancecriteria to evaluate against, lack of researchon teaching, and lack of the technical know-how on the part of the teacher educatorswith respect to curriculum evaluationtechniques constitute major problems andobstacles. However, the obtained assessmentdata, subjective as they are, will undoubtedlyprovide one of the bases for further curricu-lum improvement. The curriculum evalua-tion in teacher education is now an imme-diately important goal and will still be animportant goal in the years to come.

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CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION:PERSPECTIVES AND PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

The purpose of this paper is to directattention to questions of the role of teachersin the educational process in the context ofthe interlocking problems of social, cultural,economic and political development indeveloping societies, and what curriculawould be appropriate to the strengtheningof this role. Arising from this is the questionof what to evaluate in the courses offeredunder Development Studies and how thisevaluation might be carried out.

2. The framework of this discussion isdelineated by a brief outline of some of theproblems of educational planning and theconventional role assigned to teachers, andthe objectives of-the programme in Develop-ment Studies as part of the general coursesin the Faculty of Education. In thisdiscussion implicit reference is made to thepaper by J.E. Lynch, 'Curriculum Evaluationin Teacher Education: PsychologicalDimensions'.

3. It is now recognised that societies areunderdeveloped because their people areunderdeveloped. Their social economic andpolitical organization is such that themajority have been left to languish inignorance, superstition, ill-health, disease,poverty and apathy. The root cause of thiscondition has been traced to the neglectof education and the training of people totake part in the development of theirsociety. The passion for economic develop-ment and political modernization, followingthe universal impulse toward politicalemancipation from colonial rule, however,has brought about a revolution in theattitude of the new elites as well as themasses to education. Education is seen asthe key to modernization, and millions ofchildren now have the opportunity to go toschool. Somehow it is felt that educationwill provide the driving force for economic

92

Dr. Chaff Hon Chan,

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

development, and therefore the moreeducation there is the better it must be forthe country. But the economic miracle thatwas so eagerly expected did not, in mostcases, materialize mainly because educationwas wrongly conceived and inefficientlyinplemented. What seemed to have beenmisunderstood was that it was not educationper se but the kind of education relevantto economic development that wasimportant.

4. Illustrations of this naivete abouteducation may be seen in the developmentplans drawn up in the recent past by govern-ments in the developing countries. Theseusually revolved around a number ofprogrammes to invest capital in differentsectors of the economy, with a substantialproportion left to the predilections ofprivate investors. These development plansmight be integrated or coordinated withvarying degrees of success with the annualbudget and foreign exchange availabilities,but seldom had the manpower implicationsbeen carefully worked out. It was assumedthat the existing educational system, es-tablished fifty or a hundred years ago withvery little change in the intervening period,would be able to supply the needs of arapidly changing society. A telling point isthat in the annual estimates education wouldbe subsumed under 'Social Services'.Planners seemed to be concerned mainlywith the aggregate expenditure on education,both on current and capital accounts, with-out much apparent attempt to analyse howmuch of these expenditures would reallycontribute towards economic development.The result, more often than not, was a mis-allocation of scarce resources to the develop-ment of educational 'services' which madeno immediate impact on the economicdevelopment programmes. Indeed, with the

swelling tide of unemployable school-leaverssocial problems were apt to deteriorate intopolitical unrest. The traditional concept ofeducation soon came under severe criticismby educationists, sociologists as well aseconomists.

5. The result has been a remarkablespread of the idea that a country must haveeducational planning to maximize thedevelopment of human resources. But likeeconomic planning in the immediate past,educational planning today tends to focusattention on aggregates of student enrol-ments it various levels of schooling, withaggregate numbers of teachers based onbroad teacher-pupil ratios. In more sophisti-cated planning there may be attempts toanalyse the kinds of teachers by subject-specialization within the main categoriesof the teaching force, and appropriatetraining programmes are established toproduce such teachers. But the analysistends to stop at simplistic ratios like 2:3for teachers in the sciences and the humani-ties, with no further breakdown to establishpriorities for teachers of physics, chemistry,mathematics and biology; or for teachersof history, geography, languages, religiop,economics and so on. Underlying theseeducational plans is the wide-spread belief,as an article of faith, that education some-how promotes economic growth, and this isexpressed in the current cry for scienceand technical education.

6. These trends are almost universal inthe developing societies, but there has beenno evidence of any attempt to rationalizethe role of teachers over and above theirconventional function as purveyors ofinformation and knowledge in the overallprocess of training the nation's humanresources. If education indeed is the keyto modernization, then clearly teachers areof paramount importance to the overalldevelopment plans. But they are simplytaken for granted as one of the ` inputs'.It is implicitly assumed that if the teachersare adequately trained in methods ofteaching and in the `subjects' they teach(such as mathematics or science or geo-graphy), it would be sufficient to ensurethe output of a certain quantity of `trained'or even `skilled' manpower. To be sure, an

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increased output of manpower trained inthe sciences and technology is necessary ifthe demand for such manpower in both thepublic and private sectors is to be met andeconomic grwoth is to accelerate, but whatseems to be missing in current trainingprogrammes is the psychological componentto development. Science and technicaleducation, without a corresponding under-standing of the problems of developmentamong the recipients of that education,may fail to maximize the capacity of theyounger generation to make the fullest andmost imaginative use of the vast and ever-expanding body of knowledge in scienceand technology.

7. The philosophy and content of educa-tion in any country are generally assumed tobe a reflection of its social and culturalvalues, the outcome of its history and tech-nological progress. This assumption is validwhere the technologically advanced societiesare concerned. In the case of the developingsocieties there is little basis for this assump-tion for the simple reason that modern,scientific education is largely imported fromabroad. The reliance on textbooks dealingwith science and technology underscoresthis fact. What the developing countries dois to graft the content of modern educationonto a social system with deeply ingrainedvalues which may be in strong disharmonywith the values implicit in the science andtechnology of the West. Learning to drivean automobile is relatively easy because itis mechanical, but internalizing the socialvalues of an industrial society which hasproduced the automobile is an entirelydifferent matter.

8. At a different level, there is often adisjuction between what are purported tobe urgent national problems and thepractical steps taken to solve them. In mostof the developing societies, the populationis said to be increasing so rapidly as toerode or cancel out gains in economicgrowth measured by per capita income, butlittle is done in the schools to include aprogramme of studies in populationproblems. Economic development is theoverriding concern of governments, yet thereare few schools which include, at least atupper secondary level, any studies in the

'1 0 093

problems of poverty and underdevelopmentand the social and economic factors whichpromote development and which wouldcreate greater wealth for the people. Thedemonstration effect of the developednation is to whet the appetite for consumergoods, but little is done in schools to stressthe fact that savings and investment nowworld have a better chance of ensuring ahigher standard of living later.

9. The psychological component of thedevelopment process involves a complexarray of attitudes and values, the propensityfor rational thinking and problem-solving,a pragmatic approach to problems and thecapacity for change when change is con-sidered necessary. In the normal course ofthe educational process it is assumed thatthese attitudes and values are imbibed bystudents, and no doubt many intelligentones do, but for the majority the assumptionmay be based on wishful thinking. Thepreoccupation of the vast majority ofstudents in formal educational institutionsis not with these rather indefinable qualitiesbut with 'facts' which are reproduceable atexaminations, since obtaining the appro-priate paper qualifications would determinetheir employment opportunities. Such is thepervading ethos of schools and e,lucationalsystems that the majority of teachers seemto suffer from the same obsession. But theblame cannot be put entirely on the teachers,who claim they are merely being 'practical'and 'realistic' in responding to their percep-tion of what the educational system and thesociety as a whole expect of them. Fromthis point it is a small step to makingeducation an anti-developmental process,retarding rather than accelerating themodernization of traditional societies. Insuch a milieu it is not difficult to see howteachers consciously or unconsciouslyreinforce precisely those attitudes and valueswhich have underpinned the condition ofunderdevelopment from which the govern-ments of the new nations are so strenuouslytrying to escape.

.10. Because we believe that teachers arethe key to the education of the new genera-tions of young people who should not onlybe 'skilled' in technology and the sciencesbut also responsive to the ideals of economic

94

and social development which is part of thetotal process of national reconstruction,we consider that it is of paramountimportance that they should play a moredynamic role as change-agents. Historicallyteachers in the developing countries havebeen some of the most effective change-agents in the midst of age-old traditions:when schooling was elitist, they wereresponsible for the emergence of the newsocial and political elites. Now thateducation has become egalitarian, they havecontributed to the 'revolution of risingexpectations' among the masses, and thiscarries serious social and political implica-tions where employment opportunities arelimited by a relatively slow rate of economicdevelopment. In an age when the socialorder was relatively static, the mere dis-semination of book knowledge from theWest was catalytic enough to set movingthose social and economic forces whichhave transformed traditional societies. Butthe rapid changes in these societies nowrequire teachers to be more than meretransmitters of book knowledge. Their roleas change-agents must be re-cast to includethe transmission of new ideas, attitudesand values consonant with the urge towardsrapid economic growth.

11. It is with this new role of teachersin mind that the course in DevelopmentStudies was initiated. The focal point ofthis course is the analysis of various aspectsof modern education in relation to con-temporary problems of social, cultural,economic administrative and politicaldevelopment in the developing nations, withspecial reference to Malaysia. There arefour electives within the course: AdultEducation, Libraries and Development,Educational Administration, and HumanResource Development. The course in AdultEducation aims at inducing an awarenessamong graduate teachers of the need forcontinuous learning is an era of the`knowledge explosion' and an understandingof the relationship between individualdevelopment and national development. Itincludes an examination of the variousschemes of adult education in various partsof the world and the methods employedfor programmes ranging from literacycampaigns tz) the 'University of the Air'

I 0 I.

in the United Kingdom. The course inLibraries and Development is designed togive teachers a working knowledge ofdevelopments in library systems and techni-ques of librarianship and an understandingof the central importance of a school orcommunity library in the dissemination ofknowledge and the development ofindividual abilities, rarticularly the basicskills of the trained teacher. The objectivesof the course in Educational Administrationare to introduce teachers to the basicconcepts and practices in educationaladministration, and to provide them withan understanding of contemporary problemsin the organization of education withinthe framework of current developmentsin political modernization, economicplanning, and professional change in theteaching profession. The course in HumanDevelopment is designed to develop insightsinto some of the major obstacles andcatalysts in the modernization process andthe role of education in developing humanresources which underpin this process. Itincludes elementary exercises in educationalplanning.

12. To provide teachers with an overviewof interlocking problems of the variousaspects of development as dealt with underthe above elective courses within Develop-ment Studies, a series of core lectures isgiven by the lecturers, and teachers maychoose to concentrate on any one of theelectives, which are conducted as seminarcourses in which teachers are expected toparticipate actively in the analysis ofproblems relevant to the central theme ofdevelopment of the new nations. Teachersare evaluated on the basis of two writtenexercises. The first is based on the corelectures and their ability to relate keyissues in development problems. The secondinvolves some research into the literaturedealing in depth with some particular aspectof education and development.

13. Clearly teachers in the course areevaluated for their ability to acquirerelevant information and to organize thisinto concepts and principles. In the processit is expected that they would form valuejudgments which may indicate their ownattitudes and values as individuals and as

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teachers. The relative success of thecurriculum may thus be gauged from theperformance of the teachers in the twowritten exercises. But the other set ofobjectives the teachers' transmission tothe pupils they teach of concepts andprinciples, attitudes and values which theyhave developed and hopefully internalizedcannot be evaluated in any meaningful waymainly because the year complicated by ahost of intervening variables. The implicitaim is to bring about a change of attitudesand values in the thousands of childrenwhom they teach over a period of time.Since the elective courses in DevelopmentStudies are not part of the general schoolcurriculum, the teachers will not be teachingthose 'subjects'. All that can be hoped foris an incidental diffusion of those attitudesand values which pertain to developmentproblems. Indeed, even if it were possibleto measure significant changes in attitudesand values in the next generation, on whatbasis could we attribute these changes tothe work of teachers? It is rather likeintroducing fluoride into the water supplyof a city in the hope of reducing caries andother dental troubles in the population.If there were an improvement in thepopulation's dental health, could this beattributed only to the introduction offluoride into drinking water? Should notother factors like improved diet and dentalhygiene also be considered? Notwith-standing these knotty problems, it ispossible to isolate other variables and toevaluate their part in improving the dentalhealth of the population. But there are nofool-proof instruments for isolating andidentifying those variables responsible forchanges in attitudes and values in a popula-tion. It would appear that social andeconomic planners in general, and teachersin particular, will have to be content withthe evidence of change in the society andmerely theorize about the causes. But forthose concerned with a scientific evaluationof the effectiveness of education in bringingabout social and economic change, thiscondition is cause for dissatisfaction, sincethis would leave many programmes forsocial and economic development withoutthe benefit of `feed-back' information whichcould modify and improve future

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programmes. In other words, the predictivevalue of any educational programme forother words, the predictive value of anyeducational programme for changes inattitudes and values would be weakened bythe lack of precise information aboutpossible outcomes.

14. The lack of scientific instrumentsfor evaluating or measuring social andpsychological changes in people, however,is no reason for abandoning efforts to bringabout change. Clearly change is the cumuia-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

96

tive result of pressures of all kinds fromall directions, most of which are outsidethe school. But the fact remains that theteacher occupies a central position as achange-agent in the educational process.His real or potential influence should notbe underestimated. We consider that thereis an urgent need to redefine the role ofthe teacher in the development process, andwith this redefinition as a guide, to revampteacher education so that teachers mayplay a more positive role in promotingthe social, economic and political develop-ment of the new nations.

C, Arnold Anderson and Mary J. Bowman (eds.), Education and Economic Development, Chicago:Aldine Publishing Company, 1965.

C.E. Beeby, The Quality of Education in Developing Countries, Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press, 1966.

Peter T. Bauer and Basil S. Yamey, The Economics of Underdeveloped Countries, Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1957.

James S. Coleman (ed.), Education and Political Development, Princeton, New Jersey: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1965.

Adam Curie, Educational Strategy for Developing Societies: A Study of Education and Social Factorsin Relation to Economic Growth, London: Tavistock Publication, 1963.

George M. Foster, Traditional Cultures and the Impact of Technological Change, New York: Harperand Row, 1962.

Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.John K. Galbraith, Economic Development in Perspective, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard

University Press, 1963.E.E. Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change: How Economic Growth Begins, Homewood, Illinois:

The Dorsey Press, Inc., 1962.

Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, Education, Manpower, and Economic Growth: Strategies ofHuman Resource Development, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.

Joseph A. Lauwerys (ed.), Education and the Economy, London: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1969.E.A.G. Robinson and John E. Vaizey (eds.), The Economics of Education, New York: St. Martin's

Press, 1966.Theodore W. Schultz, The Economic Value of Education, New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.

Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development, New York: Oxford University Press,(4th printing) 1965.

J.E. Walsh, Education and Political Power, New York: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1964.

4.03

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATIONPSYCHOLOGI CAL DIMENSIONS

1 to the nature of education and thenature of the workers in the field, ascientific evaluation of teacher educationcurricula is impossible. The scientific methodis characterized by experimental resultswhich are reproducible and independent oftheir observer; furthermore, the quantitativemeasurements must be precise and thedescriptive terminology must be unam-

Evidence onfactors affectinglearning

Professor J.E. Lynch,

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

biguous. Until these conditions are attained,evaluation will remain deceptive and biased.

In spite of our inability to be scientific,educationists continue to employ the toolsof the scientist. Taba has presented thefollowing model for curriculum evaluation(1962):

Objectives

Evidence on behaviorpertaining to objectives

of the program(adapted for teacher education)

This model supposes: (1) the selectionor construction of the needed evaluatinginstruments and procedures; (2) the analysisand interpretation of data in order todevelop hypotheses regarding curricularchanges; and (3) the means for convertinghypotheses into action.

Taba further lists six criteria whichconstitute the characteristics of a validevaluation program:

1. evaluation must be consistent withobjectives;

2. evaluation must be comprehensive3. evaluation must be diagnostic4. evaluation results must be valid5. evaluation judgments must result from

unified procedures6. evaluation must be a continuous

process.

Evidence on teaching-learning operations

She is aware of the unscientific realities ofcurriculum evaluation. To soften this shesuggests, "The validity of evaluationinstruments tends to improve in the measurein which they are consistent with objectives,are based on a sufficiently careful analysisof the behaviors to be evaluated, and areaddressed to what the students have hadan opportunity to learn."

A NARROW BASED CONCEPT OFEVALUATION

A narrow and often used method ofcurriculum development would be thecalculation of a student's grade in terms ofthe amount of information he has acquiredas determined by an arbitrary test. Abroader more difficult concept of curricu-lum evaluation would not limit itself to an

10497

interpretation of information acquired butwould also evaluate the teacher's criticalthinking, values and attitudes, sensitivities,and skills. This broader evaluation wouldalso consider the choice of materials andteacher methods as well as random learningresulting from the choice of materials andmethods.

Evaluation of the Acquisition ofInform- 'ion and Knowledge

A distinction between information andknowledge should be made. Information isconsidered to be that part of a communi-cated message which conveys somethingmeaningful, but not always or completelytrue, to the recipient. Knowledge is the endproduct of an individual's ability to organizerandom bits of information into conceptsand principles. Learning of concepts dependsupon a person's ability to organize similarwords by way of function or design. Boththe acquisition of information and know-ledge produce a change of behavior in thelearner. This behavior change is easilymeasured and the quantity of behaviorchange measured can be used as an evalua-tion of a curriculum. Although the narrowbased concept of evaluation might appearlimited in scope, at the same time it has theadvantage of being functional by realisticallyconcentrating on only one area of theeducational process, the acquisition ofinformation and knowledge.

A BROAD BASED CONCEPT OFEVALUATION

But there is more to the process ofeducation than the acquisition of informa-tion and knowledge. The process by whichthis information and knowledge is acquriedis important because of the random learningwhich takes place as a result of this process.In the process of acquiring information andknowledge, a student should also be learninghow to think critically, gaining appropriatevalues and attitudes, and gaining skills. Abroad based concept of evaluation wouldinclude all these aims of teacher education.

Evaluation of a Teacher EducationProgram and Process

Cronbach (in Heath 1964) believes that

98

10 :3.

evaluation for course improvement involvesusing information about materials andmethods to determine behavioral changes.This information should be broadly collectedand is most influential if acquired for useduring the development of the course orprogram. Consequently, evaluation shouldgo beyond the immediate content as attestedby scholars. In order to perform this typeof evaluation, an item analysis of a widerange of responses to questions is moreinformative that a composite score givento those who have all taken the same test.Random samples of interviews and essayquestion answers may also serve as instru-ments of a broad-based evaluation.

The Relation of Objectives, Condi-tions of Learning, and Evaluation

One of the basic problems in the for-mulation of educational objectives and thedesigning of appropriate evaluative tech-niques is the lack of a common frame ofreference to guide thinking. This is a

problem of any group at work in these areas,and it becomes a compounded problemin the communication between any twogroups. The problem is that commonlyused terms mean different things to differenteducational workers. A notable example isthe objective, "to develop the ability tothink critically." It is of course impossibleto evaluate objectives which are poorlydefined.

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,developed by Benjamin Bloom and others,is an attempt to provide structure in thisarea. It consists of two domains, theCognitive Domain (1956) which is structuredon the principle of simple to complex, andthe Affective Domain (1964) which isstructured on the prin,:.:ple of internaliza-tion. The Taxonomy attempts to do severalthings: (1) it specifies major and minorclassifications; (2) it provides descriptionsof the kinds of objectives that fail into thevarious classifications; (3) it gives examplesof educational ,objectives (appropriate tothe various classes); (4) it suggests howthese different objectives can most appro-priately be evaluated; and (5) it providesillustrative test items.

The following summary of the Taxonomy

may provide a review or an introductionto this area. The summary lists the majorclassifications of the Taxonomy (e.g., 1.0Knowledge), gives a general definition ofthe class (in parentheses), and providesan illustrative educational objective. Hope-fully this will suggest the kind of thinkingthat must precede effective evaluation ineducation.

Cognitive domain1.0 Knowledge (includes these behaviors

and test situations which emphasizethe remembering, either by recognitionor recall, of ideas, material, orphenomena). The recall of major factsabout particular cultures.

2.0 Comprehension (emphasis is on thegrasp of the meaning and intent ofthe material). The ability to interpretvarious types of social data.

3.0 Application (emphasis is on remem-bering and bringing to bear upon givenmaterial the appropriate generaliza-tions or principles). The ability toapply social science generalizationsand conclusions to actual socialproblems.

4.0 Analysis (emphasis is upon the break-down of the material into its consti-tuent parts and detection of therelationships of the parts and of theway they are organized). The abilityto recognize unstated assumptions.

5.0 Synthesis (the putting together ofelements and parts so as to form awhole). Skill in writing, using anexcellent organization of ideas andstatements.

6.0 Evaluation (the making of judgmentsabout the value, for some purpose,of ideas, works, solutions, methods,material, etc.). The ability to identifyand appraise judgments and valuesthat are involved in the choice of acourse of action.

Affective domain1.0 Receiving, attending (concern that the

learner be sensitized to the existenceof certain phenomena and stimuli; that

LYNCH

he be willing to receive or to attendto them). Recognition that there maybe more than one acceptable pointof view.

2.1 Responding (concern with responsesthat go beyond merely attending tothe phenomenon. The student issufficiently motivated that he is notjust willing to attend, but that he isactively attending). Contributes togroup discussion by asking thought-provoking questions or supplyingrelevant information and ideas.

3.0 Valuing (the phenomenon has worthto the individual. He values it). Asense of responsibility for listeningto and participating in publicdiscussion.

4.0 Organization (As the learner successive-ly internalizes values, he encounterssituations for which more than onevalue is relevant. Thus necessity arisesfor (a) the organization of the valuesinto a system, (b) the determinationof the interrelationships among them,and (c) the establishment of thedominant and pervasive ones.) Relateshis own ethical standards and personalgoals through the reading of biographyand other appropriate literature.

5.0 Characterization by a Value or ValueComplex (value hierarchy is organizedinto a consistent system which hascontrolled the behavior of the indi-vidual for a sufficient time that he hasadapted to behaving in this way).Readiness to revise judgments and tochange behavior in the light ofevidence.

Gagne (1965) states that in decidingon the conditions for learning, one mustfirst define the objectives which are thechanges in behavior that are sought. Inorder for objectives to be meaningful, theymust be defined in terms of observablehuman performances. Rather than merelystating objectives, they must be definedoperationally.

Such a definition seems to have thefollowing components:

10699

1. a verb denoting observable action;2. a description of the class of stimuli

being responded to;3. a word or phrase denoting the object

used for action by the performer;4. a description of the class of correct

responses.

Cronbach (1963) suggests four ap-proaches to evaluation:

I. systematic observation by the teachertrainer of trainee's accomplishmentduring the try-out stage of a newcourse or subject;

2. process studies of events taking placein the lecture hall;

3. attitude and proficiency measures ofchanges in student meanings andbeliefs, and increases in all types ofproficiency that might be reasonablyexpected, not just selected outcomes;

4. follow-up studies of the later careersof those who have participated in thecourse. Although far removed fromthe instruction, they come closest toobserving the ultimate educationalcontribution of the course.

What does it mean to evaluate anobjective? At a minimum it means thatbehaviours by which an objective is definedare not found to be in gross contradictionto a major value (a criticized interest). Forexample in training teachers, it is expectedthat each will do a minimum amount ofresearch by gathering background informa-tion on the students they are teaching. Oneor more of the initially formulatedbehaviours which are to define this ob-jective, however, allows the teacher todeceive his students as to the completeuse of the gathered data. Reasons giveninclude the furtherance of knowledge andthe like. Reflection indicates that thisbehavior conflicts with a major value,truthtelling, which as a criticized interestindicates that deception over time hasa destructive quality. If this situation isclearly considered before the outcome isimplemented, it is hypothesized that thebehavior will be so modified as to at leastminimize the deceptive elements. It is merely

100

an affirmation of a belief that reflectiveexamination of the relationships of positedobjectives and held values before action istaken will give the most viable outcomes.

Similarly, what is meant by "evaluatinga procedure?" The materials, methods, andactivities which support the procedure aremade as consistent as possible with positedobjectives. This consistency is also necessaryto viable outcomes.

The job of evaluation is to collect anduse facts to develop better teacher educationprograms and to gain a deeper understandingof the educational process.

Ways evaluation may be used are:

1. to measure each expected outcomeseparately, while avoiding themistakes of agglomerating manytypes of post course performanceinto a single score;

2. to improve a course being construc-ted by constant evaluation;

3. to determine which ingredients ofa new course are responsible for itsadvantage over an old course (thisalso keeps the curricula frombecoming a monolithic movementwhen older or traditional curriculaare dispensed with (Good lad, 1964);

4. to measure the amount of transfer,both to a wide variety of newsituations (lateral) and the increasedability by the student to learnhigher-order principles.

Evaluation of Reasoning and ValueJudgments

The two most difficult areas of thecurriculum to evaluate are critical thinkingand value judgments. The main problem inevaluating these two areas arises out of thefact that there is a tendency to view criticalthinking and values as absolutes when inreality they should be viewed on a slidingscale. What is logical for one person mightbe illogical for another. What might beacceptable value for one might be un-acceptable for another. Also, the termino-logy used in discussing critical thinking andvalues is ambiguous. In the area of critical

thinking such terms as imply, infer, inter-pret, generalize, analyze, create, and appraiseare used. These words, because of theirvaried meanings, are vague. In a discussionof values such abstract concepts (nouns)as appreciation, cooperation, courage,beauty, fair play, faith, honesty, and res-ponsibility are used, These words carrydifferent meanings for different people atdifferent times and places. Consequently,any evaluation of critical thinking or valuejudgments would have to be highly indi-vidualized and take into consideration notonly a person's objective actions but alsothe immediate time and place as well asprevious circumstances which lead to thisbehavior. Evaluation tools such as theWatson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisaland the Osgood Semantic-Differential Scalehave obvious limitations because of theirinability to evaluate, in depth, absolute

LYNCH

or fixed behaviors.

SummaryIt is held that evaluation is not a process

that' is applicable to outcomes alone. Norare the difficulties of this formulationalleviated by stating generally that evaluationshould be undertaken "constantly". Ratherit is necessary that an explication be madeof the loci of evaluation and these lociare seen to be (minimally) the relation ofvalues and objectives, the relation ofobjectives and procedures, and the relationof objectives and (actual) outcomes. Withall these factors taken into account, it canbe hypothesized that plans of action willhave greater predictive value and that, infact, the evaluation of actual outcomes willsupply valuable information helpful inmaking decisions about the teacher trainingprogram.

Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Englehart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., and Krathwohl, D.R. Taxonomy of Educa-tional Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain, New York: McKay, 1956.

Bloom, B.S., Krathwohl, Dr. R., and Masia, B.B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook II:Affective Domain. New York: McKay, 1964.

Brown, Frederwk G., Principles of Educational and Psychological Testing. Hillsdale Illinois: DrydenPress 1970.

Bruner, Jerome S. THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION. New York: Random House, 1960.Cronbach, Lee J. "Course Improvement through Evaluation" TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD.

May, 1963, 672-683.Fox, David J. THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN EDUCATION. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

Inc., 1969.

Gagne, Robert M. THE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,1965.

Goodlad, John I. SCHOOL CURRICULUM REFORM, New York: The Fund for the Advancementof Education, 1964.

Heath, Robert W. (editor). NEW CURRICULA. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.Rosenbloom, Paul C. (editor). MODERN VIEWPOINTS IN THE CURRICULUM. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.Taba, Hilda, CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE. New York: Harcourt,

Brace and World, Inc., 1962.

108.101

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION:PERSPECTIVES & PROBLEMS IN COMPARATI% E STUDIES

IntroductionComparative studies in education aim

at applying the comparative approach to thestudy of educational phenomena. Compari-son is not an end in itself. Comparisonshould lead to classification, and the latterto the expression of "laws".

The process of comparison involvesputting the 'things' to be classified side byside and then taking note of the similaritiesand differences. Evidently the method ofclassification is influenced by the prejudicesof the classifier and can never be entirelyobjective. But at the back of the classifica-tion, there is always a hypothesis or theoryor model of some sort. Classification has forend the framing of general statements (orthe expression of laws) which alone issignificant and helpful.

Comparative studies in education candeal with comparison of systems of educa-tion on the basis of space. This could be ofnation-states (Education in Malaysia andSingapore) or of some other geographicalgrouping, for example, a region (Educationin Southeast Asia). It is also possible tocompare systems of education at differentperiods of time. Thus one could make acomparison of the provision of education inMalaya before 1941 and after 1957.

MethodologyThe methodology of comparative studies

may be broadly classified under twoheadings: one, which is used in area studies,and two, in comparative studies.

Area studies: An area study describesthe educational system or practices of oneparticular country. A descriptive study ofthe supervision and evaluation of studentteaching2 in Malaysia, for example, wouldlist the educational data under the following:

102 109

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

Dr. Francis Wong,

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

The persons primarily responsiblefor the supervision of studentteaching;

Others who co-operate in thesupervision;

The extent of supervision;

The procedures used in supervisingteaching practice;

The assessment of teaching practice;and

f) The supervision and evaluation ofaspects of student teaching otherthan teaching practice.

The study can be made not onlydescriptive but also interpretative by aciitical analysis of the educational data. Forexample, an interpretative study of thesupervision and evaluation of studentteaching would also involve an analysis ofeach item listed above, against the back-ground of other determinants of educationalpolicy like social, economic, political andcultural backgrounds of the countrycon cerned.3

Comparative Studies: A report of onecountry is an area study whether it bepurely descriptive or interpretative, or both.Likewise writing several reports for severalcountries is merely listing one report afteranother and, as such, are still area studies.For example, in making a study of "TheAims and Objectives of Student Teaching"in the Republic of China, India, Pakistan,and the Philippines, one could list the aimsand objectives for each country as follows:

In the Republic of China The Ministry ofEducation has outlined the objectives ofstudent teaching as 1. To make studentsaware of the objectives and scope of teaching

in the elementary school; 2. To give studentsexperience of teaching and guidance in theelementary school; 3. To acquaint themwith the management and administrationof the elementary school; and 4. To givethem some experience of social education.In India The All-India Seminar on theElementary Teacher Training Programmeheld in 1963, lists the objectives of studentteaching as 1. To enable the teacher traineeto explore and utilize effectively the teacher-learning situations in relation to school,home and neighbouring community; 2. Toenable him to work for his own professionalgrowth and improvement of teaching skillsafter the completion of his training byutilizing the school and the communityresources; 3. To enable him to assess pupilgrowth and development; and thus 4. Tohelp him in promoting the growth and all-round development of the child.

In Pakistan, the following were theobjectives of the student teaching pro-gramme issued by the Institute of Educa-tional Research of the University of Dacca.1. To develop a greater degree of masteryof the subject matter to be taught in theclassroom; 2. To develop an increasedunderstanding of educational principles andof their implications for teaching; 3. Todevelop skill in the use of the fundamentalprocedures, techniques, and methods ofteaching; 4. To promote the developmentof a thoughtful and alert student of educa-tion as well as to make each student efficientin teaching; 5. To develop, in each student,desirable teaching personality traits andpersonal relationships with othersadministrators, teachers, parents, andstudents; 6. To develop desirable pro-fessional interests, attitudes and idealsrelative to the educational professions; and7. To develop an understanding of educa-tional psychology and the psychologicalaspects of childhood and youth.

in the Philippines, the objectives of studentteaching outlined by the Philippine NormalCollege were 1. To give the student teachera chance to put into application the theories,precepts, principles, and techniques whichhe has learned in his college courses; 2. Togive the student teacher an opportunityto synthesize facts, ideas and skills into a

FRANCIS WONG

whole which eventually comprises the entirepattern of successful teaching; 3. To helpthe student teacher to form a soundphilosophy of education which will aid himto crystallize some professional attitudes andideas; 4. To actually bring the studentteacher in intimate contact with children;and 5. To serve as a laboratory for testingthe student teacher's fitness for the teachingjob.4

The first step in making a comparison iswhat Bereday calls "juxtaposition" whichconsists of listing the classified data witha view to finding a unifying concept orhypothesis. Thus in the study of "The Aimsand Objectives of Student Teaching," itwould be comparative treatment if theselected material were analysed so as tobring out the similarities and differencesunder this heading, and the results summedup. Thus, if we juxtapose the various state-ments reproduced above, we could classifythe objectives of student teaching into thefollowing:

Objectivesrelating to: a) the development of the

ability to translate theoryinto practice;

b) the development of a fullerand a better understandingof the psychology ofchildren;

c) the development of self-confidence, initiative andresourcefulness to do acreative job of teaching;

d) the development of anunderstanding of the variedroles that student teacherswill be called upon toassume when they becomeregular teachers, and

e) the development of a morerealistic view of their tasksas teachers by familiarizingthem with the actual con-ditions and problems in thefield; and

f) the development of whole-some professional attitudesand good human relations

ilo103

to be able to deal effective-ly with their pupils, theircolleagues and the peopleof the community whichthey will be serving.

After juxtaposition comes completecomparison which uses either a) the problemapproach or b) the total analysis approach.The former involves the comparative analysisof the similarities and differences of onetheme throughout the representativesystems. This methodology has been used bythe editors of the World Year Book ofEducation. Thus for 1948, 1949, and

1950 The Effects of the War onEducation

1951 Occupational Selection andDifferentiation through Educa-tion

1952 The Reform of Education1953 The Social Position of Teachers

1954 Education and the Transforma-tion of Societies

1955 Guidance and Counselling

1956 Education and Economics

1957 Education and Philosophy1958 The Secondary School Curricu-

lum

1959 Higher Education

1960 Commur.ication Media and theSchool

1961 Concepts of Excellence inEducation

1962 The Gifted Child1963 The Education and Training of

Teachers

1964 Education and International Life1965 The Education Explosion

1966 Church and State in Education1967 Education and Planning1968 Education in industry1969 Examinations

1970 Education in Cities

The other approach is total analysis.It is only after long practice in handlingarea studies (descriptive and interpretative)

104

and comparative studies (juxtaposition andthe interpretative) that the student of com-parative education is in a position to comparein total analysis. An example of such anattempt would be if we were to study "TheRelation of Student Teaching to the Coursesof Study in the Teacher TrainingCurriculum" under the following stages:first, to list the general education courses ofthe countries under study as shown inTable 1.

Second, to compare them under twoheadings a) how the general educationcourses in the curriculum prepare thestudents for their student teaching pro-gramme and b) how the professional educa-tion courses prepare the students for theirstudent teaching responsibilities.

Under (a) we can see from Table I, thatthe courses most often cited as having asignificant bearing on the student teachingprogramme are the Language Arts, Mathe-matics, Science, Social Studies, Music, ArtCrafts, and Health and Physical Education.In fact these are also the subjects in theelementary school curriculum. In India, thereare no courses in general education as such;instead, the students study what is called"remedial teaching in the content subjects",which really mean a recapitulation of thecontents of the primary school curriculum.

Under (b) the professional educationcourses can be tabulated as follows:

Burma : Theory and Practice ofEducation, Child Psycho-logy, Educational Psycho-logy, School Administra-tion.

Ceylon : Principles of Education,Educational Psychology,(including EducationalGuidance), General Me-thods of Teaching, SpecialMethods of Teaching.

Republic ofChina

: (three-year course), Edu-cational Psychology, So-ciology of Education, Com-parative Education in theElementary School, Mo-dern Educational Thought.

Tab

le 1

: The

gen

era:

edu

catio

n co

urse

s w

hich

ser

ve to

pre

pare

stu

dent

s fo

r st

uden

t tea

chin

g+

Cou

ntry

Lan

guag

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rts

Mat

hsSc

ienc

eSo

cial

Stud

ies

Mus

icA

rt a

ndC

raft

Hea

lth&

P.E

.D

omes

ticSc

ienc

eA

gr.

Oth

erA

reas

Rem

arks

Bur

ma

*(B

urm

ese

way

toSo

cial

ism

**

*

Cey

lon

Sinh

ales

* e

(for

Sinh

ales

e sp

eaki

ngst

uden

ts)

Tam

il(f

or T

amil)

spea

king

stu

dent

s

Gen

eral

Scie

nce

*H

isto

ry &

Civ

ics

orG

eogr

aphy

**

**

(Fo*

r

men

)

Chi

na, R

ep.

of (

Thr

ee-

year

cou

rse)

*(b

oth

Chi

nese

and

Man

dari

n)

*(H

isto

ry;

Civ

ics;

3Pr

inci

ples

of th

ePe

ople

)

*M

ilita

ryT

rain

ing;

Ele

ctiv

es

Chi

na, R

ep.

of (

Five

-ye

ar c

ours

e)

*(b

oth

Chi

nese

and

Man

dari

n)

**

(His

tory

;G

eogr

aphy

;C

ivic

s; 3

Prin

cipl

esof

the

Peop

le)

**

*M

ilita

ryT

rain

ing;

Log

ic;

Ele

ctiv

es

Indi

aR

emed

ial

teac

hing

inth

e co

nten

tsu

bjec

ts

Mal

aysi

a*

(Mai

n &

sec

ond

Lan

guag

e)

**

(Gen

eral

Scie

nce)

*(H

isto

ryG

eogr

aphy

)

**

*

Paki

stan

**

**

(His

tory

;G

eogr

aphy

)

**

Rel

igio

usE

duca

tion

Phili

ppin

es*

**

Sing

apor

e*

**

**

**

Tha

iland

(Tha

i Ang

lish)

**

**

Vie

tnam

(Sci

entif

icE

xper

imen

ts)

*.(D

raw

ing

&H

andw

ork)

(inc

lu*

ding

Hyg

ienc

e&

Fir

st a

id

Scho

olY

outh

Act

iviti

es

+ S

tude

nt T

each

ing

Prac

tices

in P

rim

ary

Tea

cher

Tra

inin

g In

stitu

tions

in A

sia

UN

ESC

O, B

angk

ok, 1

969,

'bid

pp.

46-

49.

India

Malaysia

Pakistan

ThePhilippines

(five-year course), Intro-duction to Education, Edu-cational Psychology, His-tory of Education, Com-parative Education in theElementary School, Socio-logy of Education, Philoso-phy of Education, Educa-tional Tests and Statistics,Audio-Visual Education,Health Education.

Educational Psychology,

Child Psychology, Methodsof Teaching (General andSpecial), School Adminis-tration and Organisation.

Principles of Education,Child Development, Hu-man Behaviour, Methodsof Teaching.

Principles of Education,Child Development, Spe-cial Methods of Teaching.

Principles of the Teaching-Learning Process, Teachingin Vernacular, Develop-ment of the ElementaryCurriculum, Understandingthe Learner, EvaluationTechniques, Audio-VisualEducation, Children'sLiterature, Teaching Eng-lish as a Second Language,the Teaching of Music, ArtEducation.

Singapore : Principles of Fducation,Educational Psychology,General Methods, SpecialMethods of Teaching,Audio-Visual Education,Speech Training.

Thailand

106

: Human Growth and Deve-lopment, Educational Psy-chology, Introduction toThai Education, Audio-Visual Education, Evalua-tion in Education, SchoolHealth, General Methodsof Teaching and Observa-tion, Speical Methods ofTeaching the following

113

Republic ofVietnam

subjects: Language Arts,Social Studies, Science,Arithmetic, Art andMusic.

: General Pedagogy, Specia-lised Pedagogy, Psychologyof Education, ProfessionalEthics.

From the above tabulation we see thatthe most frequently mentioned courses are:Child Psychology or Child Development,Principles of Education or Introduction toEducation, General Methods of Teaching,and Special Methods of Teaching. Courseswhich have been mentioned only once butwhich can be very helpful to students areChildren's Literature (Philippines), SpeechTraining (Singapore), and Professional Ethics(the Republic of Vietnam).

A comparison of the classified data (a)and (b) shows that the countries understudy view student teaching as the culmina-tion of the teacher training programme. Thisis reflected in their respective teachertraining curriculum which lay emphasis ona) the content of the courses (being relatedto the demands of the teaching situation);b) the necessity of relating theory to practicein the general and professional courses; andc) the provision of practical experiences andguidance to the student teachers in thecourses on general and special methods ofteaching.

Levels of StudyComparative studies in education may be

conducted at various levels, for example,at the informative level, at initial teachertraining courses to help the teacher traineeknow and understand better his own educa-tional system and those of other countries.5In time he learns to deduce from the achieve-ments and mistakes of other educationalsystems, lessons for his own. He also learnsto appraise educational issues from aninternational rather than an ethnocentricperspective.

Thus at the University of Malaya Facultyof Education an integrated syllabus has beendesiged to help the student a) develop amore objective and realistic appraisal of thestrength and weaknesses of Malaysian educa-

tion; b) examine the educational system ofselected countries of Southeast Asia(Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand,Singapore and Malaysia); and c) study theways in which these countries have ex-perience and dealt with specific problemssuch as nationalism, human resource develop-ment, teacher recruitment and training andadult education.

The course consists not merely of adescription of the various systems and howthey work but rather each system is assessedin its historical, cultural, economic andpolitical contexts. With this in mind atten-tion is given to the study of the system ofeducation in each country from the histori-cal, philosophical, curriculum and structuralperspectives.

Other levels include the problem-analysis6 (which would be suited to theadvanced student preparing for higherdegrees), the inter-disciplinary 7 (where thestudent works closely with specialists fromother disciplines), and the committmentand decision-making 8 (in which the research-student works in collaboration with educa-tional planners and administrators to inform

FRANCIS WONG

and advise the Government on matterspertaining to education).

At whatever level it may be, the teachingand research must be closely related to thelocal dynamics of particular culturalcontexts, sensitive to changes, and alert tothe different opportunities and responsibi-lities of education today. In brief, com-parative studies in education must be taught,studied and brought to life, with a purpose.Or as Lauwerys puts it: "In the search forsolutions to problems, comparative educa-tion can aid in two ways, first, by helpingus better to understand the nature of theproblems and the general principles whichcan guide us when we seek answers to they.It is often said that Comparative Educat'.must compare. Very well but why? Is itsufficient simply to let the comparisonsstand side by side? Evidently not: the aimof comparison is to move towards thestatement of general principles, Secondly,by studying what our colleagues in otherlands do, we may get ideas helpful in ourown national environment but we shall beable to borrow usefully and constructivelyonly if we understand the basic principles.9

I Examples of studies in comparative methodology are (a) Comparative Method in Education, byGeorge Z.F. Bereday (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, 1964); (b) Methodology inComparative Education, by Lewis Spolton, in Comparative Education, Vol. 4, No. 2, PergamonPress, Oxford, 1968; and (c) Toward a Science of Comparative Education, by Harold J. Noahand Max A. Eckstein (The Macmillan Company, London, 1969).

2 The term "student teaching" is here taken in the widest possible sense to include all the experiences

107

114

and practical activities that serve to prepare the student teacher for his various responsibilitiesas a teacher.

3 A fine example of such studies is the "Society, Schools and Progress" Series, published by PergamonPress, Oxford.

4 Student Teaching Practices in Primary Teacher Training Institutions in Asia, UNESCO, Bangkok,1969.

5 Examples of such studies are (a) The Place of Comparative Education in the Training of Teachers(Proceedings of the Conference of the Comparative Education Society in Europe, University ofReading, September, 1965, edited by P.J. Mercier); (b) An Introduction to the Study ofComparative Education, by Vernon Mallinson (Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London,1957) and (c) Tradition and Change in Education A Comparative Study, by Andreas M.Kazarnias and Byron G. Massialas (Prentice-Hall, Inc., J.J., 1965).

6 An excellent example of this is Problems in Education A comparative Approach, by Brian Holmes(Rout ledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1965). Dr. Holmes suggests how common problems maybe analysed and illustrates his methodology in case studies.

7 Thelma Bristow and Brian Holmes give a very comprehensive bibliographic guide to these and otherstudies on comparative studies in education in their Comparative Education through theLiterature (Butterworth, London, 1968).

See also The Inter- Disciplinary Approach to Educational Planning, by Robert Jacobs, in ComparativeEducation Review, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1964.

8 Illustrative studies of these are (a) Comparative Studies and Educational Decision, by E.J. King(Methuen Educational Ltd., London, 1968) and (b) Comparative Education Research and theDeterminants of Educational Policy(Proceedings of the Comparative Education Society inEurope, Amsterdam, 1963).

9 In his Opening Address to the Second (.2Pneral Meeting of the Comparative Education Society inEurope, Berlin, June 8th-12th, 1965.

108

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION INSOUTH-EAST ASIA A PEDAGOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

I. The Pedagogical ElementsThere is probably little scope for dis-

agreement on the five basic and ever presentelements in the pedagogical situation.Couched as they may be in somewhatdiffering terms by different writers never-theless they are always clearly recognizable.Sim's 1 straightforward account as set outin Appendix A, naming them the Teacher,the Pupil(s), the Content, the Objectivesand the Environment would no doubt beacceptable to all. Good lad 2 identifiesessentially the same elements when writingon Instructional Decisions, describing themas the Teacher himself, some sense ofdirection, the learners, the materials andsubject matter and adds the necessity ofsome view of what learning is, while omittingthe environment. Even more general descrip-tions would be Mitzel's 3 Presage, Processand Product factors, again essentially to beidentified with Input, Throughput and Out-put factors.

No one is, however, deceived by the easewith which these elements may be identified.The complexity of each element in itself iswell-known and illustrated by discussionsin earlier papers, such as the discussion ofobjectives and summary of Bloom's Taxono-my outlined in the pape: by Lynch4. Toillustrate the problems involved in theseelements we might carry this discussionof objectives, the first element, a littlefurther.

Within the last decade th.L most im-portant emphasis and shift in the statementof objectives for teaching has been to theinsistence that these should be stated innon-general, specific and behavioral terms.Mager has bluntly stated that "a statementof objective is useful to the extent that itspecifies what the learner must b, able todo or perform then he is demonstrating his

Mr. A.L. McGregor,

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

mastery of the objective"5 He suggests thefollowing questions to assure the clarityand completeness of any statement ofobjectives: 6

1. "Does the statement describe whatthe learner will be doing when he isdemonstrating that he has reachedthe objective?

2. Does the statement describe theimportant conditions (given orrestrictions or both) under whichthe learner will be expected todemonstrate his competence?

3. Does the statement indicate howthe learner will be evaluated? Doesit describe at least the lower limitof acceptable performance ?"

The emphasis has been largely and enthu-siastically adopted, at least by the theoristsin pedagogy. Understanding, enjoyment,appreciation have beer ai:andoned in favourof reciting, stating, identifying, listing andso on.

A warning note however has been struckby Smith 7 in listing, as one of the chargesagainst the "quality and scholarly validityof the material presented in many pro-fessional education courses" the following: -

"The charge that some teachers aremisusing concepts, generalizations, andmethods of inquiry in the behavioral scienceswhich are valid only in terms of the con-structs arranged by behavioral scientists inunique experimental situations."

Tyler, while strongly stating the usefulnessof many concepts, generalisations andmethods of enquiry from the behavioralsciences in providing a basis for under -standing learning and teaching, gives thesame warning when he says: 8

109

116

" . . . two facts need to be kept in mind.In the first place, behavioral scientists havenot generally conducted their studies orformulated their constructs in order toemphasise and guide teaching and learning.In the second place, concepts, generalisa-tions, and methods of enquiry in the beha-vioral sciences are valid in terms of thelogical structure from which they arederived. The prospective teacher will oftenmisuse them if he does not understandwhat questions they seek to answer and interms of the ways of conceiving the socialreality in which they have been developed. . . Because of the difference in the kindsof question under study the behavioralsciences not only may fail to provide directanswers to the questions of primary concernto the student of education but they mayalso contribute less in the nature of researchfindings than they do to the developmentof conceptualisations useful in thinkingabout problems of education and in con-ducting inquiries about these problems, andto the invention of techniques useful inconducting educational enquiries."

In spite of such warnings the emphasis,as I said, has been largely accepted. AsAtkin 9 humorously puts it:

"In certain influential circles anyonewho confesses to reservations about theuse of behaviorally stated objectives forcurriculum planning runs th.; risk of beinglabeled as the type of individual who wouldattack the virtues of motherhood. Bumperstickers have appeared at my own institu-tion, and probably at yours, reading STAMPOUT NONBEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES."

Undaunted by such threats however, Atkingoes on to state several sane, mildly put,and to my mind as yet unanswered reserva-tions about such objectives which could besummarised as follows:-

110

1. The fundamental problem lies inthe easy assumption that we eitherknow or can readily identify theeducational objectives for whichwe strive, and thereafter the educa-tional outcomes that result fromour program . . . We art; makingprogress towards thousands of goalsin any existing program . . . .

2. Certain types of highly desirableinnovations can be hampered andfrustrated by early demands forhebavioral statements of objectives,

3. Many important concepts and ideasare pervasive and arise in classroomsituations that are unplanned buthave powerful potential . . . . Ri-veting a teacher's attention to afew behavioral goals provides himwith blinders that may limit hisrange.

4. "The behavioral analyst seems toassume that for an objective to beworthwhile, one must have methodsof observing progress. But worth-while goals come first, not ourmethods for assessing progresstoward these goals. Goals arederived from our needs and fromour philosophies. They are not andshould not be derived primarilyfrom our measures."

Keeping this last fundamental reservationin mind this problem might be summed upby saying that wherever the concepts beingdealt with, (particularly in the realms ofskills and facts) can be expressed in beha-vioral terms then this is exactly what shouldbe done but that over emphasis on objectivesstated in such terms could well lead to theomission of much that is counted of greatvalue by our society. An illustration of thismight be found in Krathwchl's views on thefive levels of the affective domain whichhe sets out as follows:-1°

117

1.0 Receiving (Attending)

1.1 Awareness1.2 Willingness to receive1.3 Controlled or selected atten-

tion.

2.0 Respondng

2.1 Acquiescence in Responding2.2 Willingness to Respond2.3 Satisfaction in Response

3.0 Valuing

3.1 Acceptance of a value3.2 Preference of a value3.3 Commitment (Conviction)

4.0 Organisation

4.1 Conceptulization of a value4.2 Organisation of a value

system

5.0 Characterisation by a Value orValue Complex

5.1 General Set5.2 Characterisation

A mere glance at such a framework meantto be of assistance in the meaningfulcategorization of teachers' objectives willreveal that from lowest to highest levels itwould be virtually impossible to stateobjectives in this domain in satisfactorybehavioral terms.

This then may be taken as one shortstatement of the complexity in part of oneof the elements in the pedagogical situation.Each could well be developed in the sameway. The complexity of problems anddifficulties is only beginning to be apparent.

2. The Pedagogical Process.The true heart of pedagogy lies not in

the identification of these elements butin their dynamic relationship to each otherin the teaching/learning encounter.

Once again the analysis may appeardeceptively simple, e.g. Smith 11 in speakingof the teacher's responsibility for organizingthe day to day experiences that will leadthe students to the knowledge, skills,appreciations expected of them, describesthat responsibility as embracing "Settingobjectives, arranging the conditions oflearning, selecting usable content, employingspecialised techniques, measuring the resultsof instruction". He goes on to quote RobertBush in the words: "the manner in whicha teacher states his aim, how he communi-cates it to his pupils, the way in whichhe entices the pupil to accept the aim sothat the pupil will be highly motivated tolearn, how the content is selected, arrangedand presented to the pupil so that intendedchanges in behavior may be achieved, andhow the teacher assesses whether the desiredchanges have taken place constitute theteaching act."

The teaching act thus emerges as the

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drawing together of all the elements in thepedagogical situation, every perspectivepsychological, developmental, sociologicaland comparative being taken into accountas t1;ie teacher, acting as strategist or decisionmaker selects and implements the particularlearning and teaching plans which he feelsfit the situation. Once again the complexityof such decision making and implementationdefies accurate description. "For since therelationship between 'teacher and pupil isnever a single, fixed, isolated, person-to-person kind of relationship but one whichtakes place in a social context that variesfrom school to school, from group to groupand from moment to moment there is nopossibility of laying down any neat, welldefined rules for the close control of;yarning by individuals." 12 A few examplesmust suffice as pointers: -

(a) The teacher's selection of aim andstrategy will depend heavily on his assess-ment of the pupils, their starting positionsand their behaviour. As one element in suchan assessment we might consider the con-tribution from the behavioral sciences toour understanding of the behaviour of smallgroups. Tyler 13 summarises this as:

A. Most of an individual's life is livedin small groups, family, play group,work group etc.

B. The small group provides the meansfor meeting many of an individual'sbasic needs and for developing andreinforcing his values.

C. The behavior of a small group,existing for an ostensible purpose,can be understood as attendingboth to its ostensible purpose andto the social relations in the group.

D. An individual in a group seeks toidentify for himself a role in thegroup which he thinks he can per-form successfully and for whichhe can obtain recognition.

E. A group works effectively on itsostensible purpose when eachindividual perceives an appropriaterole in attaining this purpi,;e, a rolewhich he thinks he can performsuccessfully, and the other members

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of the group recognise this rolefor him. (Congruence in roleperception).

F. Among children and youth thevalues, attitudes, interests andpractices of groups of peers exert aprofound influence on individualbehavior often greater than theinfluence of teachers and parents.

Woe betide the teacher who has not learnedto take these into account in planning, forwe all know the pitfalls (and perhaps caneven learn to recognise the opportunities)in the class joker, or the shy fellow whomthe others always want to push into thegirl's role in sketches, to his own greatembarassment, etc. etc. Yet here is onlyone small part of the understanding which ateacher must be able to draw upon inplanning for teaching. The pupil as anindividual, the evaluation of his starting levelof understanding with regard to the conceptsbeing taught, his background, his abilitiesall come crowding in with a host of otherconsiderations to this one aspect of the artof planning and deciding.

(b) A second example might be takenfrom the behavioral sciences in consideringLearning plans and establishing the condi-tions for effective learning. Commonlyrequired conditions are set out by Tyler 14as

(1) Relevant motivation on the partof the learner

(2) Perceptions by the learner of theinadequacy of his presently es-tablished behavior patterns

Guidance in identifying more ade-quate patterns of behavior whichhe perceives as possible for him toacquire.

(4) A variety of situations available forhim to carry on the new behavior

Time for him to practise the newbehavior.

(6) Satisfaction for him when the newbeh' is successfully carried on

Opportunities available for him tocarry on sequential practice of the

(3)

(5)

(7)

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new behavior, each new opportuni-ty involving elements he recognisesas differLnt from previous ones

(8) Standards that he accepts for hisbehavior that for him are high;that is, they require furtherlearning, and yet he perceives thesestandards as attainable

Ways that he uses to judge hisbehavior in terms of thesestandards.

(9)

Again we find we are dealing with one smallaspect of the complexity in setting learningplans.

(c) A third example of this complexitycould be the matter of Evaluation. That ateacher should learn to evaluate his teachingand his pupils" learning in order to improveboth is accepted as self evident yet we findthat the effecting of such evaluation posesimmense problems. It is a well known ironythat while teachers are urged to carry outsuch evaluation of their teaching effective-ness all the results of masses of research onteacher effectiveness have failed to comenear producing valid and reliable measuresof such effectiveness.

Some progress has however, been madein research in this field e.g. Flander's inter-action analysis observes and categorisesteacher and student behaviors for everythree seconds of the teaching/learningencounter. Such observations are thenlinked with learning outcomes. The teacherbehaviors are categorised as follows

Indirect: 1. Teacher accepts stu-dent's feeling::

2. Teacher praises student

3. Teacher accepts or usesstudent's ideas

4. Teacher asks questions

Direct: 5. Teacher lectures

6. Teacher gives direction

7. Teacher criticises.

Student behaviors are categorised aseither a) predictable student response toteacher question or b) student initiated

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response, while a final category, of behavioris named Miscellaneous silence orconfusion. Many studies using inter-actionanalysis have suggested that the ratio ofindirect to direct elements in teacherbehavior does :ndeed affect achievementand attitudes. Yet, helpful as such studiesand findings are, they are plainly not ofcentral importance to the practising teacher.

Even using such a guide, for example, ateacher is forced to establish measurementsof learning outcomes to decide whether hehas been effective or not and criteria forlearning are notoriously difficult to establish.Sim15 has well asked: "What should weevaluate (if we concentrate on outcomes):pupil's attitudes or achievement5; and whatkinds and to what extent? Do we considerfinal scores, gain scores or other adjustedscores, and what kind of adjustment shouldwe make? Do we include retention and forhow long; or transfer, and to what type andlevel of tasks? These are far from un-important questions, for a teacher inevaluating is constantly faced with suchproblems as A has learned ten theorems;B has learned five. If I know B to be muchweaker than A then which has, in fact,achieved more and for which has myleaching been more effective? How muchweaker is B than A?" His measurementtools may very well be the very samelearning outcomes which he is trying toevaluate.

The complexity and subjectiveness ofthe pedagogical process, of which these area few obvious examples, is therefore some-thing that must be acknowledged andaccepted. One is constantly appalled bythe naivete of such charges as "researchhas not validated methods being widelypromoted" in pedagogical training. Werethis indeed to be set as an absolute require-ment little would remain of our educationcourses or even of our teaching. The pointersof research are welcomed and accepted butin the meantime the teacher must teach.Even if one has adopted as one's 'aith thea.sumptions stated by Walton 16.

"The assumption is made that thesciences of medicine and engineering, andthe sciences on which they are based, havedeveloped to the point where they are

McG REGOR

extremely and immediately valuable to thepractitioner in performing, controlling, andpredicting under the conditions of practice.The further assumption is implicit that wemay, expect the study of education, alongwith the other social sciences, to have acomparable relevance for practice when itbecomes truly scientific. These assumptionsrise out of an epistemological monism thatcharacterises the age of faith in science."

Even if, as I say, these assumptionsare adopted as one's faith the situation, asit is, remains far from that 'ideal' and weare forced to teach and construct curriculafor teacher education largely on the basisof observation and experience.

3. The Pedagogical EvaluationMany pedagogical questions however do

arise on the basis of such observation,experience and accepted principles as wellas on the basis of research that is beingcarried out and this final section seeks toraise a few of them.

(a) As an example the question ofobjectives was recently raised very practical-ly in our institution. The setting ofobjectives, clear and viable, is a demandmade of any student teacher for any lesson,and earlier in this paper, the desirabilityof stating such objectives in specific,behavioral terms, wherever applicable, wasrestated. Recently a study group was setup by the Senate of the University ofMalaya to look into the question of theevaluation and examination system employ-ed here with a view to effecting improve-ments in validity, reliability, fairness etc.and eliminating, where feasible, unnecessarystrain on the students in such assessment.As might be expected the group quicklydecided that the first necessity was to havecourse objectives clearly stated. It imme-diately became obvious that in many casessuch objectives were simply not availableand had most probably never been for-mulated at all. Yet such courses are forthe most part, taken as content preparationby prospective teachers. It must be ques-tioned whether even within the field ofprofessional studies such clear objectiveshave invariably been stated.

(b) Resources Taking the teacher himself

120113

as the major resource we might ask whetherthis resource is being adequately stockedup for the encounter that lies ahead of him.The question might be raised about hisliberal education, his specialist subject/s,and his professional preparation (Questionsof input, initial qualification and aptitudewhile vitally important cannot be dealtwith here.)

1 Liberal education The fundamen-tal need of a liberal education forall teachers has long been assertedbut seldom implemented. Wood-ring 17 puts the case well

"If he is to make wise inde-pendent decisions, the individualmust be able to think critically andlogically. But even the clearest andmost logical thinking will not leadto sound conclusions unless itproceeds from sound premises. Theindividual must possess a vastamount of accurate informationabout his world, his culture, andhimself. He must have a knowledgeof political, social, and economichistory because sound decisions inthese areas cannot be made withoutbackground information of an his-torical nature. He must know thesciences because many importantdecisions rest upon a knowledge ofthe world and of man and muchof this information has beenaccumulated and verified throughthe scientific method. He must befamiliar with great literaturebecause literature offers anotherapproach to knowledge of man andsociety and because literature dealswith values and he must makevalue judgments. He must knowphilosophy because all decisions,without exception, rest upon inter-pretations of reality, of truth, andof value. He must know mathe-matics because a knowledge ofquzntities and their relationship isessential to choice. These bodies ofknowledge and these intellectualdisciplines are not the ultimate endof education, but a grasp of themis essential to that end. Liberal

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education also requires a stressupon the fullest development oflanguage because it is throughlanguage that man communicateswith his fellow men and throughcommunication that he achieveshis greatest development as a man."

2. Specialist subject knowledge. Theneed for other faculties and depart-ments to work in close harmonywith professional educationalstudies is again apparent but seldompractised. One might well askwhether the course for a mathe-matician need necessarily be thesame as for a teacher of mathema-tics. In my own field the contraststands out starkly. Teachers ofEnglish come to us with a finebackground of literary theory anda more than nodding acquaintancewith many writers, ancient andmodern. In school however hefinds himself concerned with essays,comprehension, speech, reading,remedial work, discussion, thelibrary and a host of other activities(not excluding the teaching ofEnglish as a second language) aswell as some literature teaching andmany peripheral activities such asbeing in charge of the dramaticsociety, the debating club and theschool library. For most of themhis level of resources is no higherthan when he last attended schoolin Form VI.

3. Professional resources. While thesehave perhaps received fuller atten-tion the need for and scope of suchstudies has been well set out byGoodlad 18

"Specialized knowledge is availa-ble to assist in asking and answeringthe several curriculum questionsinvolved. There are generalizationsand methods of inquiry arising outof the field to be studied. Some-times these arbitrarily determinethe principles of sequence to beapplied in selecting content, theamount and kinds of studentvariability that can be readily en-

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compassed within an instructionalgroup, and the amount of learningfailure or lag that can be carriedover into new instructional realms.These kinds of considerations arerarely dealt with in the coursesequence of a college major in anyfield. Similarly, there is knowledgepertaining to learner readiness,concept development, forgetting,individual differences, and muchmore that can be used to temperdecisions that might be made in-opportunely on the basis of subject-field knowledge alone. Under-standing of what is involved incognitive, psycho-motor, andeffective leaming also conditionsthe selection of topics to beincluded in any plan of studies.

Study of questions of sequence,scope, principles of organization,and criteria for choosing learningopportunities is not now therecognized business of any con-ventional field within the collegecurriculum. The nature of thesequestions and of the data-sourcesfor dealing with them is, however,the very subjet matter of curricu-lum courses offered in departmentsof education."

(c) Conditions for learning. Curriculumevaluation might well be carried out on thebasis of the pedagogical principles set outon conditions for learning earlier. Therequired perception by a teacher of theinadequacy of his presently establishedbehavior patterns and the ability to perceive"more adequate patterns of behavior whichit is possible for him to acquire" impliesthe ability to analyze the eaching situationand test out each part off it in relation tohis measure of success or failure in reachingobjectives. The development of such ananlytical skill inevitably leads us to practiceteaching in specific teaching situations underthe direction of experienced teachers.

While the need for such practice isuniversally acknowledged its implementationgives rise to many practical pedagogicalproblems:

(1)

(2)

(3)

McGREGOR

The anxiety factor is undeniablypresent, and, in some cases, harmfullyso. K.G. Collier 19 comments on theacuteness of students' apprehensionat the beginning of first practice, thedamage to self respect caused byfailure, and the great variety ofinfluences leading to improvement inteaching. There is clear evidence thatsuch apprehension is present inexaggerated form and it must becounted most unfortunate that at atime when one would wish thestudents' attention to be focussed onthe analytical process his anxietiesare, in fact, centred on the fact ofsurvival and a "pass" in assessment.

There must be some question as towhether practice teaching gives therequired variety of situations to enableanalysis to become firmly based.Teaching in one or two classes for afew periods can hardly be said toallow for the practical developmentof alternative teaching strategies. Thedesire to analyse and give a varietyof shuations has led to such curricu-lum innovations such as micro-teachingeither being used alongside practicein school or partly replacing practicein school. The variety of simulatedsituations which can be set up farexceeds any possible school situationthough the lack of realism is a negativefeature.

Other interesting innovations havebeen attempted. The Department ofEducation in the University ofManchester acquired a children'sroom with a one-way observationscreen. Six women and three menstudents from the primary group"borrowed" a class of 20 childrenfrom a nearby primary school and,as a team, planned a programme forthem, and carried it through on threedays a week for a six week stretch.The variety of situations faced, evenwith one group of children, in sucha set up is obviously greatly increased.

There would seem to be a case for thesetting up of situations that allowfoe the analysis of teaching by students

122115

before teaching practice itself. Thiscan be done through micro teachingbut might well be carried out on pureobservation by the students either ofdemonstration or video-taped lessons.R.C. Macmillan2° describes a programinstituted by the Faculty of Educationat the University of Natal in which aseries of classes was taught beforethe students in various subjects andsituations over an extended periodbefore teaching practice. The lessonswere conducted either by the regularand experienced class teachers or byFaculty of Education staff, and werefollowed by analysis and discussion.

(4) The link with the schools involvedin teaching practice has been tenuousand in some cases almost harmful tothe practice due to the attitudes ofteachers and, occasionally, principals.Giffiths and Moore21 discovered,amongst other things, that supervisionof student teachers by school staffseemed to be vague and uncoordinat-ed. The heads of twelve of the twentyschools involved in the study felt thatthere was evidence that college coursesproduce unrealistic teaching, but 19of the 20 appeared to have no detailedknowledge of the theoretical contextof these courses.

(d) Learning Plans. Within recent yearsthe cry has been heard for student plannedcourses. Richard I Miller 22 writing on"Teacher Education and Preparation forthe 21st Century" gives as one of hissuggestions.

"Student-planned courses should beincluded. College students are old enoughto fight in Vietnam, to marry, to holdresponsfule positions, but not to decidewhat kinds of educational preparationthey need. At least this is the implicationone draws from the absence of student-planned courses. Students in their junioror senior year could be divided intogroups of, say, 25, and asked to developthree-credit hour courses around theirareas of interest. Faculty members couldhelp recruit professors around the campusas well as city officials and ''open doors"in general."

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While we might hesitate to accept, tillthe 21st Century actually arrives, the settingof course objectives by students there issurely a strong case to be made for givingthem considerable voice in the setting oflearning plans. Mager and Clark 23 giveaccounts of some highly suggestive studiesin this direction. In one electronics coursethe students were given complete control ofsubjects to be discussed and the sequence,demonstrations required and reviewsrequired, while the instructor provided whatwas requested. It became obvious that notonly was the sequence considerablydifferent from an instructor-chosen sequencebut a result of this student control wasincreased motivation.

An even more interesting study was madeof an engineering course, normally sixmonths long. Newly graduated engineerswent through formal lectures then werepassed through the various departments,learning the work of each department. Inthe experiment the course, as such, wascancelled. The students were told theobjectives of the course in detailed writtenform and were left to plan their own learningin order to reach these objectives beingassured that the various departments wouldcooperate with their requests for informa-tion or other help. The results were asfollows: "(a) Training time was reduced65%. All students were personally assigned 6to 8 weeks after training began. (b) Thegraduates of this program appeared betterequipped than those of previous cycles,demonstrating mure confidence and know-ledge about manufacturing processes andmicrowave theory. The manager of thedivision considered these engineers "bettertrained" at the time they assumed theirpermanent responsibility than previouslyhired engineers. (c) Considerably less timewas devoted to training by the instructor,administrators, and technical experts. (d)Content selected for study varied considera-bly from student to student. (e) Thesequence of information studied varied fromstudent to student, but in no case coincidedwith the sequence used previously." Suchresults can scarcely be without significancefor teacher educators who continuallycomplain of lack of time for their coursesyet just as continually fail to take into

123

account individual differences and theamount of starting knowledge in theirstudents; principles which we neverthelesspreach fervently to those same students.Such students teach us the same lesson byoften (if they are allowed to) ignoringlarge portions of our courses and yet passingour examinations perfectly successfully.

(e) As a final example we might take theapplication of EVALUATION principles toour program. Cronbach24 insists that "thegreatest service evaluation can perform isto identify aspects of the course whererevision is desirable." In such evaluationcertain principles become clear, and ourown evaluation needs to be evaluated inthe light of principles like these:

1. Outcomes of instruction are multi-dimensional and it is thus highly mis-leading to lump many kinds of per-formance together into one score.Either failure or success in certainaspects can be hidden by such proce-dures. Only a report that treats out-comes separately can be useful toeducators with different systems ofvalues.

2. There is a wide range of methods forevaluation including process studies,proficiency measures, attitude mea-sures and follow-up studies. Cronbachpoints out that for course evaluationto measure proficiency it makes senseto assign different questions todifferent students."Giving each studentin a population of 500 the same testof 50 questions will provide far lessinformation to the course developerthan drawing for each student 50questions from a pool of, say, 700."

Cohen 25 makes a strong plea for themeasurement of attitudes to evaluate courseeffectiveness since he assures that pedagogi-cal training "is organised to enable (thestudent) to acquire specific attitudes, beliefs,values and ways of relating to pupils .. . "Many studies have however noted changesof attitude during a course, after teachingpractice and at various other points e.g.studies using the MTAI have generallyshown increasingly progressive attitudes

McGREGOR

during the professional course followed byreversals when the student experienced full-time teaching. The "fakeability" of theMTAI has also been well noted, with astrong tendency for students to give answersalong the lines for which approval wouldbe expected.

The follow-up study is certainly the mostneglected and potentially the most valuablearea. Plainly long term outcomes are ofgreater importance than immediate resultsyet researchers are constantly noting thedearth of follow-up studies as a means ofcourse evaluation. From the few researcherscarried out results are conflicting thougha fairly large scale study by Wiseman &Start 26 concludes that "little correlationwas found between college assessment andthe various criteria of success in theprofession."

3. Cronbach also makes the interestingsuggestion that in curriculum evaluationwe need not be too concerned aboutmaking measuring instruments fit thecurriculum. This seemingly strangesuggestion makes good sense for curriculumevaluation purposes as tests carefullytailored to the curriculum, while they mightevaluate the learning and teaching of thatcurriculum do not provide evaluation ofthe curriculum itself.

What is needed is an evaluation whichmeasure all the types of proficiency thatmight reasonably be desired in the area inquestion. Questions are in many cases"course-specific", i.e. only those who havebeen through the course can understandwhat is being asked for because of the waythe question is formed. Testing of Va..--minology is something which should beseparated from other understandings, whichis not to deny the importance, in its placeof terminology. Each of these would seemto point to the neassity for externalchecking of internal tests, if not externallyset tests for valid curriculum evaluation.

And so tile pedagogical question mightcontinue. To what extent are our curriculaenquiry biased? Is independent study animportant dimension? To what extent areindividual differences catered for? Is thereany question of checking on continuous

124 117

student progress or involving team teaching?To what extent have school subjects beenanalysed to discover whether "methods"of teaching for different subjects can bestereotyped or need to differ i.e. whatassumptions do we make re. knowledge,principles of organization, methods ofenquiry etc. for different subjects? To whatextent are our curricula integrated, notmerely theoretically but to present a

coherent view of the pedagogical situation?It is probably in the pedagogical field, thefield which we regard peculiarly as "ourown", that the most searching reappraisalof our curricula ,:an, and needs to, be made,and that not as a one time appraisal but acontinuous process of reevaluation in thelight of continually changing input supplyand output requirements.

1 Sim Wong Kooi. Research and evaluation of Teaching. Unpublished paper presented to the FederalInspectorate, Malaysia 1969 Fig. 1 p. 44.

2 Good lad J.J. in E.R. Smith (Ed.) Teacher Evaluation: A Reappraisal N.Y. Harper and Row 1962pp. 171-175.

3 Mitzel, H.E. Teacher Effectiveness. In C. W. Harris (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Educational ResearchN.Y: Macmillan and Co., 1960 pp. 1481-1486.

4 Lynch J. Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Education Psychological Dimensions Unpublishedpaper presented to this conference pp. 2 & 3.

5 Mager, R.F. Preparing instructional Objectives, Fearen Publishers, Palo Alto, California, 1962,p. 3.6 op. cit. p. 52.7 Smith E.R. The Nature of the Problem in Teacher Education: A Reappraisal N.Y. Harper & Row

1962. p. 14.8 Tyler W.R. in Teacher Education: A Reappraisal N.Y. Harper & Row 1962 p. 42 and 43.9 Atkin J.M. Behavioral Objectives in Curriculum Design in The Science Teacher, May 1968, Pp. 27-30.

10 Krathwohl, D.L. (ed) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The Classification of Educational Goals,Handbook If, Affective Domain, David McKay Inc., New York, 1964.

11 Smith op. cit. p. 55.12 Smith op. cit. p. 67.13 Tyler W.R. op. cit. p. 47/48.14 Tyler W.R. op. cit. p. 40.15 Sim op. cit. (1) p. 33.16 Walton J. in E.R. Smith (Ed) Teacher Education: A Reappraisal N.Y. Harper and Row 1962 p. 127.17 Woodring P. "New Directions in Teacher Education," Fund for the Advancement of Education, 1957.18 Goodlad op. cit. p. 171.19 Collier K.G. The study of students' attitudes" in Education for Teaching, 42, Pp. 34-41 (1957).20 MacMillan R.G. General Method Course at Post Graduate Level" in Teacher Education Vol. 5

1964-65 pp. 208-213.21 Griffiths A. & Moore A.H. (1967) "Schools and Teaching Practice" in Education for Teaching

74 pp. 33-39.22 Miller R.I. "Teacher Education and Preparation for the 21st Century" in School and Society,

Summer, 1970.23 Mager R.F. & Clark C "Explorations in Studen% Controlled Instruction" in Psychological Reports,

1963, vol. 13 Pp. 71-76.24 Cronbach L.J. Evaluation for Course Improvement in Teachers College Record, 1963, Vol. 64

pp. 672-83.25 Cohen L. College and the Training of Teachers in Educational Research Vol. 11 No. 1 November

1968 pp. 14-21.26 Wiseman S. & Start K.B. 1(1965) A Follow-up of teachers five years after completing their training

in Brit. J. Edn, Psychol., XXXV, 3, 342-61.

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125

CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION:SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE'

Education takes place in time and space.That is a truism; but one that is sometimeslost sight of when educationists get intoabstractions. Our time and our world is oneof rapid change. Social structures have beenoverthrown or shaken by sudden politicalchanges, revolutions or attainment ofindependence. Sometimes it is by thepressure of science and technology; often itis due to a combination of both thesecauses. Modern economy has created con-ditions for great occupational and socialmobility, so that the job or profession ayoung man or woman has taken or intendsto take up is not necessarily the one thathe or she will be obliged to accept a fewyears later. To take a case in point, whenthe British decided to withdraw their troopsfrom Singapore many civilians who hadheld white-collar jobs at the naval base hadto retrain for jobs as technicians to fit intoa modern industtalized Singapore. In a

particular profession, the knowledge gainedat school or university ma; become obsoleteor inadequate because of a new discoveryor application. Again adults have to go to acentre for further training or readaptation.The role ,of education is therefore changing.The emphasis is not so much on set itemsof knowledge to be learned as the develop-ment of the taste and the ability forcontinuous learning and the awakening ofinterest in the world around us. In otherwords, a well trained head is better than awell filled head, as Montaigne said hundredsof years ago. Education can no longer beconsidered the prerogative or obligation ofyoung people; it is to be pursued by theadult throughout his active life. For it isonly through education that he can achievethe desired variety and flexibility throughopportunities and facilities for adding to orbringing up to date the knowledge he hasgained.

If education is to play such a role in our

Dr. Lim Kiat Boey & Dr. Paul Pedersen

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya.

world of rapid change, what kind of teachersare needed? What kind of skills and know-ledge should they be equipped with? Butbefore answering these questions anotherrecent phenomenon must be briefly referredto. This has been called the "schoolpopulation explosion" in both developedand developing countries. There is astaggering rise in school enrolment. In theUnited States of America, since the begin-ning of this century the number of childrenattending secondary schools has increasedfour times more than the number of childrenof secondary-school age. In India, thenumber attending elementary school hastrebled over the last fifteen years. In Europe,from 1950 to 1965, the enrolment figuresfor secondary schools rose from 55 per centto 200 per cent, according to the country.This explosion took the authorities bysurprise; the schools were not prepared forit and there was confusion. The effectsare still being felt in the shortage of premises,shortage of teachers, overcrowded class-rooms, lack of teaching facilities. Teachereducation must take cognizance of theseeffects as well as the w:der problems raisedby rapid changes in society outside.

If we look at teacher education fromthe point of view of efficiency and yield,certain questions crop up. To what extenthas the teacher shortage affected efficiencyand yield in teacher education? In develop-ing countries, at least, it has the effect oflowering entry qualifications and/orreducing the duration of training. Thesetwo effects combined vith the need toprevent 'wastage' has resulted in teacherswno fall short of efficiency with regardboth to knowledge of subject content andprofessional know-how. Logically, thelength of teacher training should be ininverse proportion to the entry qualification

the lower the latter the longer theformer, in order to provide an opportunity

126119

for the would-be teacher to acquire thecontent of the subject/s he is to teach.But how does one reconcile this to thepressing needs of the educational system?

To return to the question raised earlier:what kind of teachers are needed in thesituation broadly delineated above? In otherwords, what constitutes an efficient teacherin the circumstances or what should beincluded in the curriculum of teacher educa-tion? The teachers that will prove mostefficient in a changing milieu will be onewho has a command of his subject, but moreimportant still he must have a taste forlearning so that he will continue to pursuehis subject and be aware of discoveries andchanges in theory or application. He willhave to be adaptable or flexible in order tobe able to meet the needs of the youngergeneration, the school and society. Assuminghe has subject content, we concentrate onprofessional training. There are four otherpapers each dealing with one aspect of thistraining. This paper will deal specificallywith the sociological perspective.

In assessing the curriculum, one questionone has to answer is why include the socio-logical perspective? In what way does asociological perspective increase the effi-ciency of a teacher? To answer this question,one has to consider a prior question, what isthe sociological perspective? As in otherdisciplines, the perspective includes (a) thepersons who have contributed greatly tothe field; (b) the basic ideas and themes;(c) the techniques and (d) the topics dealtwith. Sociology is the study of people ingroups the influence of groups on theindividual and of individuals in groups. Thepurpose of sociology is to understandpeople's (and one's own) thoughts andactions by putting them into the perspectivegained by knowledge of other people inother groups (neighbouring societies,different social classes, contrasting families,and so forth). Basic concepts in sociologysuch as society and culture highlight thenecessity of knowing what a person's sociallife is like in order to gain an understandingof his behaviour. In other words, to under-stand an action requires knowledge of itscontext. The concept of social norms makesus aware of the values that motivate us andour associates; for it is through social norms

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that the interpersonal relations of membersof a society are controlled and directed,usually without awareness of the personswho are conforming.

If the sociological perspective includessuch concepts as outlined in the precedingparagraph as well as others that are essentialto an analysis and understanding of thesocial environment in which the process ofeducation takes place and from which thepupils are drawn, then the inclusion of it inthe curriculum of teacher education needsno further justification. In a developingand changing country, such as Malaysia andothers in South East Asia, a teacher needsto be aware of the direction of changeand the change inhibiting social factors. Hewill then have the ability to affect thedirection of pupil change. His understandingof the social environment will enable himto form a more accurate picture of theteacher's role.

To evaluate the place of the sociologicalperspective in teacher education is not sodifficult as to indicate what topics shouldbe included in the course. A survey wasconducted in 1966 among the Sociology ofEducation Section of the American Socio-logical Association.? Out of 455 membersof the section, 126 responded to thequestionnaire. These represented 56 collegesand universities. The data provided anempirical definition of the sociology ofeducation, for the respondents were askedto list the major topics they usually coveredin the courses. The breakdown of theirresponses is shown in Table 1. They were alsoto indicate their research projects and themost frequently mentioned ones are listedin Table IL

Since teacher education takes place atdifferent levels, one might consider thefollowing questions in selecting the topicsto be included:

127

1. At what level is the course beingtaught?

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TABLE IITHE RESPONDENTS' MOST FREQUENTLY

MENTIONED RESEARCH PROJECTS

Research Projects Frequency Mentioned

Research on Higher Education 27

Class, Ethnic, Racial Differences in Education 24

School-Community Relations 7

Research on Teacher Values 6

Organizational Problems in Schools 6

The School as a Social System 4

Role Expectations of Parents and Educators 3

Research on High School Dropouts 3

The History and Extent of Sociology of Education 3

Research on Student-Teacher Relations 3

Education and the Development of Human Resources 3

may be less relevant in the Malaysiansituation than "education of theculturally different and deprived ", inview of the current interest to bridgethe gap between rural and urbanpopulations.

4. To what extent will it sharpen thestudents' awareness of his role as ateacher?

5. To what extent will it enable him tointeract appropriately with his pupils?

6. To what extent will it increase thestudents' opportunity for creativity?

The course should also provide opportu-nities for practical applications of theconcepts and techniques to build up thesociological perspective. Discussions on"social stratification and education" maybe supplemented by field trips so that thestudent-teachers can see for themselves theconditions of life at different levels. Visitsto community facilities may also be includedto increase the teacher's awareness of thesocial factors that impinge on the lives ofhis pupils. Such first hand experiences willnot only enlarge his understanding but alsodeepen his sympathies and thereby enablehim to interact more realistically with hispupils.

122

Another fruitful application of thetheories and techniques would be to involvethe students in research and case studies.So little educational sociological researchhas been done in South East Asia, that anyacademic exercise on an aspect of school orsociety would add useful data to verify ordisaffirm theories or principles developed inthe West. In Malaysia, for instance, muchresearch is needed on social class to discoverthe criteria for or the defining limits of eachclass that will enable educational sociologiststo make meaningful statements about therelationship between social stratification andaspects of education. Case studies of childrenat different ages and from different socialbackgrounds will reveal the differentpatterns of family interactions, models forlanguage and motivation for learning, whichhave been shown to affect school learning.3

A third useful application of the socio-logical perspective is the playing of gameswith simulated environments. In such gamesthe student is no longer a spectator orobserver but gets a chance to think himselfinto a specified environmental situation andis forced to react from the inside as aparticipant. This ought to increase his under-standing of intra-group relationships, whichis of value to a teacher.

129

The foregoing discussion has shown that

the sociological perspective is of value to theteacher because it gives him a knowledgeand understanding of the milieu in whichhe teaches. It follows from this that teachereducation should take place within thesociety in which the teacher is expected tooperate. Someone who has received hiseducation and/or teacher training overseaswill, from the sociological perspective, beless effective unless and until he adjusts tothe local environment. This point needsemphasis in view of the large members ofour students abroad. According to news-paper reports 4 there are about 17,000 fromMalaysia. Some of these must be prospectiveteachers.

Methodology of EvaluationWe have so far discussed why the socio-

logical perspective should be a part of thecurriculum of teacher education and thecontent of the sociological perspective. Howdoes one evaluate the curriculum? If weinterpret curriculum in the broadest senseto include all the experiences the studentundergoes at the school then we have tobegin by considering the teacher, thestudents, the school, the hardware andsoftware as curricular vehicles. The informa-tion to be obtained from each of these ispart of the inputs for the curriculum.What do we need to know about each?

1. The teacher (a) his background,(b) his training (c) his personality.

2. The students (a) their background,(b) their perception of their role,(c) their ability (d) their interests(e) their creativity.

3. The school (a) its history and status,(b) its internal structure and organisa-tion.

4. The hardware/software (a) theiradequacy, (b) their accessibility, (c)the amount/frequency of use.

These inputs produce certair expectationswhich may be regarded as the primaryeffects of the curriculum. We need toevaluate them. What are the self expectationsof the teacher and students? What are theirexpectations of each other? What are theirexpectations of the school and of society?

LIM & PEDERSEN

On the other hand, what do the school andsociety expect of the teacher and students?What does the school expect of society andvice versa?

These expectations or primary effectsin turn lead to secondary effects which callfor evaluation. There are three areas ofsecondary effects: (a) the difference betweenexpectations and actual behaviour orperforman,,, (b) the amount of knowledgegained, and (c) attitude change. With regardto (a) we need to find the differencebetween expectations and performance foreach of the four curricular vehicles men-tioned above. The evaluation of (b) is

usually the only evaluation of the curriculumthat is done and traditionally it is done bymeans of examinations and assignments. Itcovers evaluation of the content of thecourse as set out above. The most difficultarea to assess is (c) but it is one of the mostimportant. The difficulty is that an attitudeis a way of looking at things arid a teacher'sattitude to education reflects his philosophyof education. When we talk of attitudechange we must have in mind a normtowards which the change is expected. Thisnorm reflects a philosophy too. What is to bethis norm? Is it one set up by the teacher,the student, the school or society? If thestudent holds non-conformist views and theteacher, school or society is committed tothe position of self-determination anddevelopment of individuality how is theimposition of norms to be justified? Howdoes one evaluate philosophies of education?

What follows is a suggestive scheme forevaluating attitude change and it is hopedthere will be some comment and discussionon it at the meeting. There are four stagesin the process of evaluation. First thestudent sets his goals. The teacher evaluatesthese goals and either accepts or rejectsthem. If rejected, the student modifiesthem. If the goals are accepted, the studentapplies them in teaching. The teacher thenevaluates the student's performance andaccepts or rejects it. If the teacher rejectsthe performance, the student tries again.

There are two points at which evaluationtakes place. What are the criteria for eva-luation? The following criteria are suggestedfor evaluating student goals:

130123

1. Does the student select and developa point of view?

2. Is he aware of and does he rejectalternative mints of view?

3. Do the goals meet the expressed andunexpressed needs of the teacher,school, pupils and society?

4. Do they show awareness of context/environment; oblems?

5. Are they expressed in behavioralterms?

6. Do they advance the field of educa-tional sociology?

7. Do they reveal content knowledge ofsubject?

8. Lastly, what is the ethical dimension?

The second point at which evaluationtakes place is when the student applies thegoals in teaching. The expression of aperson's goals or point of view may differfrom his actions. Hence the necessity toevaluate the student's performance in order

to see if change has occurred in reality.The criteria here are:

1. Is the performance consistent with theaccepted goals?

2. Does the student show willingness tomodity accepted goals?

3. Is there satisfaction by the teacher,pupils, school and society?

4. Is there personal satisfaction?

5. Is there increased awareness ofcommunication?

6. Does the student show creative inno-vation and research?

7. To what extent is there comprehensionand depth of coverage?

Finally, if we recall that education in achanging world must be a continuingprocess, the ultimate evaluation of anycurriculum of teacher education must be interms of whether it produces teacherscapable of adapting to change throughcontinued self-education.

1 Paper presented at the "International Conference in Curriculum Evaluation in Teacher Educationin South East Asia" held at the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, 3rd-7th,August, 1970.

2 Snyder, E.E. A sociology of educa tion: a description of the field. Bowling Green State University,Ohio:

3 (a) Bernstein, B. Linguisitic Codes, hesitation phenomena and intelligence. Language and Speech1962, 5(1), 31-46.

(b) Milner, Esther. A study of the relationship between reading readiness in grade one schoolchildren and patterns of parent-child interaction. Child Development., 1951, 22, 95-112.

(c) Dave, R.H. The identification and measurement of environment process variables that arerelated to educational achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago.

f. Straits Times, Sept. 21, 1969 and Malay Mail, February 1, 1970.

124

131

REPORTS OF PANEL & GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Panel Discussion I1. The main points of the talk by Dr.

Chai Hon Chai, entitled "Perspectives andProblems in Development Studies" is to befound elsewhere. This Report will thereforeconfine itself to the salient points arisingfrom the panel discussions and the question.and-answer sessions.

2. The panel agreed on the desirability ofteacher training curricula to be development-oriented, aimed at bringing about in ourteachers, and through them to our pupils,an increase in knowledge, an increase invocational-oriented skills and a change inattitudes and values.

3. In the matter of increasing knowledge,some members took to task the tendency toemphasise memory and reproduction ofspecific facts rather than the understandingof principles and the ability to analyse,synthesise and apply the facts in particularsituations. One speaker pointed out that thiswas due in part to the prevailing examina-tion system and techniques, but that all thesame, the Ministry of Education was awareof this, and was looking into the matter.Another speaker stressed that the increasein knowledge should aim at the following:

(a) practical reasoning and not .artisticconsideration,

(b) self-discovery and not spoon-feeding,

(c) lose for knowledge and notmemorising in agony,

(d) effective communication and ex-change of ideas and not introver-sion,

(e) broad-mindedness and not preju-diced thinking,

appreciation of others' opinionsand not being dogmatic, and,

social etiquette vs personal values.

(f)

(g)

4. As for increasing vocational-orientedskills, teachers should be able to identify

and develop aptitudes and talents instudents. The existing instruments forevaluating teachers' ability to do this,however, were by no means fool-proof, andwere not as effective as they appeared to be.Reference was made to evaluating instru-ments and procedures such as psychologicaltests, viz.

(a) IQ tests, stimulus-organs-responsetest, Thematic ApperceptionTests,

performance in group activities e.g.,sports, debates, etc, and

(c) follow-up studies of positions andstatus of students as indicators ofteacher-effectiveness.

(b)

5. A host of specific attitudes and valueswas mentioned by speakers in taking upwhat Dr. Chai had described as "thepsychological component to development,".One speaker listed the following attitudes:

(a) the scientific attitude observing,pondering experimenting andtesting before arriving at a con-clusion,

respect for the individual extendingto the right attitude towards blue-collar workers,

(c) cooperativeness, without under-playing individual effort,

(d) right attitude to science and tech-nology,

(e) right attitude to learning,

(b)

Another speaker listed the develop-mental values, thus:

(a) adventurousness,

(b) objective curiosity and enquiringmind,

(c) high achievement motivation,

(d) egalitarianism cum utilitarianismand

132125

t.

(e) rationality versus emotionalism and

(0 multi-racialism.

Yet another speaker referred to the need toheal the prevailing malaise, namely thewrong attitude to labour, previouslymentioned, an attitude reinforced byteachers who threatened their pupils, i.e.that if they didn't do well in school, theymight well end up frying noodles at aroadside stall. The same speaker stressed twoadditional points:

(a) the need for teachers to be respon-sible to their professional growth,and

(b) the need to inculcate a "develop-ment mystique" as in an increasedrespect for the scholar and theintellectual.

Finally another speaker on this topic dwelton the need to face vital issues, squarely,instead of pretending they didn't exist.

6. The panel also agreed on the necessityfor re-defining the role of teachers in thecontext of the developmental process. Thevarious speakers would have the teacherperform, in addition l his role as instructor,the roles of agent of change, counsellor,guide, friend and philosopher.

7. Other points dwelt on by individualmembers on the panel included thefollowing:

(a) In developing the curriculum,cognizance should be taken on thetime factor. Thus, a change froman emphasis on the arts subjectsto one on the sciences and mathe-matics could not be wroughtovernight.

While curricular changes were aimedat students in teacher trainingcolleges and pupils in schools, notenough attention had been paid toparents' and adults' expectationsof their children, particularly as tothe gulf between these expectationsand reality. On this, as in theattitude to manual labour, one

(b)

126

might take to heart Gardner'sstatement that a first-rate plumberis infinitely better than a third-rate philosopher._ A Society thattolerates shoddiness in philosophybecause philosophy is an exaltedcalling and scorns excellence inplumbing because plumbing is a

humble activity will have neithergood philosophy nor goodplumbing. Neither its pipes nor itstheories will hold water.

(c) The need for a continuing and life-long education.

The comments and questions from thefloor following the panel discussion aresummarised below:

133

1. A participant from Malaysia heldout a formula representing deve-lopment as a function of theattitude of the massess and theattitude of managers and adminis-trators rather than the masseswhose attitudes and approacheswere wrong. Another formula wasproduced, showing the develop-mental process as a function of amultiplicity of factors social,economic, political, cultural, etc.all of which, it was suggested, hadto be tackled together on aninstitutional approach and notpiecemeal. It was a problem thatcould not be solved by educatorsbut by administrators and pupils. ANewtonian law was cited to supporthis view that progress would followits own momentum. Dr. Chai,replying, pointed out that problemsin developmental economics werenot as simple as they sometimeshad been made out to be. One hadto reckon with a vast array ofvariables. Hence, while agreeing thatcertain issues and factors werecrucial, one ought to ask whatteachers could realistically do?

2. Another participant from Indone-sia, acknowledging the importanceof changing the attitudes ofteachers, posed the question as to

how this might be done, andsuggested doing this not onlyduring the preservice training buta:so as part of continuing educationand the developmental process,recognizing, of course, that theteacher tended to be a conservativeanimal and the classroom amuseum. He also questioned theview put out by a panel speakerthat it was difficult to change adultattitudes, and instead stressed thatbridging the generation gap shouldbe an important concern ofeducators.

A panel speaker explained how inone respect at least, adult educa-tion programmes in Malaysia hadnot been successful. The newly-enlightened began to ask awkwardquestions. Better therefore toconcentrate on children.

3. A third participant, from theU.S.A., expressed his concernviewing the educational pyramidthat characterised the systems indeveloping countreis, i.e. one witha very broad base and a thin-pointed apex. There was the dangerof an imbalance in the output asbetween the scholarly intellectual,though some of these, admittedly,were creative, and those peoplewho because they were creativeand enterprising were impatientand unlikely to set much store by,or obtain good grades, in theschool examination system. At leastthis was so in his observation inthe U.S. In any case, in Singaporewhere he had stayed, one characterthat impressed him as being a mostversatile entrepreneur and one thatmight be counted on to contributeto economic growth and develop-ment was the husband of his arnah!And many non-university studentsmight well be so regarded.

4. A delegate from the Philippines

was impressed by the fact thatstudents were represented on thediscussion panels at this Seminar,and asked to what extent theyshould be represented on a broaderscale in the life of the country.The panel thought that this shouldbe the case and in fact, the trendhad already begun. The chairmanadded that teachers too shouldobtain a greater participation inthe educational and general lifeof the country.

5. The sole delegate from SouthVietnam gave a brief account ofthe relationship between a Facultyof Pedagogy in that country and12 pilot high schools.

6. A participant from Thailandexpressed his uneasiness about thedefinition of "development". Wasthe meaning of "development"generally agreed? Did "develop-ment" mean everything? Couldeducation meet both manpowerneeds and social development? Hecited the 3 phases in the develop-ment plans in Thailand, in thecourse of which there had been ashift from a purely economicorientation to one that includedsocial development as well.

7. The last commentator, fromMalaysia, dwelt on two points, viz:

134

(a) that there had been animprovement in the productsof the developmental process

the students but moreimportant was the desiredchange in the attitude ofadministrators, headmaster,managers, among others.

(b) that it was difficult to bringabout changes in adults, but,nevertheless, it could be done,i.e. through demonstrationand internship.

Rapporteur: Ee Tiang Hong

127

Panel Discussion IIThis is a brief report on panel discussion

dealing with the psychological perspectiveof curriculum evaluation of teacher educa-tion. The panel members were strongly ofthe opinion that teacher training curriculumshould give proper attention to the self-concept of the teacher. The self-conceptis the core of personality development and,as such, influences the quality of an indivi-dual's behaviour pattern. The self-conceptof the teacher will determine to what extenthe can interact appropriately with his pupils.

It is generally agreed that the relationshipbetween the teacher and his students aremore important for effective learning thanthe information or knowledge presentedand the techniques employed. Although itis widely accepted that the type of a persona teacher is, determines the quality of theserelationships, this is the factor which hasreceived least attention in educationalplanning. It is unfortunate that students forteacher training courses are not selectedin terms of their ability to maintain effectiveinterpersonal relationships.

One participant in the discussion suggest-ed that teachers should be well acquaintedwith the principles of individual differencesand their implications for educationalpractice. One of the most firmly establishedfacts in scientific education is that individualsdiffer from one another in mental maturity,in patterns of abilities, in level and patternsof school achievement, in interests, in socialand emotional adjustment, and in needs forguidance and instruction. Because of thewide range of individual differences amongstudents, every phase of their teaching andlearning requires recognition and appraisalof individual differences. The science ofpsychology has much to offer educators.The problem is how to capitalizethe potential contribution.

Another suggestion put forward, wasthat all teachers should be exposed toprinciples and procedures of educationaltesting. One can have no assurance thatbehavioural changes have taken place as aresult of education unless some tests have

128

135

been applied. Since assessing learningprogress is an integral part of the overallteaching-learning process, it is necessary forteachers to develop some degree of com-petence in this area.

A testing programme involves twointerrelated processes: measurement andevaluation. They provide information onthe basis of which the child's developmentcan be planned and guided effectively.However, the test scores should not beinterpreted as final and final biale indicationsof all a teacher needs to know about thepupil. Tests serve their function by helpingthe teacher in three main ways.

and

1. to determine the pupils' educationalneeds,

2. to set realistic goals and reorienteducational experiences,

3. to evaluate his progress towardsthese goals.

Tests also enable the teacher to assess theeffectiveness of his teaching and can beinstrumental in promoting his teachingefficiency. A teacher should learn to evaluatehis teaching and his pupil's learning in orderto improve both.

It was emphasized by some panelmembers that good teaching cannot violatepsychological principles, but from theseprinciples very little can be predicted inthe way of teaching strategy. Members ofthe panel agreed on the point that theknowledge of psychological principles ismeant to enrich the teacher's understandingof human behaviour than to provide rulesfor effective teaching. Such knowledgeshould help the teacher to decide what tolook for and short questions to ask intrying to understand situations encounteredin the classroom. Also it can provideguidance in planning and execution ofapplied research in educational contexts.

It is sincerely hoped that many teacherswill experiment with different methods ofteaching and then go on to develop newmethods of their own.

Rapporteur: Kanka Malick

Panel Discussion III

Initiating the discussion Dr. Francis Wongreferred to his paper which outlined: (1) Thepurpose or aim of comparative studies ineducation. As he saw it comparative studiesin education aimed at applying the com-parative approach to the study of educa-tional phenomena. Comparison was not anend in itself. Comparison led to classificationand the latter to the expression of 'laws'.These studies could compare systems ofeducation in space and time. (2) The Metho-dology of Comparative Studies. The metho-logy of comparative studies would includeArea studies which could be descriptive orinterpretive. Area studies described the edu-cational system of practices of one particularcountry. Reports of several countries oneafter the other were still Area studies untilthe selected material were analysed so as tobring out the similarities and differences andthe findings summed up in a hypothesis. Thisinvolved the juxtaposition of the availabledata leading to classification under con-venient headings. Finally came completecomparison through the probleMS approachor the total analysis approach. (3) Levels ofStudy. Comparative studies in educationcould be conducted at various leVek, forexample at the informative level, in initialteacher training courses to help the teachertrainees know and understand better theirown educational system and those of othercountries. Other levels included the problemanalysis, which would be suited to theadvanced student preparing for higherdegrees; the inter-disciplinary, where thestudent works closely with specialists fromother disciplines; and the commitment anddecision making level in which the researchstudent works in collaboration with theeducational planners and administrators toinform and advise the government onmatters pertaining to education.

Dr. Wong further gave a brief historicalaccount of the development of comparativestudies. The first phase began in the 19th.Century when European educationists wereanxious to borrow from other countriestheir best practices. It was soon realisedthat one could not borrow in toto withoutreference to the social background of thecountries. A transitional period followed

when backgrounds were studied before im-porting features of educational systems. Thesecond phase began at the beginning of the20th. Century when a great interest wasshown in society and a variety of disciplinesbrought to bear upon the study of educationsystems, e.g. sociology, economics, anthro-pology etc. Educationists like N. Hans andJ. Lauwerys took a global view of educationand used interdisciplinary techniques. Thethird phase began after World War. Therehas since been attempts to apply the scienti-fic approach to Comparative education asillustrated by the book "Scientific Investiga-tions in Education" by M.A. Eckstein andH.J. Noah.

Dr. Wong prozeeded to explain theapproach adopted, by the CoMparativeStudies Division of the Faculty of Educa-tion. Here it had been considered desirableto offer a course in comparatives studies frOMfour perspectives the historical, thephilosophical, curriculum and structural.Here an attempt was being made to poolthe resources of the existing staff to bringabout an interdisciplinary approach.

Dr. Wong finally expressed the need fora Centre of Comparative Studies in South-East Asia. It Was not important where itwilS situated but he viewed among itsftinetiOns the following; (1) the collectionof a body of data of fellow south-easiancountries, 0) the existence of a team ofpeople to analyse and evaluate problemsthat could be studies e.g, the implementationof the National Language in various South-East Asian countries. Such a centre wouldneed considerable financial support.

DiscussionDuring the discussion that followed,

panel members focussed attention on thefollowing issues:

1) The Cebtre for

2) The problemseducationists.

3) The need fornational system.

4) The emphasis onapproach.

.436

Comparative Studies.

facing comparative

studying one's ciN

a multi-disciplinary

129

5) Fear of 'becoming too scientific.

6) UNESCO publications.

1) The Centre for Comparative Studies.Generally there was support for the idea ofa Centre for Comparative Studies in South-East Asia. Mr. Forman of the Asia Founda-tion thought it an excellent idea andsuggested that the University of Malaya withits vast library resources on South-East Asiacould logically develop such an institute,drawing in the competent staff in SocialSciences from the different Faculties. Dr.Winarno, of Indonesia, did, however, feelthat the first Institute to be set up inSouth-East Asia should be one of Education-al Planning. Mr. Paul Chang emphasised thateducational planners used comparativeeducation as one of the techniques availableto them. He had himself used the compara-tive approach to convince the Treasury thata four year education course was viable,since it had been tried fairly successfullyin other places.

2) Problems facing comparative educa-tionists. Mr. Paul Chang in his commentshighlighted the problems facing comparativeeducationists. There were innumerabledangers in comparing especially by untrainedpersons who might draw hasty conclusionsoften leading to disaster. In teacher educa-tion for instance, the emphasis is often onthe curriculum which in the whole trainingsituation is only the process. Factors ofinput such as, years of education, durationof teacher training, age of entrance, all ofwhich are important input factors are oftenignored. As such it is unfair to compare theoutput of the process. It is unfair tocompare output quality when there arelarge differences of input quality. Thereforeit is important to ensure that what wecompare is validly comparable.

3) The need for studying one's own nationalsystem. Mr. Ngui highlighted the fact thatbefore venturing to compare and study

130 137

other systems of education one should studyone's own national system of education.He saw little use in comparative studies perse. Studies should be utilitarian and donein social, cultural and religious context.In his scale of priorities he would put firstArea Studies. Field research studies shouldbe conducted in areas like rural problems.Comparison of similar problems should giveinsights.

4) Multi-disciplinary approach. On thequestion of the methodology of comparativestudies there was widespread agreement thatit should be of an interdisciplinary nature.The contributions of Sociology, Economics,and Anthropology etc. were considerednecessary to solving problems in comparativeeducation.

5) Fear of becoming too scientific. Somefear was expressed by Mr. Forman thatcomparative education might be aiming tobecome too scientific. This followed Mr.Paul Chang's and Mr. Ngui's efforts topropagate that comparative educationistsshould attempt to follow the scientificmethod and attempt quantification wherepossible. He thought that comparativeeducation by looking for laws and principlesmight become pseudo - scientific. Questions ofeducation were philosophical and one shoulddebate them e.g. What do we want ourteachers to be? The emphasis should be onthe ends and not the means. Curriculum,for instance, was only the means. We shoulddebate the ends. Mr. Chang, however, feltthat there was no danger of comparativeeducation becoming too scientific as it wasboth a philosophy and a technique. Inapplying a scientific method one was notoverthrowing the philosophy of the subject.

6) UNESCO Reports. Dissatisfaction wasexpressed by Dr. Winarno on the dataavailable in United Nations Reports. Thiswas supported by the Phillipino delegate,Dr. Paz Ramos.

Rapporteur: Mrs. Sarjit Singh

Panel Discussion IV

Theme: Curriculum Evaluation inTeacher Education: Peda-gogical Perspective.

Date: August 7, 1970.

In the panel discussion on the pedagogicalperspective of Curriculum Evaluation inTeacher Education, the term "pedagogy" istaken to mean the actual practice of class-room teaching rather than the theoreticalaspects of teaching such as the theoreticalbasis underlying the formulation of in-structional strategies and the developmentof instructional theories. The many ideasand arguments put forward by both panel-members and floor-speakers during thedeliberation may be broadly classified intothree categories. They are:

1. Areas of Agreement,

2, Problem areas, and

3. Suggested Solutions for improvement

Agreement1. It is of consensus opinion that in anyteaching-learning situation the essentialelements (or components) involved are theinstructional objectives, the teacher, thepupils, the content materials to be taughtand the learning environment. Theseelements need to be examined very carefullyduring the course of planning a lesson..statements of instructional objectives arecrucial and these objectives must be viablein the sense that they are testable.

2. In the area of lesson-planning,members of the discussion panel agree thatthe following "steps" should, in general, beconsidered:

a. The statement of aims/objectives.

b. The systematic selection and organi-zation of content materials.

c. The formulation of instructionalstrategies to be employed duringthe conduct of the lesson.

d. The formulation of questions to beasked and the selection of testingprocedures for the purpose of

evaluation.

3. Teaching is a highly subjectiveprocess. It is the consensus opinion of thepangl that until more sophisticated methodsand techniques of quantification of thevariables involved are found, it is notpossible for the teacher to be fully objectivein the planning and conduct of his lesson.Similarly, therefore, there is also no objec-tive way of evaluating the performance ofthe teacher.

4. Everyone agrees that there is a greatvariety of teaching-learning situations.Because of this complexity, it is thereforeessential to provide student-teachers witha wide range of instructional "options"so as to enable them to cope with the manydifferent classroom situations and problemsthat may confront them.

Problem1. Even though it is recognized that thestatement of instructional objectives iscrucial, members of the panel cannot agreeon the specific manner in which objectivesshould be formulated. While some maintainthat instructional objectives should bestated in behavioural terms, others claimthat there is no real value in insisting onbehavioural objectives because it is just notpossible to state everything in terms ofstudents' performance especially for thosephilosophical aspects of teaching.

2. As the formulation of instructu,nalobjectives is by itself a problem area, thereis therefore correspondingly no agreementon the specifics of exactly how to plan alesson in terms of the four broad stepsindicated earlier. Neither is there an agree-ment on exactly how a lesson should beconducted in any given situation. As such,there is therefore no adequate meant ofassessing and evaluating objectively theperformance of a student-teacher in hispractical teaching.

3. Some panel members claim thatteaching is an Art, while others maintainthat it is a Science. Those who argue thatteaching is an Art-form warn that we areactually trapping ourselves if we acceptteaching as a Science with a rigid structureor system.

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4. Practising teachers and studentsparticipating in the discussion criticise thesystem of teacher-training in Malaysia asbeing too heavily theory oriented. Theyaccuse educators and staff of teacher.training institutions for not practising whatthey preach. For example, educatorsrecognize, accept and preach the existenceof individual differences, but in theirteaching, they themselves have done nothingto cater for individual differences amongtheir students.

5. From the view-point of teacher-trainers, facilities for carrying out practicalteaching by their students are rather limitedin Kuala Lumdur (Malaysia). This is sobecause there are too many teacher-traininginstitutions being located in the city.

6. Complaints have also come from headsof schools and practising teachers that theexisting system of teacher-training inMalaysia has not provided students with anyform of training in the area of classroomadministration. As such, newly qualifiedteachers are confronted with many adminis-trative problems in the form of fees-collection, maintaining pupils' records andclass registers, etc. which they know verylittle during their first few months of actualteaching in the schools.

7. Many of the problems confrontingteacher-educators arise from the indifferent(if not negative) attitudes of some studentstowards the teaching profession. To in-culcate the so-called "proper" attitude inthe students and to help them develop asense of dedication for the teaching pro-fession under the existing system is practical-ly an impossible task. There may be nosolution to this problem unless some formof control to prevent people who intend totake up teaching as "a last resort" frombeing admitted to teacher-training institu-tions. Until such a control is being im-plemented, little can be done to bring aboutany form of attitude-change in the students(and subsequently of trained teachers)towards the teaching profession.

Suggested Solution1. As a compromise to the issue con-cerning whether instructional objectivesshould be stated in behavioural or non-

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behavioural terms, certain members of thepanel sugss.t that we should accept bothtypes of objective so long as they indicatewhat the teacher wishes to accomplish andthat the objectives stated are viable.

2. In the area of evaluation of practicalteaching, a panel member recommends thatinstead of awarding a one "letter" overallgrade to indicate the level of performanceof the student, statements explaining boththe strong and weak points of his ability toperform in a given situation may be moreuseful. Since the students are trained inseveral areas, continuous evaluation istherefore crucial.

3. As there is no one way of planning alesson, students participating in tho dis-cussion call for the involvement of lecturing-staff in examining the teaching situationtogether with the students as well as inthe joint planning of lessons to be taught.They also suggest that the training programshould be geared to the actual teachingproblems in the schools and that studentsshould be allowed a say in the planning ofthe teacher-training curriculum.

4. There is a suggestion put forward bythe lecturing - staff of teachers' trainingcolleges that the supervision of students intheir practical teaching be left to thesenior-teachers in the schools. This wouldthen release the lecturing-staff of the loadof having to supervise all the studentsassigned to them. More time could then bespent in working with those students whoare really weak.

5. In order to produce "better-trained"teachers, there is a suggestion from amember of the Faculty of Education,Uhiversity of Malaya, that the entry quali-fications for student-teachers be raised, andif is not possible, then the length oftime of the training period should beincreased so that the program need not be soSfammed and the students would con-sequently be more adequately trained.

6. To enable the students to familiarlizethemselves with the wide range of pedagogi-cal problems, members of the panel haverecommended the pre-exposure of studentsto actual teaching situations in the schoolsfor a period of about four weeks. This may

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be desirable because in doing sothe studentswould have been exposed to actual teachingexperiences right from the beginning oftheir training and would therefore be ableto better understand and react morepositively to the many problems they mightencounter during their training.

During the discussion several membersof the panel have stressed the need for

educators to design teacher-training pro-grams that would produce teachers who are"human" and "creative" rather than rigidand stereotype. The degree to whichteacher- educators could really succeed increating teachers who are "creative-feeling"human beings will never be known unlessand until the above suggested recommenda-tions are being tried Jut.

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Rapporteur: K.C.Lau

Panel Discussion V

I shall be as brief as possible. This is thereport of panel discussion five. The dis-cussion was based on the paper prepared byDr. Lim Kiat Boey and Dr. Paul Pedersenof the Faculty. The paper entitled "Curricu-lum Evaluation in Teacher Education: aSociological Perspective" highlighted thefollowing: a) that the world is in a state ofrapid change and therefore education shouldbe continuous. b) In this context, whatkind of teachers do we need? Referencewas made to developing countries whichwere wrestling with the problem of qualityversus quantity. c) The paper continuedthat efficient teachers are those who willhave a command of their subjects and ataste for continuous learning. They shouldbe adaptable and flexible.

The paper asked why the sociologicalperspective and it answered that it isessential to an analysis and understandingof the social environment in which theprocess of education takes place. InMalaysia, the teacher has to be aware ofthe direction of change and the changeinhibiting social factors. Then the teacherwill have the ability to affect the directionof his pupils. The sociological perspectivewill also provide a better understanding ofthe teacher's role in society.

The paper further added that there shouldbe a course which should provide opportuni-ties for practical applications of conceptsand techniques to build up the sociologicalperspective. In the methodology of evalua-tion both the authors of the paper stressedthe importance of evaluating the four areas.They are: the teacher, the students, theschool and the hardware and the software.The paper also raised several questions re-grading attitude change which were takenup in the discussion.

After the paper the panel memberscommented. The first comment was fromDr. Ages Salim from the Department ofNational Unity. He made two importantpoints. One, he applauded the idea ofemploying self education and continuingeducation. He reiterated that the Universityin general and the Faculty of Educationin particular should instill in the students

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an appetite for learning. Secondly, he saidthat the student teachers should be madeaware of social problems of Malaysiansociety. He suggested that this could bedone through having a course of study onMalaysian society and making teachers stayin rural, estate and other communities duringteaching practice.

The second comment was from Mrs.Mona Sedky who dealt more on attitudechange. She wondered whether it was ourrecruiting method that brought in rigidpersonalities who are not so willing toinnovate. She suggested that other than theacademic criterion to be locked into tobring in more dynamic and flexiblepersonalities.

Paul Pedersen highlighted the difficultiesof evaluating the perceptions and normsof students, teachers, school and society.A student member on the panel Mr. YoongSuan said that the content of our educationsystem is very much alien. Hence studentsdo not understand local cultures. He alsopointed out that the diploma course is takenby many students as a career of last resort.

Many interesting comments were madefrom the floor. Some time was spent on theproblems of attitude change. One memberwho has done some research in Malaysiamade the distinction between the attitudesthat are functional and the attitudes thatare excessible to change. Another memberpointed out that not all attitudes needchanging. That there are many attitudesthat should not be changed. When talkingabout attitude change one should not talkin absolute terms.

Another member from the Departmentof National Unity acknowledged the diffi-culties in its area but said that a start shouldbe made somewhere and the school was agood place as anywhere else. He also askedwhether the student teachers are aware ofthe social, religious, cultural habits of thechildren that they were going to teach.

A Singapore example was quoted by aparticipant as how they are tackling theproblem of teacher education by includingin their curriculum civics, internationalrelations etc which sensitised the teacherto the existing sociological problems.

Another member suggested the use ofsimulation games in teacher education. Infact many spoke in favour of simulationgames.

The member from Thailand pointed outthat in his experience they have not beenvery successful in inculcating a right attitude

in the teachers towards the teachingprofession. He also wondered whether theywere giving the right courses to the teachers.

Finally a student moaned about con-flicting objectives of the Faculty and theoutside Society and that they have becomevictims of this conflict and wondered whatsort of a teacher he was going to be!

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Rapporteur: T. Marimuthu

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Group Discussion A

The group which discusses the curriculumevaluation in language teacher educationseeks to answer three questions. Thesequestions have been formulated by the groupChairman M.B. Owen, not T. Owen, ofRegional Language Centre, Singapore on thebasis of the suggested questions for thegroup discussion. The questions are:

i) What are the objectives of languageteacher education?

ii) Are these objectives different from,or similar to, the objectives of theschool?

iii) What evaluative measures can beused to determine whether or notthese objectives are met?

It was pointed out that the objectivesin language teacher education in variouscountries would probably differ. So re-presentatives from Thailand, Malaysia andSingapore who were in the group wererequested to give brief outlines of theseobjectives. Representatives from Philippinesand Indonesia did not participate in thisgroup discussion.+

In Thailand, language teacher educationcurriculum consists of two parts: namelylanguage skills and literature. For languageskills the objectives are:

i) To train students so that they areable to comprehend what they reador write and to express their viewsorally or in written form.

ii) To help students so that they maybe able to teach the language skillsto their pupils.

For literature the objective is to enablethe students to appreciate literature. It wasgiven very broadly because the representativeconcerned was not directly involved inlanguage teacher education.

The objectives of language teachereducation in Malaysia are the following:

i) To train students so that theybecome proficient in the languages

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they would be teaching.

ii) To train them so that they may beable to teach the language skills.Literature is, however, treatedseparately. The speaker did notelaborate this piont.

In Singapore the curriculum of languageteacher education is divided into two parts.The first part is called the content coursesand the second part, the methodologycourses. Content courses are provided sothat these teacher trainees would be familiarwith the patterns and structure of the secondlanguage and methodology courses areprovided so that they would have theknowledge on how to teach the language tothe pupils.

With regard to the next question, thegroup feels that the expectations of theschool differ from the objectives of thelanguage teacher education. In the old daysthe school expects that every teacher be ableto teach English language but now a languageteacher, that is the English language teacher,is a specialist. Therefore not everyoneshould be able to teach English, but thisyear, Malay language teachers are notspecialists in this sense. Malay languagecould be taught by any teacher who hassome knowledge of Malay at !east at theprimary level.

The group then digressed a little at thispoint and some of the issues brought tolight are the following:

1. In Thailand different languages aretaught at different levels. Thailanguage is taught at the primarylevel , English language , at thesecondary level and during the lasttwo years of the secondaryeducation, German, French, orChinese languages are taught butmost students, however, chooseFrench.

2. There is a general agreement thatthe methods of teaching languageas first and second are differentand that the teacher should have agood knowledge of the structure ofthe language, he or she is teaching.

3. There is a suggestion, that inMalaysia, only Bahasa Malaysiashould be taught at primary levelif the aim is to provide languageskills. English could be introducedat secondary level because lesspeople in this country wouldrequire the knowledge of Englishfor specific purposes. The Chairmanconcluded the discussion on thismatter by saying that there is ageneral agreement chat there isdisagreement.

The group then discussed the ways andmeans to overcome the problems that nowexist in language teacher education.Suggestions from members of the groupindicated that:

a) language teachers should be bilingual.

b) language teachers should be able toteach confidently each of the langua -ges he knows either as the first orsecond language.

c) language teachers should be able toadapt his approach and materialsaccording to the needs of the class.

d) there is need to reorientate the head-masters and headmistresses so thatthey may accommodate the objectivesof the language teacher training curri-culum. It was observed that at presentthere is difficulty experienced by the

language teachers in schools becausemost of the new methods that theywish to try out in schools do not meetwith the approval of some head-masters/headmistresses because it isthought the headmasters/head-mistresses are not very familiar withsome of these new methods.

e) Examination is perceived as a stumb-ling block in the way of the school toaccommodate these new objectives,

f) finally the group felt that there is aneed for experimental school whichcould be used for experimenting newmethods and approaches and these newmethods could then be observed byteachers around the area so that theywould really see the benefits and theusefulness of these new projects.

Coming next to the third question theevaluative measures concerned with evalua-ting teacher education. These measures havebeen discussed very briefly because verylittle time was available for this question. SoI will give you the measures that had beensuggested. These measures are course work,examinations, practice teaching, question-naires, interviews, observations, testing andevaluation by senior teachers.

The Chairman in his conclusion statedthat there are no easy solutions to theproblems put forward in the discussion.

Rapporteur: Amir bin Awang

+ They participated in the other group discussions, which were held at the same time.

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Group Discussion B

During the group discussion session on`Curriculum Evaluation in Science StudiesTeacher Education' some of the practiJesof teacher education institutions andproblems therein were discussed. It wasapparent that our expectations of ourscience and mathematics teacher is that hebe able to function as effectively as hepossibly can within the system as it present-ly exists. That is, within such constraintsas large classes, the policy setup, syllabi tobe covered, lack of equipment and facilitiesand the like. Two separate viewpoints onwhat the role of the science and mathematicsteacher should be were expressed anddiscussed. On the one hand, the role is oneof dissemination of knowledge while in-corporating new knowledge discovered fromtime to time and on the other hand, it isone of developing in pupils the habits ofscientific inquiry and critical thinking. Itwas felt that both are desired roles and theteacher should be expected to performboth roles.

With regard to the qualities that a scienceand mathematics teacher should have, it wasagreed that ideally, a teacher should haveboth academic competency and the 'proper'attitude. However, the group felt that ofthe two, the attitude of the teacher towards

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the job was a more fundamental considera-tion. Inadequacy in subject matter, it wasthought, could be made up by the individualteacher who has the 'right' attitude, usingmaterials made available to him.

The group realised that changes in schoolscience teaching need to be made but it wasemphasized that one must be realistic andtake into account the time element. Anysort of reform takes time. In addition, it wasstressed that these changes must reflectchanges in society. In order to bring aboutthese changes effectively it was thoughtthat the educational administrator in theschool system should be involved in thenew programmes. Further, in the teachertraining institutions, teacher trainees shouldbe given actual experiences in the use of newteaching materials and new teachingapproaches or methods. The teacher traininginstitution should also provide training inthe production and utilization of simpleand inexpensive apparatus and other in-structional materials. It was recognised thatteacher training institutions cannot provideall the experiences and skills that arerequired by a teacher. The teacher traininginstitutions are, in fact, teacher-startinginstitutions and can only be expected toprovide the foundation on which the teacherbuilds and grows and becomes experiencedon the job.

Rapporteur: S. Kanagasabal

Group Discussion C

I present the report of group discussion Con curriculum evaluation in social studiesteacher education. The tone of the discussionwas set by the Chairman who wrote on theboard, a quotation from Confucius, -"ifwords are not properly defined thenconfusion rather than clarity will emergefrom any dialogue or discussion." It was heldthat it was possible to take two approaches.1. A broad monolistic approach coveringthe entire field of sociology. The otherapproach which appeared to be morecommon in our schools is that of treatingsocial studies in terms of certain subjectareas such as history, geography, civics,economics, political science and anthropolo-gy. It was pointed out by one speaker thatin Malaysia at any rate social studies werebeing taught on a fragmented basis andthat the need for integration was all tooevident. Then the Chariman pointed out thatteacher training institutions had the res-ponsibility not only in training their studentteachers how to teach but also how todevelop and to renew their curriculum. Onespeaker insisted that the group should setabout defining the aims that had to beborne in mind in the teaching of socialstudies. Although this request was notrecognised and accepted immediately, lateron at the Chairman's request this speakerdid in fact put forward two particular aimsfor social studies. The first aim is to developgood citizenship by which the school wouldturn out individuals who are rat;onal, well-informed and able to make sensible deci-sions. The second is to assist the pupil toacquire factual knowledge of variousdisciplines such as history, geography, civicsand so on. However the mere conveyanceor imbibing of knowledge was not to be anaim in itself. Interpretation of the facts orsubject matter was the more difficult aspectof this. The delegate from Thailand reportedon certain problems in his country. Hementioned that the drawback in the teachingof civics was that it included so many topicsthat many teachers were reluctant to handlethe teaching of it. Because of this fact, theindividual approach had been rather moredifficult and he also expressed doubts as towhether it was possible for experts in various

disciplines to agree on integration. It wasoften much too difficult to expect fivedifferent experts on five different fields toarrive at any particular consensus. Motherspealpr suggested that probably if Universityeducation is organised not on a faculty basisbut in the form of schools dealing witharea topics as such rather than subjectsthere might be a greater likelihoodof success.Discussion then centred on what the socialstudies areas should be geared to try toachieve and in this connection variousspeakers pointed out the inevitability ofstressing national ideals and nationalideologies. Ethics and civic duties wouldinevitably loom large in any curriculum ofthis nature. The delegate from Indonesiapointed out that his country's experiencehad been that teachers still tend to followthe traditional approach, to look upon socialstudies in terms of compartmentalizedsubjects and they were reluctant to applythe integrated approach. Some time was thenspent in discussing the suggestion of onespeaker that it was not possible to developcitizenship through the teaching of civicsalone. It was the general consensus thatalthough there is no certainty that in factthe teaching of civics has led to bettercitizenship attitudes, the schools of necessityhad to fall back on a blend between theoryand practice in the achievement of thecivic disciplines and values. Inevitably theexamination system and its evils crept intothe discussion. It was stressed by one speakerthat there was no harm in being truthfulabout it and admit that the passing ofexaminations was certainly an importantobjective of education in our schools. Whatwas probably wrong or defective was themode of examining, which needed reform.All too often the way the examinationquestions were set out, one got the im-pression that it was merely intended to testsimple recall of facts neglecting the broadereducational objectives of critical andanalytical thinking. Discussion then rangedon where integration should begin namelywhether it should be left towards the end ofthe syllabus or whether it was better tobegin with different subjects and then go onto integration. The programme of theFaculty of Education this year which hasintroduced a new approach to social sciencemethodology was then discussed. The core

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and individual areas of the faculty's socialscience methodological course wereanalyzed. Finally the Chairman summed upthe entire discussion by pointing out thatcommon to all disciplines in the schoolcurriculum is that of being clear on oneobjective. He suggested that one shouldbe aware of problems and then apply variousdisciplines in the solution of these problems.He also stressed that the teacher training

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institutions are the ones that produce thefuture administrators and decisionmakersin the educational field. Teachers thereforeneed to broaden their outlook and toaware that there are more things in heavenand on earth than are dreamt of in theirphilosophy. Thus the discussion group cameback to full circle with the philosophicalnote on which it began.

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Rapporteur: J.P. Doraisamy