An Evolving Tradition

In spite of the many early challenges and lingering difficulties of a political, literary and social nature faced by writers in the English language in Malaysia, literary tradition in English has come a long way, showing considerable dynamism and resilience since its inception.

Three stage evolution• Works produced by representatives of the

imperial power• Works produced under imperial license by

natives or outcastes• The development of independent literatures

or the emergence of modern post-colonial literatures

Representatives: Hugh Clifford, Richard Winstead, Frank Swettenham, Katharine Sim, and Margaret Leong

Under imperial license: Gregory W. de Silva and Han Suyin

Independent literature: began with The New Cauldron, 1949.

Compared to India, MLIE is still young Compared to Singapore? We took a

different path.

Pioneers: Wong Phui Nam, Lloyd Fernando, Lee Kok Liang, and Ee Tiang Hong

2nd generation: Shirley Lim, K.S. Maniam, Cecil Rajendra, Kee Thuan, Chye and Hilary Tham

Others: Muhammad Haji Salleh, Adibah Amin, Chuah Guat Eng, Lee Geok Lan, Salleh ben Joned, Nirmala Raghavan, Ruth Ho, Karim Raslan, Marrie Gerrina Louis, Lee Su Kim, Che Husna Azhari, Dina Zaman, Rehman Rashid and Amir Muhammad.• Many are bilingual• Limited output

Many Malaysian writers seem to enjoy dabbling in witty journalistic writings rather than engaging in serious literary activities.

Why?• It allows them an easier and wider exposure

to the potential readership in the country• In keeping with a ‘grand old tradition of

journalistic commentary… going all the way to Abdullah Munsyi, no less’ (Rehman Rashid)

The exception: drama Flourished in the 70s Suffered after the introduction of

Amendment Act 1971 Made a strong comeback in the 90s But, many are not published.

Malaysia is a plural, polyglot society in which English is one of the marginal languages

English is seen as the language of the oppressive and exploitative colonial masters

The roots of the language are not deep enough to provide the political and intellectual props required for the hearty growth of literary activity

Language policies: National Language Act 1967, Amendment Act 1971

They created a feeling of alienation and marginalisation thus stifling creativity

Sastera Melayu: national literature Other literatures: kesusasteraan

sukuan or sectional literatures

Things are changing though since mid 1980s

Malaysia increasingly recognises the importance of English in the era of globalisation especially for the purpose of fulfilling the national vision of 2020

Time has also been a healing factor

The absence of a local English language writing tradition• Writers depend on tradition for their

examples and inspirations• They cannot draw from European tradition• Need to establish tradition but American

literature took 200 years to find an independent voice

The heterogeneous make up of the national population• Writers are from diverse cultural backgrounds,

their imaginations and value systems are different

• Need to learn to emphatise with one another’s culture thus contributing to the formation of a common consciousness

• with common body of symbols and myths for the writers to draw from

• Need to ‘mingle’ for a shared, collective memory

Different kind of challenges Closed political environment resulting in

lack of freedom of speech The cultural state of the country Malaysia is a tradition bound yet

modernising country This push and pull factor affects the

writers and their imagination both ways Tradition encourages a closed culture

which means new ways and behaviours are condemned; thus no chance to experiment

In spite of everything, the future of MLIE looks full of promise

Changed circumstances of the language resulted in greater freedom of expression

Less political and cultural pressures English is no longer as a part of colonial

hegemony The rise of an international and neo-

universal world culture e.g. multinationalism and globalism

So, is 1Malaysia helping?