MAN AND NATUREin Neapoli’s municipal area, Lassithi Crete

Editors

Kaloust Paragamian Ioannis NikoloudakisHellenic Institute of Speleological Research.

Layout

Ilias Kourtessis

Printing

Graphic Arts TYPOKRETAG. Kazanakis S.A.Industr. Area of Heraklion Crete

© Copyright: Municipality of Neapoli, Lassithi

ISBN 978-960-88971-2-0

All rights reserved. No part of this book may bereproduced, used or republished without thepermission of the Municipality of Neapoli andthe authors.

Book reference:Paragamian K. and I. Nikoloudakis. 2007. Man and Nature in Neapoli’s municipal area,Lassithi, Crete. Municipality of Neapoli - Hellenic Institute ofSpeleological Research. Heraklion, 160 pp.

Kaloust Paragamian Ioannis Nikoloudakis

MAN AND NATUREin Neapoli’s municipal area, Lassithi Crete

Municipality of NeapoliHellenic Institute of Speleological Research

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Authors' note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

The landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Geological setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Life in the distant past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Climate and vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Villages and farmsteads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Historic monasteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Archaeological sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Drives and walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

Afterword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

7

CON

TEN

TS

eople, Nature, Life and Culture are very closely intermingledconcepts, forming a blend whose limits are hard to define.Everyday, well-known concepts, but ones which are often

misunderstood or misidentified. The more we understand ourenvironment, whether natural or manmade, and the more we approachit in a serious, scientific way, the more we come to respect,appreciate, love and protect it. Environmental awareness is aninternational value in every age. This is exactly what the Municipalityof Neapoli is trying to promote through this book.

The landscape of our home is like the weather-beaten face of an oldman who has been sorely tried and has much to tell us… if youapproach him in the right way.

This guidebook is such an approach. It is a small attempt to get toknow the world around us, our own land, our own home, which we sooften neglect in our rush to explore faraway countries.

This guidebook is a start. The second step is up to you.Proposals… views… knowledge are all welcome.

We thank everyone who has contributed to this effort in any way.

Nikos KastrinakisMayor of Neapoli

PPR

EFAC

E

9

e would like to thank the members of the MunicipalCouncil of Neapoli, Mayor Nikos Kastrinakis inparticular, for entrusting us with writing about the

place they know and love. They have given us the opportunity tostudy, learn more about and describe a place we too have loved,roamed and explored for years. We hope that this book will meettheir expectations.The Eastern Crete Development Organisation (OANAK) managedthe research programme resulting in this publication. GeorgeKostakis was the project mannager and Michalis Lipakis, GISexpert, prepared the maps we used in this book. The Cretan Department of the Hellenic Speleological Society hasprovided us with information on the area from its unique archiveson the caves of Crete. Our speleologist colleagues from the CretanDepartment, Ioannis Nathenas, Andreas Papadakis, StavrosPatramanis, George Zervakis, Katerina Kopsari and Sophia Avgeriaccompanied us on our speleological expeditions at the area.Kostis Spithas from Neapoli, a man who truly knows and loves thearea, helped us with information and suggestions on placesunknown to us.The Greek text was translated in English by Rosemary Tzanaki

We would like to express our warmest thanks to them all.

10

ACKN

OW

LEDG

EMEN

TS W

he Municipality of Neapoli is an area of Crete in whichman and nature have coexisted and interacted closely forat least eight millennia. This long relationship has been

stamped clearly on the environment, creating a complex mosaicof rocks and minerals, varied terrain, vegetation, flora and fauna,towns, villages, sacred places and changes in land use down theages. Visitors to the area will be struck by the changing faces of thelandscape, leaving them with lifelong memories. Yet nothing isas simple as a glance or a photograph might suggest. There is farmore beneath the surface, hidden treasure awaiting discovery bythe inquiring mind, the result of processes and interactions asold as the land itself. The visitor who wants to get to know and understand the areamust first grasp the relationship of its human inhabitantsthrough the ages with the far more ancient natural featuresaround them. We hope that this book will prove a useful guide.

K. Paragamian I. NikoloudakisHellenic Institute of Speleological Research

11

AUTH

ORS

’ NOT

E T

13

Vrysses with Neapoli

in the background.

This publication was undertaken with the aim of providing basic information inorder to help visitors decipher the natural environment of the Municipality ofNeapoli. Extensive bibliographical research for scientific publications on the area didnot provide the expected results. The human and especially the naturalenvironment were little studied. We therefore had to rely on field trips,focussing on a different subject each time. The photographs presented here areselected from a much larger number of pictures taken on the spot. Much of theinformation provided is original. Our many targeted data-collection visitsallowed us to discover and evaluate many facts, either ignored hitherto orentirely new. It took much thought before we decided to publish some of our“discoveries” such as the seasonal wetlands, those extremely vulnerableecosystems which are now an environmental protection priority for Greece andthe European Union. We have not mentioned the whereabouts of certainpaleontological and archaeological sites of great cultural and scientificinterest, as we believe that they need to be studied further and protectedbefore they are made known to the public. Readers who would like to find outmore about the natural and manmade environment of Crete are invited to usethe bibliography provided at the end of this book, which mentions some of themost important works on the island. We have approached the area as part of the natural environment of Crete, withhuman activity as an important element of this. In other words, we see man asone of the hundreds of species which live and do their best to survive here. In

14

Introduction

this context, we have tried not to prettify certain situations, but we have alsotried not to grumble, except perhaps a little bit in the afterword. We havefocussed on presenting and providing photographs of species and ecosystemswhich are easily identifiable by the average visitor. We do not give detaileddescriptions of plants and animals which are only of interest to the specialist,except when they provide useful means of interpreting certain phenomena. We have tried to avoid using difficult scientific terms. However, in some caseswhere we could not avoid doing so an explanation is provided in the text. Thecommon name of each plant or animal is followed by its international scientificname in brackets. The book is divided into two parts. The first provides all the basic informationdrawn from the bibliography and field trips. The location, terrain and geologyof the area are described, with reference to geological history and long-extinctspecies. All these, together with the climate, plant and animal adaptations andhuman activity, are linked in order to explain plant distribution and condition,and the composition of local flora and fauna. Finally, the exclusively manmadeenvironment is described, including towns, villages and farmsteads,monasteries and archaeological sites. In the second part of the book, wepropose three main tours by car which will allow you to enjoy the landscapeand give you a fairly comprehensive picture of the area. Each route alsoincludes several walks, both long and short, which will help you understandthis picture.

Translator's Note: In the transcription of Greek place-names, “ch” is always soft as in “loch”.

15

16

The Municipality of Neapoli forms an administrative part of Lassithi Prefecture.It borders on the Municipality of Agios Nikolaos to east and south and on theCommunity of Vrachassi to the west. Its northern coast is washed by the Seaof Crete. The municipal seat is Neapoli, a town with a recorded population of2,767 at the latest census. The fertile valley of Neapoli forms a long, accessible passage between theplains and bays of Malia and Agios Nikolaos. It has always had greateconomical and strategic importance, as it is both the main route ofcommunication and the midpoint for people, goods and ideas flowing betweencentral and eastern Crete.From antiquity to the present, people have striven to exploit useable land andeven control the passes to some extent. The strategic position and naturalresources of the area led to the gradual development and politicalreinforcement of Dreros, an important city of the post-Minoan period whichflourished from the 8th century BC and for the next two centuries. Its risewould undoubtedly have been aided by the exploitation of smaller vales lyingbelow the valley, which did not have the necessary resources to be self-sufficient and therefore independent. These vales include those of Lagada -Drassi - Agios Konstantinos to the southwest and those of Kourounes,Perambela and Kastelli-Fourni to the northeast. Today, the Municipality of Neapoli comprises 10 Municipal Departments. Apartfrom the town of Neapoli, there are 10 villages large and small and at least 28metochia (seasonal farmsteads or monastic dependencies) scattered across thearea. The municipality is bordered by a series of hills and mountains of varyingsizes. To the west, the peak of Anavlochas (623 m above sea level) and the

17

The Landscape

The Drassi-Lagadavalley andKavallaras.

heights of Kalaritis, Moutsounas (510 m) and other smaller hills divide it fromthe Vrachassi-Milatos area. To the southeast and south, the peaks of Akrolakki(915 m), Lagada, Pyflari (1,184 m), Machairas (1,487 m), Achinolakki,Chionistra (931 m) and Kopranes separate Neapoli from the Municipalities ofLassithi Plateau and Agios Nikolaos. To the east, the peaks of Anemospili (552m), Loutsi (718 m), Pyrgou (348 m), Katsiolos (549 m), Koutsoura (699 m) andMegalo Kastri (499 m) form the dividing line with Agios Nikolaos and Elounda.The terrain is fairly mountainous. The northern part of the area is made up ofmany hills with small isolated valleys nestling between them. Five of these areover 700 metres high: Timios Stavros (793 m), Stiromandra or Nesaki Korfi (762m), Peza (759 m), Trapeza (732 m) and Vathylakko (701 m). Between the

18

The vale ofKastelli with thehill of Dreros,Kavallaras andthe LassithiMountains in thebackground.

heights flow streams, mostly running down to the north coast and the sea.From west to east, the largest streams are: Anemalliaris in the area of Anogiaand Agios Antonios, Malliaris in the Souvlos area, Chalasmata in the Romanos-Koudoumalos area, Mesomouri near Dilakkos and Patsopoulos, Lagos in Karydi,and finally the Sifades stream running east to the Bay of Spinalonga. To the south is the valley of Neapoli, a relatively flat area with small dirt hills.Further south the terrain is rockier, with hills forming the foothills of theLassithi Mountains. The major peaks are Kavallaras (767 m) due south ofNeapoli, and Aginaras (574 m), the easternmost spur of the Selena range.Further south, at the border between the Municipalities of Neapoli and AgiosNikolaos, are the peaks of Achinolakki and Machairas; at 1,487 metres abovesea level, the latter is the highest point of the municipality.

19

Bottom right: Hills and valleyseast of TimiosStavros, withKastelli andFourni in thebackground.

MUNICIPALITY OF NEAPOLI GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAP

20

21

22

The stage on which all the other elements of the natural environment of anarea exist and interact is usually the least appreciated part. Everyone's gaze isdrawn to the fast-changing protagonists of the play of nature and man. Andyet the geological structure, mineral composition and geological history of thearea are key elements for anyone wishing to understand the play in depth. InCrete this stage is extremely complex and varied, directly affecting the varietyand uniqueness of landscapes, plants and animals, and of course the people ofthe island, who managed to create a major human civilisation in just a fewthousand years' presence on the island. The geology of the Neapoli area is simple compared to other parts of Crete.Carbonate minerals prevail to the exclusion of almost all else. Strange as it mayseem, these sedimentary minerals are organic in origin. They were created bythe accumulation of the inorganic remains (shells and skeletons) of marineorganisms that lived and died tens of millions of years ago in Tethys, theancient ocean which was lying between Eurasia and Africa long before Greeceappeared. Generally speaking, there are two types of carbonate mineral corresponding totwo geotectonic units, as they are known: platy limestone and Tripoli. Thewhole region north and northeast of Neapoli to the sea is composed of platylimestone. These are rocks formed 250 to 30 million years ago and thenmetamorphosed, i.e. dissolved and re-crystallised in the sea by high pressure

23

Geological setting

24

and heat, forming modern marble with its distinctive crystalline structure. Thislimestone is stratified in plates 10 to 40 centimetres thick, often containingsilica layers also formed from the skeletons of marine creatures (protozoans,sponges, etc.). This silica used to be (and to a lesser extent still is) minedsystematically near Elounda, for making whetstones. It has been estimated thatplaty limestone in Crete is over three kilometres thick!In the south of Neapoli Municipality, the foothills of the Lassithi Mountains aremostly composed of massive limestone and dolomites belonging to the Tripoligeotectonic unit and were formed 150 to 60 million years ago. These rocks formthe upper layer of the area which is no more than 350 metres thick. As opposedto platy limestone, they are not crystalline in structure, are fairly brittle andare more vulnerable to erosion by rainwater, so their surface is rough anduneven. Interposed between the two types of limestone are schist and phyllite rocks ofthe Phyllite-Quartzite unit. These appeared 300 to 200 million years ago andcan be seen on the surface in the Neapoli valley and further south, before theKatharo plateau. Being waterproof, they are eroded very gradually, evenly andsuperficially, forming a more or less flat landscape. The two upper nappes(sheets of rock lying over neighbouring strata), Phyllites-Quartzites and Tripoli,

25

Platy limestone with layers of white silica.

Massive limestoneabove Lagada,distinctively eroded by rain.

have been worn away and disappeared completely to the north and north-eastof Neapoli, where platy limestone prevails almost exclusively. Rocks of theTripoli unit only remain in three small areas on the north coast: AgiosKonstantinos east of Milatos Beach, and east and west of Cape Drepani.On the north coast of Neapoli Municipality are much more recent rocks, formedfrom the cementation of either accumulated shards of limestone from steep

hillsides (breccia), or rounded pebbles deposited by streams inestuaries (conglomerate). These rock strata may be from a severalmetres to a few dozen metres thick. At several points of the north

coast the sea has exposed their stratigraphy, revealing thelayers corresponding to different rates of erosion due toclimate change during the Pleistocene, particularly over thelast million years. Where the platy limestone bedrock is

Lithophaga (rock-eating mussels),incontestable proofof higher sea levelsin ages past.

The stratigraphy ofbreccia layers onthe north coastcorresponds toclimate changesand intensity oferosion during thepast tens ofthousands of years.

exposed, the marks left by the changing sealevel of the past tens of thousands of years canbe seen, with holes made by lithophagous (rock-eating) bivalves when the sea level was two to30 metres higher than it is today. The Cretan Departmant of the HellenicSpeleological Society has recorded 43 caves inthe area (see Appendix), but the true number iscertainly much higher. Twelve of these havebeen explored; although none is really large orcontains impressive formations, they provide aninteresting picture of the local undergroundenvironment. The chasms of Kani Latsida (25 mdeep) and Xerolimni (15 m deep) containendemic (native) species of cave-dwellinginvertebrate. Two caves on the north coastlinecontain vertebrate fossils. The cave of AgiosAndreas north of Finokalia is one of the mostbeautiful cave churches in Crete.

The even contours of the Neapoli valley.

Sea cave north of Agios Andreas.

Datserolenia Cavenear the north coast.

27

MUNICIPALITY OF NEAPOLI GEOLOGICAL MAP

28

29

30

Life in the distant past

Very little has been published on paleontological finds in the Municipality ofNeapoli. The area certainly experienced the major upheavals of the past 17million years. At first it was a small part of mainland Aegaeis, linking south-east Europe and Asia Minor. It then became part of the seabed, rising oncemore as a section of mainland, or a large or small island. Eight to 11 millionyears ago, giant elephant-like animals (Deinotherium giganteum) walked theland. Their fossils have been found at two separate locations in the Sitiadistrict. At over 4.5 metres tall and weighing up to 12 tons, these were trulyenormous beasts. They looked like modern elephants but their thick tuskspointed downwards. They roamed across the whole of Europe, Asia and Africabefore disappearing from the face of the earth 1.5 million years ago.Much more recently (in the last million years), when Crete had become anisland, the area was inhabited by dwarf hippopotami (Hippopotamuscreutzburgi) and deer (Candiacervus spp.), whose fossils have been discoveredin four caves north and east of Milatos. The larger of the two species ofelephant found on Crete (Elephas antiquus creutzburgi) also lived in the area,as demonstrated by fossils found on the Katharo plateau. These animalscolonised Crete by swimming across from the mainland, and establish largepopulations due to the lack of predators. Many rodent and shrew fossils werefound in the same locations, and also on the north coast of the municipality.Only one species of these “recent” types of fauna survives today: the Cretanwhite-toothed shrew (Crocidura zimmermanni) endemic to Crete, which is theonly endemic mammal in Greece.

31

Fossilised Cretan deer bones(Candiacervus spp.)

No large carnivorous mammals from this period have been found on Crete. Itwould seem that for the past two million years, large mammals have beenexclusively herbivores whose populations, survival and eventual extinctiondepended on plant availability. The major climate changes during glacial andinterglacial periods in the last million years definitely contributed to theirextinction. The deer were last to disappear at least 20,000 years ago, longbefore humans colonised the island.

32

The changes to both landscape and nature over geological time aredramatic and impressive. The most important of the events playing adecisive role in the creation and development of Greece is thecollision of two tectonic plates, the African and the Eurasian Plate.This collision began tens of millions of years ago and will continue fora few million years more, until the two continents eventually merge.The geologic and natural history of Crete has been extremely active.Sixteen million years ago, Crete formed the southernmost part ofAegaeis. Fifteen to 6.5 million years ago, in the Upper Miocene,Aegaeis split up and large tracts of land were flooded by the sea,mainly in the west. By the Messinian Age (6.5 to 5.3 million yearsago), Africa had come very close to Eurasia, forming an inland sea,the Mediterranean. The warm climate caused most of the water toevaporate (some researchers believe it all did!) and land massesreunited due to the drop in sea levels. The story of the Neogene, aperiod lasting over 21 million years (23.3 to 1.8 million years ago)ends with the opening of the Straits of Gibraltar in the Pliocene. Thewaters of the Atlantic rushed into the Mediterranean, and the Aegeangradually formed a series of islands which met and separated overtime. Many species disappeared, as they were unable to adapt todifferent ecological conditions in small areas of land. In Crete, forinstance, no mammal fossils from the Pliocene have been found,showing that almost all must have disappeared. Dramatic upheavals have continued in the last two million years. Thiswhole period has been stamped by major tectonic events (Crete has

A brief summary of a natural history lasting millions of years

33

Stratum containingfossilised mammalbones in sea cavebreccia deposits.

risen by about 800 m) and climate change (three basic glacial periods).Crete, like several other Aegean islands, was colonised by mammalspecies which could either spread easily (bats, rodents) or swim well(deer, elephants, hippos, etc.) Thus, although mainland Greece had agood faunal balance of carnivores and herbivores with low endemicity,islands were inhabited by herbivores which developed into endemicspecies. Gigantism and dwarfism are two impressive phenomenaobserved in insular populations at this time. Rats were the size of smallhares, while hippopotami were the size of pigs. Elephants were only 80-170 cm high and the dwarf deer were goat-sized. While geographicaland climate changes continued to affect the flora, fauna andecosystems of the wider area, humans - at least from the Neolithicperiod onwards - had a marked effect on natural history, bringing aboutwidespread and unnaturally rapid changes to their world.

34

Climate and vegetation

Shrubby vegetationdominates themunicipal area of Neapolis

Three main factors have determined local vegetation: climate, intensive grazingand man. Here, as in most of Crete, plant species are extremely resistant to aridconditions, as their biological cycle and features have adapted to theMediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. A glance at the landscape might lead one to the conclusion that the extensiveareas of heathland are the result of grazing by sheep and goats. Although thisis partly true, the theory does not fully explain the composition of thevegetation. It should be noted that overgrazing is not something “foreign” tothe area. Several large species of herbivore (elephants, hippopotami and deer)grazed here for hundreds of thousands of years, and in the absence of predatorstheir populations reached maximum levels, limited only by the availability offood. If the local vegetation had not already adapted to overgrazing, it wouldhave disappeared completely when sheep and goats appeared, as is the case onmany large oceanic islands where no plant-eaters existed before theirintroduction by humans. Over at least the last 8,000 years, man's attempts to survive and thrive hadsuch a major impact on what we call the “natural environment” that itscomposition is to a large extent due to human impact. This impact has becomeperhaps more pronounced than ever over the last few centuries. Almost thewhole area (even inaccessible mountainous regions) has been cleared,

35

landscaped and cultivated, both to cover human needs and for animal fodder,as nearly every family kept not only sheep and goats, but also oxen, donkeysand mules. Dozens of small villages and monasteries, countless terraces,kilometres of stone walls and a widespread network of cobbled roads dividedup the landscape. Heathland was systematically burnt off in order to producefresh vegetation in areas where sheep and goats were farmed. In recent decades, however, there has been a dramatic drop in the populationof the countryside. Most farms have been abandoned, domesticated animalshave almost disappeared, grazing has fallen and it seems that a new age isdawning for the local “natural” environment. Plants once restricted to craggyhillsides are recolonising the area. Scrubland is spreading at a relatively rapidrate, while maquis vegetation is becoming tree-like in areas. Even deciduousoaks are repopulating the south of the municipality. Average local rainfall ranges from 1,200 mm in the southern highlands to 400mm on the north coast. The temperature falls to a few degrees below zero inthe winter and often rises to over 38oC in the summer.Generally speaking, an annual cycle begins in October with the first scattered

36

Grazed and ungrazedside of a hill nearKourounes.

a. Phrygana growingin abandoned fieldsnear Dreros.

b. Typical phryganawith hemisphericalbushes.

c. Tree spurge inphrygana near thenorth coast

a. b. c.

37

There is a widevariety of phryganaplants in manyareas.

38

Kermes oaks find it hard to growinto trees in windy areas..

Maquis near Keramos Monastery.

a. Overgrazed olive leaves become small and round..

b. An overgrazed,bushy kermes oak..

a. b.

and often torrential rains, increasing towards late November and peaking inJanuary. The whole area becomes green, as the plants respond almostimmediately. Woody evergreen trees and shrubs lose the small leaves whichensured little loss of moisture in the summer and produce larger ones. Annualssprout in their millions from the seeds lying dormant in the soil, while bulbsput forth their new leaves.In spring the rains gradually decrease, almost ceasing altogether in April orMay. The south-southeast winds now blowing from distant Algeria and Libyabring fairly large amounts of Saharan soil which falls on the area with the lastrains, painting the snow on the mountains a characteristic ochre colour. On sunny spring days the whole area pulses with life, especially in April. Mostof the plants have flowered and masses of insects (pollinators and others) buzzaround searching for food and mates. The streams and seasonal wetlandscontain enough water to support aquatic and semi-aquatic plants which willtrigger the further development of life, forming as they do the base of the foodchain for many aquatic animals. The seasonal wetlands also welcome the tiredand hungry migratory birds coming from Africa, which stop here to rest beforecontinuing their journey north.In June the rainfall stops and the temperature starts to rise. Most plants havealready fruited and gradually wither or grow smaller leaves. All the adaptationsdeveloped by native plants and animals since their original establishment inthe area are now tested severely. Perennials aestivate while annuals die,leaving their seeds on the soil to sprout the following winter. Hot, arid Julyand August are in fact the cruellest months. In warm, windless September with

39

Olive, almond and kermes oak trees near Kastelli.

40

Maquis trees nearKeramos Monastery.

Vegetation on theMoutsouna hillsidenear Latsida.

its few rains, nature prepares for another yearly cycle. There are two main types of vegetation in the Municipality of Neapoli:Phrygana (garigue) scrubland and maquis. Both are comprised of shrubbyplants, but maquis species can grow into large trees, even forming true woods.The two types also share some common features which are either adaptationsto the Mediterranean climate (e.g. an extensive root system, evergreens, hardleaves, seasonal dimorphism of leaves), or adaptations to overgrazing (e.g.spiny leaves or shoots, unpleasant taste, ability to grow even in little soil onvertical rocks).Phrygana is the commonest type of vegetation in the area. This is openscrubland composed of low, usually sparse shrubs which generally have smallleaves, are often hairy and occasionally have thorny shoots. The mostrepresentative forms of Phrygana are found in the coastal regions of themunicipality and in the arid interior. The shrubs are characteristicallyhemispherical in shape, to minimise their surface area. Typical species includethorny burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum), headed savory (Thymus orCoridothymus capitatus), spiny spurge (Euphorbia acanthothamnos), Jerusalemsage, (Phlomis lanata), rockrose (Cistus spp.), Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa),false dittany (Ballota spp.), oregano (Origanum spp.), “curry plants”(Helichrysum siculum), hairy thorny broom (Calycotome villosa), spiny broom(Genista acanthoclada), etc. At first glance Phrygana appear to be poorecosystems, but this is not the case. A greater variety of plants and animals isfound in Phrygana than in almost any other Cretan ecosystem. Among theperennial woody shrubs of Phrygana grow a huge number of annuals and manyherbaceous bulbs, of which the commonest are asphodel (Asphodelus aestivus),sea squill (Urginea maritima) and many species of orchid. Phrygana made up ofshrubs less typical in shape but containing more or less the same variety ofplants predominate in the area. All abandoned cultivations and degradedkermes oak copses have been colonised by these plants, coexisting with sparse

41

The Livadi wetland in AgiosKonstantinos.

42

43

maquis vegetation (kermes oak, wild olive and so on).Typical maquis, with tall, dense broad-leaved evergreens and lackingherbaceous plants in the underbrush, is limited to small areas, mainlyin the south of the municipality. The commonest species is kermesoak (Quercus coccifera), forming both shrubs and trees. Degradedmaquis with shrubby kermes oak and wild olive (Olea europaeaoleaster), and more rarely lentisc (Pistacia lentiscus) and carob(Ceratonia siliqua), always coexists with Phrygana across most of thearea. However, in certain areas such as the region east of KremastaMonastery, around the Drassi valley, on the hill of Dreros andbetween Peronides and Adravastos, maquis is making a comeback.Almost everywhere, visitors can admire the impressive adaptation ofthe wild olive tree and kermes oak to tens of thousands of years'overgrazing. When the new shoots are grazed, their tips dry andharden to form sharp thorns. Two or three new shoots immediatelysprout from the eyes further down the stem. The kermes oak or wildolive is gradually transformed into a compact bush with thornyshoots to prevent grazing. The leaves also become smaller andmultiply. A “katsoprini”, as stunted oaks are called in Crete, growsslowly for many decades until it is tall enough for a branch to growwhere the grazers can't reach it. Only then does it develop into atree. Water-loving and aquatic plants are restricted to riverbeds (planetrees, canebreaks) and seasonal ponds, or temporary Mediterraneanponds as they are known. The latter type of aquatic biotope is veryimportant to the area. The basic species are rushes, bulrushes,pondweed, buttercups and the smallest angiosperm in the world,lesser duckweed (Lemna minor). The largest ponds, covering from500 to 7,000 square metres, are located in Agios Konstantinos, eastof Kastelli, between Kastelli and Fourni, in Kourounes, south ofSyrmeso, and north and south of Dories. There are also dozens oflarge water cisterns in the area.

Aquatic plants in the Kourounes wetland.

44

Flora

Spiny broom (Genistaacanthoclada), with its sharp thorns, prefers areas which havebeen grazed for a long time.

One out of two Greek plants is found only in the Mediterranean and nowhereelse in the world. Many places have a wide variety of plants; Crete, with its1,735 native species, is a true botanical paradise. It also boasts more endemicplants (over 200 endemic species and subspecies) than any otherMediterranean island.The flora of Crete is extremely poor in forest species, butextremely rich in small annuals or perennials with various adaptations in orderto avoid, resist or recover from overgrazing. The flora of the Neapoli area istypical of middle and low elevations.Visitors from central and western Europe are always amazed at the great manythorny plants. Some are perennial Phrygana species, such as thorny burnet(Sarcopoterium spinosum), spiny spurge (Euphorbia acanthothamnos), hairythorny broom (Calycotome villosa) and spiny broom (Genista acanthoclada).There are also many edible annuals which protect themselves from grazers withvery sharp spines; these include cornflowers (Centaurea idaea), milk thistle(Silybum marianum), donkey thistle (Onopordum bracteatum), Syrian thistle(Notobasis syriaca) and others. Other species have an unpleasant taste. Mullein(Verbascum macrurum), false dittany (Ballota pseudodictamnus, B. acetabulosa)and Jerusalem sage (Phlomis lanata) have very hairy leaves and shoots. Whendesiccated, the hairs (especially those of the latter) irritate the mucousmembranes, throat and eyes. Spurges (Euphorbia characias, Euphorbiadendroides, etc.) have far more effective protection. Herbivores leave them

45

alone because their stems and leaves contain poisonous, milky sap. This is why tree spurge is abundant along the hilly coasts of Neapoli and in thehills and dry riverbeds north of Latsida. Some plants, such as rockrose (Cistusspp.) excrete sticky resinous laudanum from glands in their leaves. In Sisses inRethymno, where Cretan rockrose (Cistus creticus) flourishes, this resin used tobe an important source of income, as laudanum was used in making incenseand in distillation. Herbs are another typical feature of Cretan flora. In last spring and particularly in summer, the air is flooded with the essentialoils released by Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa), Cretan oregano (Origanum onites)and Mediterranean thyme (Thymus capitatus). In spring the whole landscape istransformed into a multicoloured carpet of flowering plants. The blazing yellowof Jerusalem sage and broom covers many areas, but north of Kourounes as faras Nofalias it is so intense that it is actually visible in satellite images. Thereare flowers of every hue, but the most colourful are undoubtedly the bee andother orchids (Ophrys spp.) Some plants prefer to grow in cracks in the wallsand floors of ruined houses. The most typical of these are spreading pellitory(Parietaria judaica), squill (Urtica spp.) and wild fig (Ficus carica), while thereare also many rock plants. At least 8% of plants in the Neapoli area are endemicto Crete, with a far higher percentage on craggy hillsides. Some of the mostimpressive and easily recognised species are rock lettuce (Petromarula pinnata)and campanula (Campanula spp.)Man has unwittingly or deliberately introduced several plant species, but veryfew have adapted to their environment and can propagate without human help.Exceptions include the prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica), which spreads slowly

through deserted villages, and thedistinctive yellow Bermuda buttercup

(Oxalis pes-caprae). This plantarrived in Crete from South Africa

about a century ago, possiblyin earth containing bulbs.

Today it is everywhere, afeature of nearly all Cretan

ecosystems.

46

The yellow flowers of hairy thorny broom (Calycotome villosa).

47

a. Spiny spurge (Euphorbia acanthothamnos).

b. Two similar plants, thorny burnet (Poterium spinosum) on the left and spiny spurge (Euphorbia acanthothamnos) on the right, fighting for the same spot.

c. One of the largest species of donkey thistle on Crete (Onopordum bracteatum).

d. Cornflowers (Centaurea idaea) are a common endemic plant of Crete.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a. Mediterranean spurge(Euphorbia characias).

b. The endemic Jerusalem sage of Crete

(Phlomis lanata)

Bottom left:Sharp thorns protect the

precious flower of the Syrianthistle (Notobasis syriaca).

Right: Mullein (Verbascum macrurum)

is relatively common in the area.

a. b.

49

Cretan rockrose (Cistus creticus), from which laudanum is harvested.

Sage-leaved rockrose (Cistus salvifolius) with its white flowers.

Tree spurge (Euphorbia dendroides)

can grow to over 2.5 metres tall.

Flowering oregano (Origanum onites). Thyme (Coridothymus capitatus).

52

Sage (Salvia fruticosa).

Right: The endemic yellowbee orchid (Ophrys cressa).

54

Ophrys heldreichibee orchid.

55

Late spider orchid(Ophrys holoserica).

56

a. Impressive rock lettuce flowers (Petromarula

pinnata)

b. Endemic campanula

(Campanula tubulosa).

c. Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)

Four-spotted orchid (Orchis

quatripunctata).

Left:Endemic rock lettuce

(Petromarula pinnata).

a.

c.

b.

58

a. b. c.

59

Salsify flower (Tragopogon porrifolius).

Left:

a. Impressive dragon arum flower (Dracunculus vulgaris).

b. Field gladiolus (Gladiolus italicus), the only gladiolus specieson Crete.

c. The papery flowers of wavyleaf sea-lavenderor statice (Limonium sinuatum).

Βρυώνια (Bryonia cretica) ημοναδική αγριοκολοκυθιάτης Κρήτης.

Sea squill (Urginea maritima), a common bulb.

Yellow horned poppy (Glaucium flavium), a common flower of the coast.

61

Chamomile (Anthemis chia).

Thread-leaved water-crowfoot (Ranunculus trichophyllus), a tiny freshwater plant found in local wetlands.

Cretan cyclamen(Cyclamen creticum)grows in shady spots,usually in kermes oak woods.

Left:Fields of asphodel(Asphodelus ramosus)grow in systematicallyovergrazed areas.

62

Prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica).

63

Duckweed abounds in local cisterns and wetlands.

Lesser duckweed (Lemna minor), the smallest angiosperm.

Bermuda buttercup (Oxalis pes-caprae), the most successful invader.

Fauna

Except for some insects (bees and wasps) and of course scorpions with theirpainful sting, no animal on Crete is dangerous to man. Visitors can thereforestroll around the countryside at their leisure. Cretan fauna is rich in endemic and stenoendemic species (species with a verylimited habitat), especially invertebrates. Some groups of the latter are up to30% endemic to Crete, and the wider area of Neapoli Municipality is one of the“hotspots” for these. As most visitors are unlikely to be interested ininvertebrates, we will not provide a detailed account but simply note that ifyou lift any of the numberless rocks around, you will find a large number ofdifferent species of snails, isopods, arachnids, insects, etc. On average, at leastone in four of the species you see is only found on Crete. In some ecosystemssuch as caves, invertebrate endemicity is much higher, over 80%. Many groupsof animal fully adapted to living in harsh cave environments are steno-endemic. The caves of Neapoli contain species found in caves across Crete (e.g.the orthoptera Trogophilus spinulosus and Discoptila lindbergi), species onlyfound in east Crete (e.g. the blind, colourless isopod Schizidium perplexum),and species restricted to the caves of the Lassithi Mountains and theMerambello area (e.g. the Cretan cave cricket Dolichopoda paraskevi). With the exception of flying species such as birds and bats, modern Crete ispoor in vertebrates. This is mostly due to the long-term isolation of the islandand its relatively great distance from the nearest mainland.

Spring marks apopulationexplosion ofdragonflies andmany other insectsin wetlands

65

Today, however, vertebrate species are far more evenly balanced than they weretens of thousands of years ago, when large herbivores predominated in theabsence of predators. Two of the three amphibian species of Crete are found in Neapoli Municipality:the green toad (Bufo viridis) and the tree frog (Hyla arborea). Both speciesshare the same habitat and visit streams and seasonal wetlands in spring togive birth. In late spring the ponds are full of tadpoles, a rich source of foodfor many migratory birds. The endemic Cretan water frog (Rana cretensis) hasnot been found in the area, but there may be small, hidden populations. If itis absent, this is due to water pollution in the recent past. There are, however,water frogs in nearby areas south and east of the municipality, andrecolonisation is probably just a question of time. The species is very sensitiveto pollution, so its reappearance will prove that the water is clean.There are only small reptile populations in the area, as in most of Crete. At leasteight of the eleven species found on the island are present here. TheMediterranean house gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus) is common in every villageand even in the town of Neapoli itself, while the rarer Moorish gecko (Tarentola

66

Flatworms in theDrasi springs.

mauritanica) prefers ruined houses and windmills. The largest lizard on Crete, the Balkan green lizard (Lacerta trilineata) isprobably the only lizard you will actually spot, thanks to its colour and size. Itis very active in the summer, in the dry riverbeds and hills north of Neapoli andas far as the coast. Yet even Crete, which lacks poisonous reptiles, has its myth.A harmless lizard, the occelated skink (Chalcides occelatus), which spends mostof its life hiding under rocks, is the most misunderstood animal in Crete andother parts of the Mediterranean. Local people believe it to be extremelypoisonous. An old folk rhyme about it is preserved to this day: “If it bites youwith its mouth look for a doctor and a bed, if it bites you with its tail find acoffin and a priest”. In fact, of course, the skink is not poisonous and lives onworms and insects.Three of the four species of snake on Crete have definitely been identified inthe area, all in very limited numbers. The dice snake (Natrix tesselata) isrelatively common wherever there is water (cisterns, springs, streams, seasonalponds) and mainly eats amphibians. It also hunts mosquitofish (Gambusiaaffinis), formerly introduced to the area to deal with mosquitoes. The colourfulleopard snake (Elaphe situla) and the cat snake (Telescopus fallax), the onlyrear-fanged snake on the island, are less common. The Balkan whip snake(Coluber gemonensis) is probably also present. The only Cretan land turtle actually lives in the water. The Balkan terrapin(Mauremys rivulata) is common in the Neapoli area. You can see dozens of themat any time of year on the banks of the stream north of Latsida and in the manypools among the reeds. Fifteen of the sixteen land mammals of Crete, allnocturnal, are found in thearea. The symbol of Cretanfauna, the agrimi or Cretanwild goat (Capra aegagruscretica) once lived here, mainly inthe mountainous south of themunicipality. Introduced by Neolithicman, the agrimi was found acrossthe whole island until at least the18th century. It was last seen on Mt

67

Large Egyptianlocust(Anacridumaegyptium).

Dicte in the early 20th century. Today this animal, which has had such a markedinfluence on Cretan art, is restricted to the White Mountains.Insect-eating mammals include three species of shrew - the Etruscan shrew(Suncus etruscus), the lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura suaveolens) andthe Cretan white-toothed shrew (Crocidura zimmermanni) - and the EasternEuropean hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor). The Etruscan shrew is one of thesmallest mammals in the world, usually weighing up to three grammes. TheCretan white-toothed shrew is the only mammal endemic to Crete and Greeceand the last survivor of the Quaternary Period.There are five species of rodent: the Cretan spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinusminous), the broad-toothed field mouse (Apodemus mystacinus), the woodmouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), the house mouse (Mus domesticus) and the blackrat (Rattus rattus). The most exotic species is the Cretan spiny mouse, untilrecently considered endemic to Crete. The hairs on its back form coarse spinybristles. House mice and rats are definitely the commonest species in the area.Another species, the fat dormouse (Myoxus glis), may live in the woods in the

68

Cretan tree frog (Hyla arborea)

south of the municipality. The brown hare (Lepus europaeus) is common in the area despite being widelyhunted, while there may also be wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in thesouthern foothills of Mt Dicte. Of the carnivores, beech martens (Martes foina) and least weasels (Mustelanivalis) are very common in the area, while the Eurasian badgers (Meles meles)are rarer. Cretan wild cats (Felis silvestris cretensis) were discovered on Mt Dictea few years ago, and they may have spread as far as the southern borders ofthe municipality. This “ghost animal” was introduced to Crete by humans intimes past and is more closely related to North African wildcats than theEuropean wildcat found in mainland Greece.The bats of Crete comprise 17 of the 33 species reported in Greece. There is noreason why all seventeen should not be present in Neapoli Municipality atvarious times of year. The many caves and ruined buildings in the area are vitalfor nesting bats. Greater (Myotis myotis) and lesser (Myotis blythi) mouse-earedbats have been found nesting in sea caves in the municipality, the first timethe former have been reported on Crete. Small populations of three furtherspecies have been discovered in caves in the interior: the Schreiber's long-fingered bat (Miniopterus schreibersi), the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophusferrumequinum) and the lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros). ManyEuropean free-tailed bats (Tadarida teniotis) have been spotted on theirafternoon flights, south of Vrysses.We know very little about the bird life of the area (with the possible exceptionof the Elounda salt-marshes). About 200 species are estimated to nest in orpass through the area. With over 420 bird species, Greece is one of the richestcountries in Europe, especially for breeding species(at least 243). However, thisnumber falls whenmoving fromnorth tosouth: thereare 219 speciesin Macedonia, 153 inCentral Greece, 104 in the

69

The commonchequered bluebutterfly (malePseudophilotesvicrama).

Peloponnese and only 85 in Crete.One of the commonest species near human

habitations is the house sparrow (Passerdomesticus), while Eurasian collared doves

(Streptopelia decaocto) are particularly numerous in the town of Neapoli. Thelatter like living in close proximity to man; originally from Asia, they colonisedEuropean cities in the 1930s and soon spread throughout the world. They havenested in Crete for about 30 years. Other common resident species living in andaround towns and villages are blackbirds (Turdus merula), Sardinian warblers(Sylvia melanocephala) and great tits (Parus major). In late spring the barnswallows (Hirundo rustica) arrive to nest. Wherever you go, you can see andhear the migratory birds abundant in the area: small charms of colourfulgoldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), more solitary greenfinches (Carduelis chloris),and larger groups of grey-brown chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) with theirdistinctive white wing-bars. The crested lark (Galerida cristata), a resident inthe area, is more common in the north, mainly in coastal scrubland. Thewoodchat shrike (Lanius senator), a colourful summer visitor from central Africawhich comes here to nest, also prefers bushy scrub. As soon as they arrive inApril, the nesting pairs define and vigorously defend an area of several dozensquare kilometres to hunt insects and small reptiles in. White wagtails(Motacilla alba) with their distinctive black-and-white colouring and greywagtails (Motacilla cinerea) with their grey head and back and yellow or yellow-white breast are common, while yellow wagtails (Motacilla flava) are summervisitors and/or passing migrants which generally prefer wetlands.

There are also many species of birdof prey. Look up and you will seecommon buzzards (Buteo buteo),the commonest raptor, andkestrels (Falco tinnunculus)hovering in the air. In the summer,peregrine falcons (Falcoperegrinus) circle round dryriverbeds. These are the fastest

70

Mediterraneanhouse gecko(Hemidactylusturcicus)

A Balkan greenlizard (Lacertatrilineata), thelargest lizard onCrete.

71

In late spring the wetlands ofNeapoli Municipalityare full of tree frogand green toadtadpoles.

Mediterraneanchequered scorpion(Mesobuthusgibbosus), the rarestlocal scorpion.

animals in the world, diving at speeds of up to 400 km/hour! In the springtime,Eleonora's falcons (Falco eleonorae) arrive from distant Madagascar. Thesetravellers come to nest in the rocky cliffs of the Greek islands, their preferreddestination - 70% of the world population (3,000 breeding pairs) come here!In late spring and all through the summer, you can see many individualEleonora's falcons flying over the valley of Neapoli as far the north coast. Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) are also commonly seen. This majestic vulturenests in Neapoli Municipality. The nearest nest, where you can admire them upclose, is under a crag in Selinari gorge, opposite the Monastery of AgiosGeorgios. You will be very lucky indeed to see the other vulture of Mt Dicte, thelammergeier or bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), as only seven are leftacross the whole mountain. Lammergeiers used to be quite common in Greece,but their population has dropped dramatically over the past century and todaythey only breed in Crete, where about 30 individuals remain.At night the quiet is broken by the long purring call of the nightjar

(Caprimulgus europaeus) and the distinctive “dyoo”call of the scops owl (Otus scops), which sounds like amonotonous monosyllabic duet between these smallowls. The largest nocturnal local predator is thecommon barn owl (Tyta alba). With its pure whitebelly, yellowish back and heart-shaped face, the barnowl is the most impressive nocturnal bird on Crete. Itflies soundlessly and nests or roosts in the many

72

There are no nativefreshwater fish onCrete. Mosquitofish(Gambusia affinis)were imported todeal withmosquitoes.

Balkan terrapin(Mauremysrivulata) nearLatsida

Sardinian warbler (Sylvia melanocephala).

a. Great tit (Parus major).

b. Crested lark(Galerida cristata)on the northcoast.

a. b.

c. d.c. Colourfulgoldfinch (Carduelis carduelis).

d. Chaffinch(Fringilla coelebs).

windmills in the area, and also in caves. It chiefly eats small ground mammalssuch as mice and shrews. It plays a very important ecological role, as it canconsume over 1,500 mice a year! It regurgitates the indigestible fur andbones in black pellets. From an analysis of many owl pellets we found in acave in Xerolimni and a windmill in Nofalias, we discovered that they mainlyeat house mice (60%) and to a lesser extent the other local mice and shrews.April and May are the best months for bird-watching in Neapoli Municipality,as this is when migratory birds arrive from Africa. Seasonal wetlands inparticular draw a large number of species, as they are full of weeds,invertebrates and tadpoles. In the winter, these rare ecosystems prepare towelcome their exhausted visitors and offer them valuable places to rest andeat. Here you can see many large birds such as grey herons (Ardea cinerea)and little egrets (Egretta garzetta), and smaller species including little ringedplovers (Charadrius dubius) and wood sandpipers (Tringa glareola). Even veryrare birds such as glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), which ceased to breed inGreece years ago, visit the shallow wetland waters of Neapoli.

Male woodchat shrike (Laniussenator) monitoringhis territory inKourounes.

75

Barn swallows (Hirundo rustica), the best-known urban summer visitors.

Yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava).

A sparrow (Passer domesticus), the commonest town bird

The Eurasian collared dove (Streptope-lia decaocto), an Asian invader

Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe) from the mountain zone.

Jackdaw (Corvus monendula).

a. Wood sandpiper(Tringa glareola).

b. Little egret (Egretta garzetta) inAgios Konstantinos.

c. Rare glossy ibis(Plegadis falcinellus)in the wetland east of Dreros.

d. Little ringed plover (Charadrius dubius) in Agios Konstantinos.

Bottom: Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) in Kourounes.

a. b.

c. d.

77

Raptors often circleover the area lookingfor carrion.

Common buzzard(Buteo buteo), themost common bird of prey in the area.

The griffon vulture(Gyps fulvus) nest on Selinari.

78

Top: Dolichopodaparaskevi, a cavecricket endemic to the Lassithi Mountainsand Kato Merambello.

a. The cave-dwellingisopod Schizidium perplexum.

b. Cretan cave cricket (Discoptilalindbergi)

c. Dolichopodaparaskevi, a cave cricket endemicto the Lassithi Mountains andKato Merambello.

a.

b.

c.

79

The greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis) was first discovered in Crete in a local sea cave.

Lesser mouse-earedbats (Myotis blythi)reproduce in local sea caves.

80

Villages and farmsteads

Panoramic view of the main square of Neapoli.

The Municipality of Neapoli contains one town and a relatively large number ofvillages and metochia (seasonal farmsteads or monastic dependencies), manyof which have been established to farm the series of small, fertile valleys. Todaymany of these are almost wholly deserted, giving the impression that time hasstopped at some point in the last century. Inhabited or not, both villages andfarms are open museums of an invaluable cultural heritage, which both visitorsand locals should treat with respect. Today the Municipality of Neapoli has apopulation of 6,765 in 10 Municipal Departments, while the town of Neapoliitself has 2,767 inhabitants.The town, villages and major farmsteads of the Municipality of Neapoli,according to municipal department, are as follows:

81

The town of Neapoli is situated 55 km from Heraklion and 15 km from AgiosNikolaos. It lies more or less in the centre of the Merambello valley, thebreadbasket of the prefecture in centuries gone by. The town is strategicallyplaced on the pass linking east Crete to the rest of the island from antiquity.To the north is the peak of Timios Stavros (793 m), its skyline spoiled bytelevision masts, while to the south is Kavalaras (740 m), its slopes covered inkermes oaks. Kenourgio Chorio (New Village), as Neapoli was known during theTurkish occupation, was mentioned in 1577 as the second-largest village inMerambello District after Kritsa. The original village, however, had existed sinceat least the Second Byzantine Period, near the Vigli spring on the border withVoulismeni. The name Neapoli (New Town) was bestowed on it in 1868 by theChristian Governor, Adosides Kostis Pasha, who transferred the seat of theTurkish administration here from Kastelli Fournis. The new town flourished.Many public works were undertaken and beautiful buildings constructed whichstill adorn it today. There are three characteristic types of building: thebeautiful Neoclassical houses with their wonderful balconies and floweringgardens; the simple stone houses built of hard grey Merambello limestone; andthe concrete structures of the 1960s and '70s. The development of AgiosNikolaos, Hersonissos and Malia depleted the town's population and finances in

82

Neapoli at dusk, seen from the slopesof Kavallaras.

Neapoli Municipal Department

the late 20th century, butnow Neapoli is recoveringagain, as ease of transporthas allowed many people tostay in their birthplace.Neapoli also offers a peace,gentility and quality of lifehard to find in other moreurbanised or touristy towns.There is a police station, ahospital, a court of law, aCitizens' Service Centre, achildren's activity centre, aCommunity Centre for theelderly, banks, an extremelyinteresting Folk Museumwith a wealth of exhibits, anArchaeological Collection,the Heliakios MunicipalLibrary and a very active Environmental Education Centre. Neapoli is also theseat of the Metropolitan See of Petra and Herronissos, which does many goodworks at its various establishments. In the main square stands the imposingCathedral of Megali Panagia (the Great Virgin), which instantly draws thevisitor's gaze.

Adravastos A small village north of Neapoli, with 14 inhabitants according to the 1981census but none today. Access is via the village of Nofalias.

AmygdaleaA small village of 11 inhabitants according to the 2001 census, near the northcoast, just before the Souvlos farmstead.

Dilakkos and Agia SophiaTwo tiny neighbouring farmsteads on the road to Koudoumalos and Finokalia.There were 26 inhabitants in the 1981 census, falling to 12 in 2001. 200 metresnorthwest of Agia Sophia are four very old, large cisterns 3-5 metres indiameter, where there is water all year round.

83

The buildinghousing theEnvironmentalEducation Centre,the HeliakiosLibrary and theHistorical Archivesof Neapoli.

The Cathedral ofMegali Panagia inthe main square.

KoudoumalosA small village of 12 inhabitants according to the 1981 census, with 14 in2001. A dirt track heads north from the northern end of the village, leading tothe retreat of Agios Andreas and the Chalasmata stream.

KourounesA village east of Neapoli, on the road to Nofalias and Koudoumalos. There were104 inhabitants in the 1981 census and 66 in 2001. The village was formed bythe amalgamation of neighbouring farmsteads. 500 metres south of the villagestand two imposing windmills, with another in excellent condition 800 metresto the east. The most important natural feature is a wetland of 2.5 sq. km atthe south end of the village. In the spring it draws many migratory and otherbirds, forming a veritable oasis in an otherwise dry and arid landscape.

MakrygennisaA small village north of Neapoli and 1.5 km northeast of Nofalias village, onthe bank of the Chalasmata stream. There were eight inhabitants in 1981 andfive in 2001.

NofaliasA village north of Neapoli, about midway between the town and the northcoast. It is built on a saddle between two hills and its name, meaning “navel”,is probably due to its central position on daily routes in centuries past. It isrecorded as Omphalias in the 1881 census. There were 66 inhabitants in 1981and 38 in 2001. The surrounding area is wooded, with large kermes oaks.

84

Right:Makrygennisa, a small farmstead on the banks of theChalasmata stream.

Nofalias and the hill ofAnydros with its dense kermes oak copses.

PatsopoulosA small village with a population of 17 in the 2001 census.

PerambelaA small village comprising three farmsteads, with eight permanent residents in1981 and 13 in 2001. Access is from a crossroads about midway betweenKourounes and Nofalias. The village is believed to have been founded by thepeople who worked the lands of the nearby Monastery of Panagia (the VirginMary).

Peronides Reached by a road from the south end of Nofalias village. There were 11inhabitants in 1981 but the village was reported abandoned in 2001. Abouthalfway along the road from Nofalias is a large copse of kermes oaks, lentiscs,wild pear and olive trees.

PetrosA small village reached along a dirt track from Kourounes. There were seveninhabitants in 1981 but none in 2001.

RomanosA small village accessible along a road from Nofalias. There were 14 inhabitantsin 1981 and eight in 2001.

86

Perambela, a small dependency of Panagia Monastery, in a little-farmed areawith recoveringmaquis.

SouvlosVery close to the north coast of Neapoli Municipality. 14 inhabitants werereported in the 1981 census, with just two in 2001.

FinokaliaA small village on the north coast, mentioned in the 1881 census. There were35 inhabitants in 1981 and 14 in 2001.

LithomandraA tiny ruined farmstead on the borders of Neapoli and Agios NikolaosMunicipalities, with only seven inhabitants in 1961 and now completelyabandoned.

Agios AntoniosA village north of Neapoli near the coast, with 17 inhabitants in 2001.

Amygdalolakkos A small village accessible from Nofalias. There were five inhabitants in the1981 census and three in 2001.

87

The small farmsteadof Amygdalolakkosclose to Anogia.

Agios Antonios Municipal Department

AnogiaA small village just before the north coast of Neapoli Municipality, with 29inhabitants according to the 1981 census and 16 in 2001.

Kounalio1.5 km distant from the historic Milatos Cave. There were 44 inhabitants in2001.

TsabiA village very close to Kounalio, on the road to Agios Antonios. It had apopulation of 17 in 1981 and nine in 2001.

VoulismeniA village of 342 inhabitants (2001 census), 1.5 km west of Neapoli. It wasrecorded in 1248 as a deserted dependency of the Metropolitan See ofHersonissos. The name of the village, meaning “sunken”, probably refers to theinstability of the earthen hills on which it is built. Like the other villages ofthe Neapoli valley, it has rich orchards and vegetable plots, although they arenot particularly well tended today. Most young people are no longer interestedin looking after the family vegetable garden.

88

Anogia.

Voulismeni Municipal Department

The hills south of the village, running east to the borders of NeapoliMunicipality above Houmeriako, are covered with large kermes oaks forming awood which has now unfortunately been largely destroyed by fire.

XerolimniThe village, first mentioned by name in the 1920 census, used to be part ofLatsida Community. There were 18 inhabitants in 1981 and 24 in 2001.

VryssesA village southeast of Neapoli, on the road to the Lassithi Plateau. It is builton the northeast slopes of Mt Kavallaras, and most of the stone houses havea panoramic view of Neapoli and the valley to the east. 315 inhabitants wererecorded in the 2001 census. Just outside the village is the little church ofProphitis Ilias (Prophet Elijah), commanding an even better view of themountains round the Lassithi Plateau and part of the Drassi valley. The wholehillside on which the village stands, forming the eastern end of the Selenamountains, is blanketed in rich maquis vegetation. An archaeologicalexcavation near Prophitis Ilias has brought to light the second-largest post-Minoan city after Dreros.

89

Vrysses Municipal Department

Vrysses with Neapoliin the background.

DrassiA small farmstead after Vrysses on the road to the Lassithi Plateau. Onlythree inhabitants were recorded in the 2001 census. Recently themunicipality established a picnic area next to the large cistern where thespring water collects. The abundant running water is used to irrigate themany local orchards. West of Drassi rises a hilly saddle occupied by a smallfarmstead, Lagada, which has given its name to the area.

KarydiThe village, with a population of 103 in 2001, lies 1 km south of the historicAreti Monastery on the road to Kastelli Fournis. Its name, meaning “walnut”,is variously said to be derived from the name of the founder or from thedozen or so walnut trees growing in the village, a rarity in the area. In thesmall valley between the new village and the old, now abandoned, are fivelarge cisterns, still preserved in good condition and full of water today.

KastelliA village of 202 inhabitants in 2001, lying east of Neapoli at an altitude of 300

90

Karydi Municipal Department

Panoramic view ofthe small valley and village ofKarydi.

Kastelli Fournis Municipal Department

91

The large cistern and picnic area atDrassi, with theLagada saddle in the background

The stone cisterns at Karydi, used down the ages

metres above sea level. It is mentioned by this name in 1571, while as early as1415 the traveller Cristoforo Buondelmonti referred to “Kastelli sti Fourni”, i.e.the “Castle on Fourni”, meaning that there was a fortress here in Venetiantimes. Together with Epano and Kato Fourni, it now forms the larger village ofFourni. All three villages are set in a small depression with fertile fields; if onlythere were more water for irrigation they would be even more productive. Thereare many cisterns in the area. Some are particularly interesting, beingcylindrical with a spiral staircase, similar to the central water cistern of nearbyancient Dreros. 1.5 km before the village is a small valley which is transformed

92

Kastelli Fournis.

Ruined windmills in the Galaropetraarea, with KastelliFournis and theLassithi Mountainsin the background.

into a little lake with rich flora and fauna in the winter and spring. Itsabundance of water and relatively large surface attract many migratory birds,including endangered species. Here and near the other seasonal ponds in thewider area, visitors must be very careful not to disturb the wild birds.

LatsidaThe village lies at the western end of theMerambello basin and had 279inhabitants according to the 2001census. It was mentioned in 1305 in adocument drawn up by the notary publicPietro Pizolo. There are many stonehouses in good condition, tempting visitors to explore its narrow streets. A fewhundred metres south of the village is the Byzantine church of PanagiaKeragoniotissa, set in a verdant landscape.

AgoriA village north of Latsida with just two inhabitants in 1981 and 21 in 2001. Itis close to the historic Milatos Cave.

ZourvaA small farmstead north of Latsida village, with no permanent residents for thelast twenty years.

93

Latsida Municipal Department

Interior of the church of PanagiaKeragoniotissa,Latsida.

View of Latsida from the neighbouringhill to the west.

Nikithianos A village east of Neapoli, with a population of 88 according to the 2001 census.Although it is only a few metres from the new Heraklion-Agios Nikolaosnational road, there is no access to it from the latter. You can reach it only viaNeapoli, on the old national road. The road from the centre of the village leadsto Kastelli, Fourni and Areti Monastery. At the north end of the village, next tothe national road, are the ruins of 15 windmills used to mill the once-abundantprovision of grain from the valley of Neapoli. Today the main cultivar is theolive.

PlatypodioAn old farmstead near Houmeriakos village, with a population of 23 in the 1981census and 12 in 2001. It is mentioned by name by Francesco Barozzi as earlyas 1577. In Venetian times the village had far more inhabitants, and stillcomprised 160 families in 1834. Today only a few stone houses remain, and anyruins are buried under the olive groves.

94

Nikithianos Municipal Department

An alleyway in Nikithianos.

Epano (Upper) and Kato (Lower) FourniThese two villages, only 70 metres apart, are practically one. They are just onekilometre east of Kastelli Fourni, the third village known as Fourni. All threevillages are set in the same depression, with fertile fields. Lack of water is themain obstacle to more intensive cultivation, which is why there are so manycisterns in the area. There were 203 inhabitants in 2001. Kato Fourni was alsoknown as Abramochori, after the great Venetocretan Abrami family who oncelived there. It is mentioned by that name from 1577 onwards.

DoriesA village northeast of Neapoli on the road to Karydi and Areti Monastery, with78 inhabitants in 2001. In the winter and spring there is a seasonal wetlandto the south. In the summer the only water in the area is that in the cisterns,and in the 2.5-sq. km reservoir at the north end of the village. The stone-and-concrete sides of the reservoir are steep and it is surrounded by a fence.

95

Fourni Municipal Department

The villages ofEpano and KatoFourni.

SyrmesoA tiny village northeast of Neapoli, reached from a junction about midwayalong the Fourni-Dories road. In 1981 there were just three inhabitants,doubling to six in 2001. It is recorded as “Simerson” in a contract dated 1590,in which the monk Nicodemus Kalochryssos donated land for the foundation ofthe Monastery of Megalos Antonios. The earliest mention of the name is in thelist of fiefdoms of the Merambello turma (administrative district) in the 13th-14th century.

HavgasThe easternmost village of Neapoli Municipality, just 2 km from Plaka, Elounda.Only one inhabitant was recorded in the 1981 census, rising to four in 2001.

HoumeriakosA village 3 km southeast of Neapoli, with a population of 273 in 2001.During the Venetian occupation it was the second-largest village in the areaafter Neapoli. It was a rich place, as its inhabitants cultivated the fertilevalley of Neapoli, growing grain and olives, a fact recorded as early as 1700.Two 16th-century churches are preserved: that of Agia Triada (the HolyTrinity) and the church of Agii Nikolaos kai Ioannis (Ss Nicholas and John).The village was mentioned by the traveller Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in1700 as “Commeriaco”.

Agios KonstantinosA small village on the road to Agios Nikolaos via Mesa and Exo Lakonia.There were eight inhabitants in 1981 and 28 according to the 2001census, but today there are no permanent residents. The houses are builtalong a bend in the road, concealing the small green valley with itsseasonal lake of 7 sq. km northeast of the village. A visitor standing onthe banks of the lake loses all sense of direction, surrounded by densevegetation and rich bird life. At the north end of the village is the churchof Agii Konstantinos kai Eleni (Ss Constantine and Helen) with itswonderful wall paintings, many of which are unfortunately lost.

96

Houmeriakos Municipal Department

Agios Konstantinos,the small church ofKonstantinos kaiEleni.

Right:Syrmeso, a smallfarmstead.

Houmeriakos with its fertile olive groves.

Historic Monasteries

Detail of thecarved wooden icon screen of KeramosMonastery.

Left:Inside the cavechurch of Agios Andreas.

99

Visitors are often surprised by the relatively large number of monasteries in theMunicipality of Neapoli, especially the eastern part. Monasticism began tothrive shortly before the Turkish invasion, thanks to the increased privilegesand the (albeit belatedly) tolerant attitude of the Venetians towards OrthodoxCretans. Most of the monasteries were founded between 1550 and 1650, whilethose of Kremasta, Kardamoutza and Areti were particularly famous andwealthy, even during the period of the Turkish occupation. Several monasterieshave been restored in the past decade, mainly on the initiative of theMetropolitan See of Petra and Herronissos. Whether restored or not, however,all are well worth a visit to admire their beautiful carved wooden icon screens,ancient icons and unique wall paintings.

Retreat of Agios Andreas (St Andrew).An isolated retreat with a cave church dedicated to Agios Andreas. It is reachedfrom the northern end of Koudoumalos village, along a rough dirt track runningnorth downhill nearly to the sea. The church and the nearby buildings werebuilt in the 19th century by monk Ioannis Lambrakis, who came here to liveaway from the world. At the back of the cave are three clay basins, set thereto collect the water dripping from the stalactites. This “holy water” isconsidered medicinal by the faithful.

Monastery of Agios Georgios (St George) at Xera Xyla.A dependency of Epanosifi Monastery. It lies north of Neapoli and is reachedby a dirt track from Kourounes village. The first recorded reference is dated1635. The icon of St George with the “unsleeping lamp” that is never allowedto go out, now in Epanosifi Monastery, comes from here. The monastery ispreserved in relatively good condition, as the monks' cells are tended byshepherds and farmers who rent the monastery land.

Keramos Monastery.A partially restored monastery reached by the dirt track forking off just beforeKastelli Fournis. It was founded by the Kantzaras family in 1644, shortly beforethe Turkish invasion of Crete. Abandoned in the early 20th century, it soon fell

100

Keramos Monastery.

Right:Retreat of AgiosAndreas

101

102

into ruin. The repair of the north cells, the church and the courtyard hasrestored some of its former glory. Outside the main entrance, visitors canrefresh both body and soul in the deep shade of a huge oak tree.

Areti Monastery.This is the most important monastery in Neapoli Municipality and the one withthe greatest history. It was founded in 1600 by Markos Papadopoulos, whofunded both the buildings and the monks. It remained in operation throughoutthe Turkish occupation and was accorded the privileges of a stavropegiacmonastery (i.e. exempt from the episcopate, under the direct control of thePatriarchate). Today the monastery has been fully restored on the initiative ofNectarios, Metropolitan Bishop of Petra and Herronissos. Visitors can thusadmire the large building complex and the monastery church with its carvedwooden icon screen and icons, all restored to their former grandeur.

The twelve cypressesin the courtyard ofAreti Monastery,symbolising the Twelve Apostles.

Right:Elegant monasticsimplicity at Areti.

105

Kardamoutza Monastery.The monastery was founded between 1570 and 1580 by the Kantzaras family.The buildings are particularly ornate, embellished with large carved archwaysand high-ceilinged rooms, second only to those of nearby Areti Monastery. Themonastery is currently undergoing restoration. South of the monastery church,an inscribed plaque marks the spot where the priest-monk Manassis Kantzaraswas laid to rest in August 1617.

Left:The beautiful carvedwooden icon screenof KeramosMonastery.

The exquisite icon screen of Areti Monastery.

KardamoutzaMonastery.

106

Inside KardamoutzaMonastery.

KardamoutzaMonastery churchwith the tomb offounder ManassisKantzaras, laid torest in August 1617.

107

Koufopetra Monastery.Founded in 1866 by the nun Irene Chlapoutaki, 400 metres north of KremastaMonastery, probably on the site of an earlier monastery. The church isdedicated to the Annunciation of the Virgin. The monastery was a special placeof pilgrimage until the death of the last monks in the early 20th century.

Kremasta Monastery.The monastery commands a strategic position on the road to the LassithiPlateau. This meant that it was both enriched by passing Christians andtroubled by passing Turks. The monks' position was rendered even moreprecarious by the fact that a secret school was run there from 1840 to the endof the 19th century. Over the entrance to the church is inscribed the date 1593and the name of the founder, Metrophanes Agapetos. Today the Monastery hasbeen restored and visitors can cool off in the shade of its many trees.The following monasteries are also located within the administrative district ofthe Municipality of Neapoli: the Monasteries of Agios Antonios and AgiaVarvara in Syrmeso, the Monastery of Kardiotissa Kerapolitissa, that of PanagiaKorasani, those of Agios Antonios and Prophitis Ilias in Karydi, the Monasteryof Konstantinos and Eleni in Dories, the Monastery of the Theotokos inPerambela, that of Agii Pandes in Houmeriako and that of Panagia in Vigli.

Well-made stonearches atKardamoutza,currently in theprocess ofrestoration.

Archaeological sites

One of the fewremaining walls on the east hillof Dreros.

The post-Minoan city of Dreros is the most important archaeological sites inNeapoli Municipality and the only one open to the public. Set on twin hills only3 km east of Neapoli, it is well worth a visit. Other local archaeological sites,such as the important post-Minoan site at Vrysses and the necropolis of Dreros,are still in the process of excavation. Instead you can visit the archaeologicalcollection in the main square of Neapoli.The ruins of Dreros are scattered across two hills facing each other. The travellerCristoforo Buondelmonti referred to an ancient ruined city here in 1415. Thename probably means “wooded area”. It is strategically positioned on the passlinking central and east Crete, controlling the fertile valley of Neapoli. Findsindicate that its ancient inhabitants enjoyed a relatively high quality of lifeand had commercial relations with other cities. The first archaeological find tocome to light was a square stone bearing a Doric inscription, found by farmersin 1855. This is the famous Oath of the 180 Youths of Dreros, taken on theirinitiation into manhood, and swearing enmity to the Lyctians and Miletiansand friendship to their Knossian allies. The inscription, dated to the mid-4thcentury BC, was removed by the Turkish authorities and taken toConstantinople, where it remains today. The first excavation was undertaken by Stefanos Xanthoudides in 1917. Themost important finds were a bronze gorgoneion (Gorgon face) and the ClassicalTemple of Apollo Delphinios, now restored, on the level area below the saddlebetween the two hills. Another excavation by Spyridon Marinatos in 1935revealed three bronze statues, one male and two female, now in Heraklion

109

Archaeological Museum. Thestatues are made of beatencopper sheets, before theinvention of bronze casting. Dreros flourished from the 8thto the 6th century BC. Therewere two acropoles (citadels),one on each hilltop, and an

Archaic agora (marketplace) in the saddle between the two. Next to the Temple

110

Inside the restoredTemple of ApolloDelphinios.

The path leading to the Archaic agoraof Dreros.

of Apollo Delphinios is a large cistern, similar to those still found in themunicipality. The cistern contained two inscriptions on schist in an Eteocretandialect, discovered in 1936. Unfortunately they were looted from Neapoliduring the Italo-German Occupation, leaving our knowledge of the city thepoorer. After the 2nd century BC the city fell into decline. In the Roman periodthere was only a fort with a tower on the east hill, where the little church ofAgios Antonios stands today. The last evidence of habitation, dated to the 12thcentury AD, is a half-finished cross carved on the central cistern and coins ofthe Comnene period.

111

The church ofProphitis Ilias,Vrysses. Nearby is thesecond post-Minoansettlement of the area.

Panoramic view ofthe west hill ofDreros.

ΔPHPOΣDREROS

MUNICIPALITY OF NEAPOLI ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

112

12

3

Neapoli - Koufopetra andKremasta Monasteries - Vrysses- Drassi - Agios Konstantinos -Neapoli and environs

Neapoli - Nikithianos -Keramos Monastery - KastelliFournis - Epano & Kato Fourni -Syrmeso - Dories - Karydi -Areti Monastery - Patsopoulos -Finokalia - Koudoumalos - AgiaSophia - Dilakkos - Nofalias -Kourounes - Neapoli

Neapoli - Kourounes - Xera XylaMonastery - Agios Antonios -Anogia - Agios Nikolaos (northcoast) - Anogia - AgiosAntonios - Tsabi - Kounalio -Agori - Latsida - Neapoli

Drives & walks

113

Drives and walks

A tall plane treedrinking deep from the cistern at Drassi.

Perennial oaks, craggy mountains, solitary pebble beaches, historic

monasteries, the ancient city of Dreros, villages and farmsteads, all contribute

to the rich tapestry of Neapoli Municipality.

No matter how many times you visit this favoured land, you will always discover

something new, providing you with an excuse to visit again. The three proposed

drives give an initial idea of the area. The first is a route through the relatively

inaccessible and sparsely populated mountain countryside of the southwest.

The second is a circular drive around a large section of the northern part of the

municipality, from the valley of Neapoli to the north coast and back again.

Perhaps the most comprehensive tour of the area, it includes many villages and

farmsteads, historic monasteries, dense groves of kermes oak and seasonal

wetlands. The third route crosses the west of the municipality, ending at the

magical, secluded beach of Agios Nikolaos, due north of Neapoli.

115

Neapoli - Koufopetra and Kremasta Monasteries - Vrysses - Drassi - Agios Konstantinos - Neapoli and environs

1

Starting from Neapoli, a fascinatingtour leads to the two monasteries ofKoufopetra and Kremasta. You thencontinue to the mountainous, verdantvalley of Drassi, the highlight being avisit to “Livadi” near the village ofAgios Konstantinos, an enchantingseasonal wetland rich in bird life in thespring. You can make it a daytrip,

stopping for lunch at the Drassi public picnic area, or just a few hours long- in which case it is preferable to go in the afternoon, so you won't havethe sun in your eyes while driving.Neapoli is the first stop, for coffee or breakfast in the large main squarewith its traditional cafes and tavernas offering modern comforts. You canrelax in the shade of the tall pine trees and admire the imposing Cathedralof the Panagia (the Virgin Mary). The road to take leads from the upper left-hand side of the square, past the excellent Folk Museum, the EnvironmentalEducation Centre and theHeliakios Municipal Library - allwell worth visiting - and uphillto the two historic monasteriesof Koufopetra and Kremasta.The route is very pretty, runningthrough olive groves and wideexpanses of aromatic herbs andwildflowers which more thanmake up for the many bends ofthe narrow road. Soon you can make out the talltrees in the courtyard ofKremasta Monastery. Themonastery was founded byMetrophanes Agapetos in 1593

116

Neapoli - Koufopetra and Kremasta Monasteries - Vrysses - Drassi - Agios Konstantinos - Neapoli and environs

The Cathedral of Megali Panagia in the main square.On the left are thebuildings of theMetropolitan See of Petra.

Ornate carveddoorway of aNeoclassical house.

Right:Traditional cafes in the main square of Neapoli.

117

in a strategic spot on theancient and modern pass tothe Lassithi Plateau, with aview over almost the wholevalley of Neapoli. A fewhundred metres to the westis Koufopetra Monastery,built on the site of an older

monastery in 1866. Above the monastery rises the peak of Kavallaras, 767metres above sea level, the easternmost point of Mt Selena. The area isideal for walks in the kermes oak wood, which has unfortunately been badlyburned further west. The vegetation in many places is lush, with kermesoak, common oak and wild olive. This wooded area continues as far as Vrysses, a village built parallel to theroad. Most of the picturesque stone houses have a stunning view of theMerambello valley, as the valley of Neapoli is also known. Just past the eastend of the village, the left-hand fork leads to the little church of ProphitisIlias. This offers an even more impressive view, including part of the Drassivalley and the Lassithi Mountains. Archaeologists have discovered a post-Minoan site here, apart from neighbouring Dreros, but it is not yet open tothe public.

118

Vrysses with Neapoliin the background.

The ruins of theFranciscan Friary of Agios Antonios of Fraro, as it isknown today.

The route continues south to Drassi, a tiny farmstead; no sooner have youseen the sign than you are past it! You will have to turn back a few hundredmetres to the first steep bend, and turn left up the cement-surfaced trackleading to the farmstead. Only the ancient olive trees and ruined stonehouses remain to welcome visitors. A little further on is a large cistern withrunning water all year round and a huge plane tree. Next to this is theDrassi public picnic area. There are shelters and seats for dozens of guests,barbecues and even a small oven for would-be bakers! You can use this asa starting point for walks along the local paths, making them as long or asshort as you like. Behind the neighbouring ruined farmstead of Lagada, MtSelena rises 1,558 metres, before Krassi and the villages of Mesa and ExoPotami on the Lassithi Plateau. The whole valley of Drassi is greenwith olive trees, while the slopes to north and south are coveredby a blanket of kermes oak, wild olive, carob trees and lentisc.The real ecological paradise, however, is a little further east,near the village of Agios Konstantinos. At Drassi, turn into thejunction to Mesa and Exo Lakonia. Although it isn't visiblefrom the road, behind the first houses of the village is aseasonal wetland of 7 sq. km, called Livadi (“meadow”). It is

119

Detail of a door withits knocker.

The verdant mountainvalley of Drassi.

a small depression, similar to many others in the municipality, containingwater in winter and spring. The surroundings are magical, with awide variety of plants, animals and, above all, birds. You mustbe very careful, especially in the spring, not to disturb themigratory birds which rest here after an exhausting journey ofhundreds of miles. After walking round the lake, you can wanderthrough the narrow streets of the village, which no longer has

The Byzantinechurch of PanagiaKeragoniotissa withits tall oaks.

The icon of SaintsConstantine andHelen with offeringsof wildflowers and afew coins left bypassers-by.

any permanent residents. The small church of Agii Konstantinos kai Eleni(Ss Constantine and Helen) contains the remains of beautiful wallpaintings. Then it's back to Neapoli for lunch and a short rest, before a drive to thenearby villages of Latsida and Voulismeni, Vigli and the post-Minoan city ofDreros. Take the junction from the Agios Nikolaos-Heraklion national road,heading towards Heraklion. Latsida is a quiet village, first recorded in 1305

The Monastery ofPanagia at Vigli,with Voulismeni inthe background.

Panoramic view ofthe seasonal wetlandat AgiosKonstantinos.

122

in a document drawn up by the notary public Pietro Pizolo. It has lots oftraditional stone houses with lovely neat gardens full of flowers. A fewhundred metres away, near the village access road, is the Byzantine churchof Panagia Keragoniotissa, in a verdant landscape of large oaks, cypressesand olive trees. The hills south of the church offer a good opportunity fora walk. Just 1.3 km to the southeast and 150 m higher up is Vigli. Here isthe restored and well-looked-after Monastery of Panagia, containing uniqueicons including that of the Panagia Kardiotissa (“Virgin of the Heart”). Theabundance of spring water all year round, combined with the fertile if steepland, means that the area has been inhabited since the Second ByzantinePeriod, as archaeological evidence shows. It is thought that the town ofNeapoli originated here, with the second village being built on the site ofthe modern town after the destruction of the first. Neapoli (New Town) wasin fact previously named Kenourgio Chorio, or “New Village”.The Monastery of Panagia offers a panoramic view of the nearby village of

123

Detail of the uniquewall paintings ofPanagia at Vigli

Left:The ornate entranceof the church ofPanagia at Vigli.Over the door is thename of its builder,the nunStrianopoula.

Voulismeni. A steep but well-tended cement path with tasteful woodenbenches leads down to the village. Just before the first houses, a woodensign informs visitors of the ruined Franciscan friary of Agios Antonios ofFraro (St Anthony of the Friars), which is open to the public.Three kilometres east of Neapoli, in the opposite direction to Vigli, is thearchaeological site of Dreros, situated on the hill of Agios Antonios. Toreach this major site, take the first junction on the right, on the road toKourounes and Nofalias. Leave your car in the car park and walk up the pathto the Agora and the restored Temple of Apollo Delphinios, at the centre ofthe post-Minoan city of Dreros. Once past the central cistern and thetemple, the only visible features are the low stone walls. The mostimportant finds are in Constantinople (the Dreros Inscription) andHeraklion Archaeological Museum (the three unique bronze statues from the

temple). Nobody knows thewhereabouts of the twoinscriptions in the Eteocretandialect on schist, which werestolen from Neapoli during theItalo-German occupation.

125

Laurel in densewoodland at Vigli.

The west hill ofDreros with thesaddle of theArchaic agora.

Left:The inviting ancientpath from Vigli toNeapoli, shaded bykermes oaks..

Drives and walks

A carved trough.

This tour is the longest of the three, covering about half the area of NeapoliMunicipality. To do it all in one day, you will need to calculate stopscarefully and not delay too long. However, the tour is so interesting thatyou may prefer to complete it in stages over several days. It circles thewhole northern part of the municipality, as far as possible, allowing you toenjoy the peace and quiet of an ancient farming landscape and exploreabandoned villages.From Neapoli, take the old national road in the direction of Agios Nikolaos.After driving about 2 km through the fertile and well-tended olive groves,you will see the windmills of Nikithianos, two of which have been restored.In the centre of the village is a crossroads, the left-hand fork of which leadsunder the new national road and joins a narrow road up the hill of AgiosAntonios, with a panoramic view of the town and valley of Neapoli and theLassithi Mountains. Just to the north is a small valley which is partiallyflooded in winter and spring, forming a small seasonal lake of 4-5 sq. km.Many birds flock here in the migratory season.This is followed by a larger valley, that of Kastelli, Epano Fourni and KatoFourni. On the saddle between the heights from which you can just see thevillages, a junction on the left leads to Keramos Monastery, just 1 km away.The area around the monastery is green with perennial kermes oaks and talloak trees, thanks to the sanctuary and care accorded to both trees andpersecuted humans over the centuries. Like most monasteries of NeapoliMunicipality, this is an oasis of trees in an arid landscape of bare platy

Neapoli - Nikithianos - Keramos Monastery - Kastelli Fournis - Epano & KatoFourni - Syrmeso - Dories - Karydi - Areti Monastery - Patsopoulos - Finokalia -Koudoumalos - Agia Sophia - Dilakkos - Nofalias - Kourounes - Neapoli

127

2

limestone and scrubland. The monastery provides visitors with a welcomingarea to eat and rest in, using a huge millstone as a table, just outside theprecinct. The restoration work is good but unfortunately unfinished, as onlythe cells on the north side have been repaired; the rest are still in ruins.The monastery church contains an exquisitely carved wooden icon screen.The area east of the monastery is ideal for a walk among the common oaks,kermes oaks and olive trees.Return to the road to Kastelli Fournis, a village with a long history,mentioned by the traveller Cristoforo Buondelmonti in 1415. As its name

(meaning Castle of Fourni) shows, it was once an important administrative,religious and military centre. You absolutely must go for a stroll through thevillage. As you explore the courtyards and alleyways with their stone housesand shops, you feel as though you're on the set of a film about urban Cretein the early 20th century! Many shops have been shut for at least fiftyyears, their painted signs betraying their age. After this brief journey into the past, the road east of the village leads onto Epano (Upper) and Kato (Lower) Fourni, along a long, straight avenue ofeucalyptus trees. This would be a lovely place for a walk if it were not sodangerously narrow, because when it was built every yard of this fertilevalley was precious. The villages of Epano and Kato Fourni are just 70metres apart. Travellers usually stop here for a coffee or lunch, and perhapsa walk around the narrow streets to look at the little restored churches andthe folk museum.

128

The windmills ofNikithianos risebehind the olivegroves.

Right:Seasonal wetlandamong cultivatedfields east of Dreros.

The hillsides to north (Stavros)and east (Amenospilios) arecovered in withered almondtrees, telling the story of theold district of Merambello. Thiswas once full of green almondtrees, which need little waterand throve on all the arid hillsof the region. In the mid-19thcentury, however, an epidemicdisease laid waste to almost allthe almond groves. Farmers'income fell dramatically andthere was a wave of emigrationfrom the area. Neapoli was alsofamous for its soumada, atraditional drink made from

almond kernels, a subject on which Neapoli Municipality has produced aninteresting documentary.From the east end of the village, the road continues up Stavros hill toGalazopetra, a spot with 15 ruined windmills and a panoramic view over theKastelli-Fourni valley. From here you can see the archaeological site ofDreros, with Mt Selena and the Lassithi Mountains in the background. Afterthe saddle between the hills north of Stavros, two successive valleys openbefore you, those of Syrmeso and Dories respectively. In winter and springtwo seasonal wetlands form here, and the precious water is used in summerto irrigate the orchards and olive groves. The surrounding hillsides arecovered in wild olive trees, withered almond trees and a few healthy ones,carob trees, kermes oaks and a scented heathland of sage, oregano, thornyburnet, broom and rockrose.One kilometre north of Dories is Karydi (“Walnut”), which may owe its nameto its walnut trees, rare in the region, or perhaps to its founder, Karydis.On the saddle between the new and the abandoned village are five greatcisterns once used to provide water. Great kermes oaks have grown in theyards of the ruined houses in the old village, tempting visitors to go for awalk along the south slopes of Mt Peza. Near the village are the historicmonasteries of Kardamoutza and Areti. Kardamoutza Monastery is 450 m to

130

The courtyard ofKeramos Monastery.

Spring beauty.

132

Fields of grain northof Kastelli.

The oak of KeramosMonastery with itsdeep shade.

133

The fertile valley of Kastelli, Epano and Kato Fourni.

A row of windmills in the Galaropetraarea of Kastelli.

the east, on Koutsouras hill. It is currently undergoing restoration. Visitorsare greeted by the deep shade of the great kermes oak standing at theentrance. Enter by the temporary gate in the south precinct wall and admirethe truly impressive architecture and good state of repair of the monks' cellsand the other buildings. Beautiful carved archways and large, high-ceilinged rooms testify to the former prosperity of the monastery, foundedin 1570-1580 by the Kantzaras family. Just south of the monastery churchis the tomb of priest-monk Manassis Kantzaras, one of the founders, with aplaque inscribed with his date of death: August 1617.From Kardamoutza Monastery, a pleasant walk along a wide cobbled pathleads to the neighbouring Monastery of Areti, 1 km to the north among

Phrygana, olives and almond trees.In spring, the heady scent offlowering sage, oregano andwildflowers fills the air. As youapproach the monastery, it lookslike an island of tall cypresses andcitrus trees. The harmony andbeauty of the buildings draw theattention and refresh the spirit.The monastery church containsbeautiful icons and a carvedwooden icon screen. The monasteryitself is the most important

134

Time has stopped in 1927, the year this windmill was built.

The road to Syrmesofarmstead, throughvineyards, olivesgroves and maquis.

Right:The seasonal wetland of Dories.

136

Top and right: Inside the ruinedbuildings ofKardamoutzaMonastery.

Both plants andanimals depend on the preciouswater of thewetland and wellsof Dories in thesummer months.

139

Top left:The village and valley ofKarydi.

Bottom left:The wide cobbledpath from Aretimonastery toKardamoutzaMonastery, ideal for walks.

Top right:Historic Aretimonastery.

Bottom right:Eroded platylimestone, a natural rockgarden with manytypes of Phryganaplants in Karydi.

140

Right :Olive trees planted in terraces to retain the soil and precious rainwater, in Koudoumalos village.

The Retreat of Agios Andreas,set in a landscapeof rugged beauty.

The north coastnear Agios Andreas.

142

Right :The ancient cisterns of Dilakkos,still full of watertoday.

The farmsteads of Dilakkos and Agia Sophia.

Northern Merambello,a landscape of pathsand terraces, oliveand almond trees,groves of kermes oak and low shrubs.

religious and historic monument in Neapoli Municipality. It was founded in1600 by Markos Papadopoulos and remained in operation throughout theTurkish occupation, when it was accorded the privileges of a stavropegiacmonastery (i.e. exempt from the episcopate, under the direct control of thePatriarchate). Today the monastery has been fully restored on the initiativeof Nectarios, Metropolitan Bishop of Petra and Herronissos. According tothe founding legend, Markos Papadopoulos was invited to a wedding inVenice, where he heard the father of the bride giving the groom a cauldronfull of gold coins, buried at Skouras in Fourni. Papadopoulos, who knew thearea well, arrived before the groom and found the treasure, with which hebuilt the monastery. Whatever the truth of this story, travellers can nowrest in the cool shade of its ancient cypresses and gather their strength forthe walk to the villages of Patsopoulos, Finokalia and Koudoumalos. Just 600 metres after Areti Monastery, there is a right-hand fork which youcan walk along to reach the ruined village of Chondrovolaki. This is at thelimits of Neapoli and Agios Nikolaos Municipalities. A few dozen metresbefore Patsopoulos, the road crossed under the Lagos stream. This rises atKarydi, joins the Mesomouri stream from Finokalia, and runs through apretty gorge to the sea on the north coast. If you want to walk down thegorge to the pebble beach at the end, remember that you will have to comeback the same way. The villages of Patsopoulos, Finokalia andKoudoumalos are set in an arid landscape with a few desiccated olivegroves. This is why the villages on the north coast have been almost totally

144

Dense copse of kermes oaks, wild olive and pear trees near Peronides.

abandoned. A special place is the Retreat of Agios Andreas (St Andrew),along a rough cement road from Koudoumalos. It is a cave church with afew hermits' cells, built in the 19th century by Ioannis Lambrakis, who wenton to become a hermit here himself. Few can fail to be moved by the wildbeauty of this solitude, in which the stone buildings melt into theirbackground.After Koudoumalos, on the road to the villages of Dilakkos and Agia Sophia,the landscape changes again as groups of kermes oaks make theirappearance. The road heads uphill to the height of Agio Pnevma (430 m).The farmsteads of Dilakkos and Agia Sophia, almost deserted today, are justa few metres apart. At the north end is a dirt track leading to four ancientcircular cisterns, 100 metres away. After these hamlets, the road continuesuphill to Nofalias. Its name, meaning “navel”, is probably due to itsposition halfway between Neapoli and the local farmsteads. There are twopretty tracks here, one leading north to two windmills and the other westto the farmstead of Peronides, through a large grove of wild pear, almondand olive trees, kermes oaks and lentiscs.The road continues uphill to Kourounes. Just outside the village, on the wayto Neapoli, stand two windmills, set in a spot where strong winds alwaysprevail. Now the road runs downhill past the archaeological site of Drerosto the first houses of Neapoli, leaving visitors with mixed feelings: pleasureat the thought of the food and coffee awaiting them in town, andimpatience to be off again on another enchanting tour of the north coastof Neapoli.

145

Abandoned steps on the height of Trapeza.

Drives and walksNeapoli - Kourounes - Xera Xyla Monastery - Agios Antonios - Anogia - AgiosNikolaos (north coast) - Anogia - Agios Antonios - Tsabi - Kounalio - Agori -Latsida - Neapoli

This third tour covers the northwest part of Neapoli Municipality. Starting at

Neapoli, we drive up to Kourounes with its rare wetland and the historic

Monastery of Xera Xyla or Agios Georgios, to finish on the north coast and

its isolated landscape of wild beauty.

Starting at Neapoli, go past the archaeological site of Dreros and continue

up the east slope of Timios Stavros, 793 m above sea level. After the series

of bends, just before Kourounes comes into view, two ruined windmills

appear, among the largest in the area. At the entrance to the village is a

sharp fork on the left leading to one of the most important seasonal

wetlands in the municipality. If you come in the spring, you will have the

chance to see pure white herons, grey herons and glossy ibis, along with

other more common species such as wagtails, chaffinches, greenfinches,

goldfinches, even seagulls during the rest of the year. From the village with

its few remaining inhabitants, a pretty path leads 700 metres east to another

imposing windmill of dressed stone, still in good condition, and then on to

the Petrokalyves area. The countryside is lovely, with kermes oak groves and

stone shepherds' huts. Although the path is fairly hard to see, you can even

walk to Keramos Monastery, almost 1.5 km further south.

3

147

From the centre of Kourounes, you can take the road to the next destination,the Monastery of Xera Xyla or Agios Georgios. Alternatively, another fork onthe left leads to the peak of Timios Stavros, with a breathtaking view of thewhole Merambello basin. You can just see the small vale of the monasteryfrom here. The monastery, first recorded in 1635, is still in a relatively goodstate of repair today. It has been a dependency of Epanosifi Monastery foralmost two centuries, and the icon of St George with the “unsleeping lamp”that is never allowed to go out, now in Epanosifi Monastery, comes fromhere. One of the old rooms has been converted into a storeroom for maturingcheese by the shepherd who rents the monastery land; you can buy cheesehere direct from the producer. The traditional explanation of the strangename of the monastery, meaning “dry wood”, is as follows. A gang oncestole a lamb and lit a fire of green wood, which burns with little smoke, tocook it on. One of the group, who had gone to fetch wine, saw thick whitesmoke rising from the fire and shouted, “Dry wood, you're putting dry woodon the fire!” The smoke betrayed the gang and they were caught red-handedwith the stolen lamb.

The two ruinedwindmills beforeKourounes

The seasonalwetland atKourounes, with the peak of TimiosStavros in thebackground.

150

Top left:Anogia in the midst ofdesiccated olivegroves.

Top right:The steep descent to the north coast,with Dia Island in the background.

Bottom left:No organisedfacilities here, just peace and a calm sea.

Bottom right:The solitary pebblebeach at the westend of thecoastline.

151

The route to Agios Antonios is a fairly solitary one, with few houses and carsto be seen. The lack of cultivable land, water and sandy beaches suitable fortourist development, as in neighbouring areas, has led to a decline inpopulation (especially young people) in Agios Antonios, the almost desertedAmydgalolakkos and Anogia. Yet therein lies the secret charm of the area, asit has not succumbed to the tourist mentality but retains its purity andauthenticity. Even nature itself has begun to recover, due to limited humanintervention today, with the stunted kermes oak bushes slowly growing intotrees.After Anogia, the tarmac road gives way to a cement surface, rising beforethe steep descent to the north coast. Few of the farmsteads in this northernsection of the municipality have a view of the sea. This may be due to theirfear of the pirates who roamed the Mediterranean in centuries past, pillagingcoastal villages. Other reasons are the inaccessibility of the area and the lackof good anchorages for fishing boats.Shortly before the coast, the cement road becomes a dirt track and you cometo a crossroads. You can take the left-hand road to a small, pretty pebblebeach 2 km further on, through a landscape of low scrubland and thymewhich is particularly hot in the summer months. To the south, the hillsidesare covered in tree spurge, changing colour in every season, from green inwinter to orange-green in spring and yellow at summer's end. The right-handroad leads to the abandoned farmstead of Argyri, crosses the Malliaris streamand ends at Agios Nikolaos. Argyri is made up of a few ruined stone houseson the right-hand side of the road and another one opposite, in a landscapegrazed bare by sheep. Two lovely walks start here: the first follows theMalliaris dry riverbed upstream into a steep gorge, while the other heads

152

The Malliarisriverbed, runninguphill.

east to the solitary church of Agios Nikolaos, set in a wild landscape ofrugged beauty, before following the riverbed downhill. On each side of theriverbed are ancient strata of conglomerate, i.e. pebbles deposited by thestream in times gone by, when the sea level was higher that it is today. Theriverbed leads down to a pretty pebble beach. Please note that there are noeating facilities or water, so make sure you take your own provisions,especially in the summer. The whole coastline bears the imprint of climate changes over thousands ortens of thousands of years. The waves have cut vertical clefts a few metresto a few dozen metres long in the cliffs. In these clefts you can see thealternating layers of red earth containing large rocks, and red earthcontaining gravel, shards of rock from the northern cliffs deposited overtime. The rocks were swept down during periods of heavy rainfall, while thegravel was deposited gradually in times when the climate was milder. Wherethe compact bedrock is exposed, you can see the former sea level, markedby the holes made by lithophagous (rock-eating) marine molluscs.You can then return to Neapoli along the road you came, as far as the villageof Agios Antonios. Here you take the junction to Tsabi, Kounalio and Agori,close to the historic Cave of Milatos. The road crosses a beautiful, steepgorge between the heights of Kalaritis and Moutsouna, their slopes coveredin Phrygana and maquis dominated by spurge and wild olive, carob andkermes oak. On leaving the gorge you can visit Latsida again at the end ofthe tour, before returning to Neapoli.

153

The small, neatchurch of AgiosNikolaos at the eastend of the region

154

Afterword

The verdant slopesof Moutsouna, an area boasting a wide variety of plants.

Man has great difficulty in considering himself a part of nature. Although he isthe only species on the planet capable of grasping the need to retain theinterrelationships between the elements of the natural environment, he oftendestroys them, both on an individual and on a collective level. In the modernworld this is as easy as pressing a button. The idea that natural resources areinexhaustible and may be taken for granted is an illusion. We can now consumethem all in a single generation, thereby depriving those who come after us.This selfish attitude can only be restrained by the proper evaluation of theseresources and the implementation and enforcement of rules for theirmanagement.The Municipality of Neapoli has few regulatory tools at its disposal for theprotection of the natural environment - our own environment. A small area inthe south of the municipality is registered as part of the Natura 2000 Network,area code GR4320002, under the name “Dicte: Lassithi Plateau, Katharo,Selena, Krassi, Selekanos”. The area, south of Neapoli and west of Vrysses,includes the Kavalaras hill (767 m), the Drassi-Lagada valley and the northernslopes of Mt Machairas (1,487 m). The north coast is on the scientific list butunfortunately not the national list. There are also two Wildlife Refuges: K556(Stavros in Neapoli), comprising 10 sq. km in the Xerolimni area, and most ofK553 (Katselia, Vrouchas in Merambello), also comprising 10 sq. km from Fournito Vrouchas. Each Municipal Authority usually does its best to provide for the daily andmedium-term needs of its citizens. Today, more than ever, it is vital that furtherattempts be made to protect the natural resources necessary to the survival andreasonable quality of life of future generations. The education of modernsociety and the implementation of decrees to protect the environment shouldbe a primary concern of all the municipalities of Greece.

155

Adravastos Adravastos Chirospilios C

Adravastos Metochi Anemospilios C

Agios Antonios Amiras Amira Spilios C

Agios Antonios Anemoliaris River Charkidio or Siderospilia C

Agios Antonios Armyro Stream Armyros Spilios C

Agios Antonios Chourdomanoli Stream Toutou Spilari C

Agios Antonios Christopatimata Christopatimata C

Agios Antonios Dithyra Dithyra C

Agios Antonios Katsiveris Fournia C

Agios Antonios Mnimourgia Mnimourgia C

Amygdalias Koulouridi Spilios Koulouridi Spilios I C

Amygdalias Koulouridi Spilios Koulouridi Spilios II C

Amygdalias Koulouridi Spilios Koulouridi Spilios III C

Amygdalias Mandilia Spiliara sta Chalasmata C

Amygdalias Mandilia Spilios sta Chalasmata C

Anogia Pyrgos-Vardia Anemospiliara C

Anogia Trachilas Plakourospilios C

Anogia Zachari Stream Spiliara C

Finokalias Agios Andreas Agios Andreas C

Finokalias Agios Andreas Datserolenias Spilios C

Finokalias Karakatsani Karakatsani Spilios C

Finokalias Skaloti Zoitsas or Rainas Spilios C

156

Village Area Name of Cave

Caves in the Municipality of Neapoli(C: cave, P: pothole, S: sinkhole)

APPE

NDI

X

Houmeriakos Aspalatholakkos Mavrali Spilios C

Houmeriakos Kaparou Lakkos Kaparou Lakkos C

Houmeriakos Kefala Apokato Spilios C

Houmeriakos Kefala Sopata Spilios C

Houmeriakos Roussa Roussas Spilio C

Houmeriakos Spiliara Spiliara C

Kastelli Chonos Chonos S

Kastelli Tryvaxonas Tryvaxonas S

Kourounes Alisfakias Latsida S

Kourounes Kefala Spilio C

Kourounes Limni Chonos S

Lithomandra-Neapoli Levido-Mavro Spiliari Mavro Spiliari C

Nikithianos Notiko Mavri Trypa C

Nikithianos-Neapoli Fonias Fonia Spilio C

Nofalias Kani Latsida P

Romanos - Neapoli Galanou Galanou Spilios C

Souvlos Peza Omer Spilios C

Souvlos Souvlos Volakospilios C

Souvlos Souvlos Kassoti Spiliari C

Souvlos Souvlos Neraidospilios C

Voulismeni Community Pera Mera Spiliara C

157

Village Area Name of Cave

Coghlan S. 2001.Α Birdwatching Guide to Crete. Arlequin Press 92 pp.

Fassoulas C. 2001.Field Guide to the Geology of Crete. - Natural History Museum of Crete. Irakleion,Crete, 104 pp.

Fielding J. and N. Turland. 2005.Flowers of Crete. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. London, 336 pp.

Handrinos G., Akriotis T. 1997.The Birds of Greece. Helm A. and C. Black Ltd., London, 336 pp.

Karandeinos M. and A. Legakis (eds).The Red Data Book of Threatened Vertebrates of Greece. Hellenic Zoological Society,Hellenic Orhithological Society & WWF Hellas. Thymeli Publ., Athens, 372 pp.

Platakis E. 1975.Caves and other karstic forms of Crete. Vol. Β, Irakleion, Crete, 275 pp. (In Greek)

Platakis E. 1980.Popular names of animals in Crete. Kritologia (10-11): 35-134. (In Greek)

Psilakis N. 2002.Monasteries and hermitages of Crete. Vol. Α. Κarmanor editions, Irakleion, Crete, 504 pp. (In Greek)

Rackham O. and J. Moody. 1996.The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press, 237 pp.

Reese D.S. (ed). 1996.Pleistocene and Holocene Fauna of Crete and its First Settlers. Monographs in WorldArchaeology, Prehistory Press of Madison 28, 422 pp.

Sarris, A., M. Giasta, A. Giourou, E. G. Kappos, Karimali, V. Kevgas, K.Margetousakis, K. Bichta, E.Peraki, S. Soetens, K. Tzaneteas, S. Topouzi, & A.Tripolitsiotis, 2007. Archaeological and Geological Map of Crete. Website:http://www.ims.forth.gr:83/WebGisSites/Default.aspx?service=archaeology_Crete_geology. Laboratory of Geophysical - Satellite Remote Sensing & Archaeo-environment of the Institute for Mediterranean Studies (I.M.S.) / Foundation ofResearch & Technology (F.O.R.T.H.).

Spanakis S.1991.Towns and villages of Crete through the centuries. Volumes Α & Β. Irakleion, Crete,847 pp. (In Greek)

Turland N., L. Chilton and J. Press. 1993.Flora of the Cretan Area. Annotated Checklist and Atlas. Natural History Museum,London, 439 pp.

159

FURT

HER

READ

ING

THE BOOK MAN AND NATURE IN NEAPOLI’S

MUNICIPAL AREA LASSITHI CRETE WAS PRINTED IN

AUGUST 2007 BY GRAPHIC ARTS TYPOKRETA IN

HERAKLION CRETE IN 1000 COPIES