mandarin melody recognition by pédiatrie cochlear implant recipients

8/10/2019 Mandarin Melody Recognition by Pédiatrie Cochlear Implant Recipients

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Joumal of Music Therapy, XLV 4), 2008, 390 -404© 2008 by the American Music Therapy Association

Mandarin Melody Recognition by

Pédiatrie Cochlear Implant RecipientsFeilin Hsiao PhD MT-B CUniversity of Iowa

This study inves tigated the ability of children with im plantswho speak M andarin Chinese, a tonal language, to recognizefamiliar melodies. It further examined the relative contribu-

tions of pitch, rhythm, and lyrics to melody recognition. Twogroups of participants (ages 7-15; n = 20 for each group),those with cochlear imp lants and those w ith typical hearing,listened to 2 sets (traditional Mandarin children s songs andchildren s songs from W estern cultures translated intoMan darin) of three melodies. T hese melodies were presen t-ed in 3 co nditions: a) melodic contour only (pitches in equaldurations); (b) me lodic c ontour with rhythmic patterns; an d(c) melodic contour with rhythmic patterns and lyrics. Theresults indicated that pédiatrie cochlear implant recipientsperformed with greater accuracy in melody recognitionwhen lyrics were available. Their scores were significantlylower when melodies containing only pitch features.Providing the rhythmic patterns aided participants Identifi-cation of the target melodies, but less so than the lyrics.Applications of findings to aural rehabilitation are discussed.

The cochlear implan t CI) is primarily designed to assist speechperception for persons with bilateral sensorineural deafness. It s aprosthetic device that provides artificial electrical stimulation tothe auditory nerve by way of an electrode array inserted into thecochlea. Although a CI delivers only partial information from theacoustic signal, a substantial body of literature on pédiatrie CIrecipients indicates that most children derive benefit from the

The autho r wishes to thank Dr. Kate E. Gfeller for he r support and guidance andDr. Don D. Coffman for his timely advice. The author also wishes to express hergratitude to Dr. Tsung-Sheng Huang and Ms. Huei-Jen Hsu at the Chang GungMemorial Hospital in Taipei, Taiwan, and all of the participants and their paren ts.G d i thi ti l h ld b dd d t D F ili H i



Vol. XLV No. 4 Winter 2008 39

implants for speech perception tasks (e.g., Chen, 2003; Fryauf

Bertschy, Tyler, Kelsay, & Gantz, 1992; Gantz, Tyler, Woodworth,Tye-Murray, Fryauf-Bertschy, 1997; Geers, Brenner, Davidson,2003; Hsu, 2003; Lin & Peng, 2003; Niparko & Blankenhorn,2003; Ouellet & Cohen, 1999). In general, ch ildren can steadilyimprove their perception abilities after implantation for individ-ual speech elements such as ph on em es (e.g., vowels & conso-nants), words, and sentences (e.g., Chen, 2000; Fryauf-Bertschy &Tyler, 1997; Fryauf-Bertschy et al., 1992).

While adequately delivering salient features of speech, CI is lesseffective in transmitting voice pitch as well as musical sounds,especially sequential p itch (Faulkner, Rosen, & Smith, 2000; Xu,Tsai, & Pfingst, 2002). The limitation of GIs has a greater impacton tonal language speakers than on nontonal language speakers.For nontonal languages such as English, voice pitch is presentedin the form of intonation, which conveys emotional expression(e.g., surprise) and speaker intent (e.g., questions) (Peng,Tom hlin, Cheung , Lin, & Wang, 2004). Speech can be under-stood even when this information is absent; however, voice pitchplays a more significant role in tonal languages. In addition tointonation, pitch also determines the meaning of words, in theform of linguistic tones that are essential for understandingspeech. Changing the pitch patterns (e.g., height and contour) ofa tone can result in changes in the lexical meaning. For example,four major tones are used in Mandarin Chinese (Mandarin,hereafter), with each requiring specific pitch properties such asrelative pitch levels (high and low), contour of pitch movement

(rising, falling), and duration of pitch. The syllable / m a / can mean mother, linen, horse, or scold dep end ing on the tonepattern that is attached to the syllable (Howie, 1976; W halen Xu,1992). Thus, more precise pitch d iscrimination ability is needed inperceiving Mandarin, compared with that for nontonal languages.

To date, little is known about the performance of Western-designed implants for children who speak tonal languages. Only amodest body of literature has accumulated regarding the speechperception of adult recipients; few reports focus on pédiatrie CIrecipients; and none of these include measures of musicperception. Although research with CI recipients who speak a



9 ournai of Music Therapy

applied to recipients who speak tonal languages, since they have

such different linguistic backgrounds.Previous research has shown that adult recipients who speak

nontonal languages perform comparably with their normal-hearing (NH) counterparts on simple rhythmic pattern discrim-ination presented at a moderate rate, hut have a significantlylower accuracy in detecting (a) pitch change and the direction ofpitch movement or (h) discrimination (same/different) of simplepitch sequences, especially when stimuli include small intervals(Fujita Ito , 1999; Gfeller Lansing, 1991, 1992; Gfeller et a l ,2002; Gfeller, Woodworth, Witt, Rohin, Knutson, 1997;McDermott, 2004). Preliminary investigations of English-speakingchildren with implants reveal a similar trend (Gfeller, Lansing,Fryauf-Bertschy, Hurtig, 1990; Gfeller, Lansing, Fryauf-Bertschy, Firszt, 1991).

The inability to extract pitch cues via a GI device results insignificantly poorer accuracy for familiar melody recognition byimplant recipients compared with their NH counterparts (Gfeller

et al., 2002; Looi, McDermott, McKay, Hickson, 2004; Olszewski,Gfeller, Froman, Stordahl, Tomblin, 2005; Olszewski, Gfeller,Zhang, 2005; Schultz Kerber, 1994; Stordah l, 2002). Among thethree key components (pitch, rhythm, lyrics) of melodyrecognition, great difficulties have been reported in recognizingmelodies from pitch cues alone, once lyrics are available, bothadults and children with GIs, perform comparably with NHlisteners for melody recognition accuracy (Fujita Ito, 1999;Kong, Gruz, Jones, Zeng, 2004; Leal et al., 2003; Olszewski,Gfeller, Zhang, 2005; Vongpaisal, Treh ub , Schellenberg,Papsin, 2004). When rhythmic patterns are added to the pitchsequence, adult GI recipients achieve significantly higher scoresthan with those melodies without such pattern s (Fujita Ito,1999; Gfeller et al., 2002; Kong et al., 2004; Schulz Kerber,1994). Pédiatrie GI recipients, on the other hand, benefit litdefrom this information, even though rhythm is adequatelyrepresented through a GI (Gfeller et al., 1990; Olszewski, Gfeller, Zhang, 2005; Olszewski, Gfeller, Froman, et al., 2005; Stord ahl,2002; Vongpaisal et al., 2004). Thus, unlike pitch and rhythmfeatures, lyrics in nontonal languages can be effectively accessed




The modulating effect of linguistic information in lyrics, whensung, is somewhat different for n onto nal languages as opposed totonal languages, with the presence of tones contributingadditional variance. The ability of Mandarin-speaking implantrecipients to utilize linguistic information for identifying familiarmelodies, however, may be com promised by mo dulations of tonesin lyrics while these are sung (Chan, 1987; Chao, 1956). Priorinvestigation of commercially recorded, popular Mandarin songsindicates that the single-tone treatm ent is often overlooked by thelarge melody phases. For a song to sound more melodic, theoriginal tone properties of the lyrics are often ignored in thecomposition process (Chan, 1987). As a result. Mandarin tonesare mostly modulated to the extent that they no longer possesstheir distinct pitch patterns when sung. This may explain whynative Mandarin speakers often count on written lyrics to get theexact words while listening to a new song.

Despite the crude pitch information that CI devices provide,preliminary studies in Mandarin tone recognition have shown

encouraging results. Both children and adults with implants areable to distinguish the four tones in speech in forced-choice tasks(Huang, Wang, Liu, 1995; Peng et al., 2004), Researchers offertwo plausible explanations for the performance: (a) at least somepitch information, albeit weak, may be available; and (b) the useof temporal information such as vowel duration and theamplitude contour may compensate for the compromised pitchinformation (Fu, Hsu, Horn g, 2004; Fu Zeng, 2000), Th us,compared with speakers of nontonal languages. Mandarin-speaking CI users have much more experience utilizing pitchand temporal cues for speech recognition in daily life.

This study investigated the extent to which pédiatrie CIrecipients, who speak a tonal language, are able to perceivefamiliar melodies, which would allow examining the relativeimportance of pitch, rhythm, and linguistic cues, especially inconnection with their musical experiences that are unique to thelocal culture. For example, in Taiwan, a mixture of Western,

traditional Chinese, and indigenous Taiwanese song repertoire isacquired by children. The first research question addressed in thestudy was how accurately pédiatrie CI recipients are able to



9 ournal of Music Therapy

rhythm, c lyrics) may assist CI and NH listeners in recognizingMandarin melodies. Finally, the last question examined howdem ograp hic factors (e.g., age, hearing history, extent of musicinvolvement) relate to melody recognition accuracy to unders tandthe variability among this particular group of CI participants.

MethodParticipants

Two groups of Mandarin-speaking Taiwanese children (ages 7 -15 years) participated in this study. The CI group was comprisedof children who were part of the pédiatrie case load at anotolaryngology program in Taiwan. The basic selection criteria forthe CI participants were children who were (a) preoperativelyidentified as being profoundly hearing-impaired; (b) recipients ofmulti-channel CI devices; and (c) with at least one year of CIexperience. In addition, because the task of familiar melodyrecognition requires prior familiarity with the target items,

participants needed to know a minimum of two out of threetarget songs for the two subtests of the Mandarin Melody RecognitionTest MMRT).

The CI participants consisted of 20 prelingually deafened(hearing loss presented at birth or before language acquisition)children (7 males 13 females) who ranged in age from 7.94 to15.52 years M = 11.34, SD = 2.19). Th eir age of implantationranged from 1.67 to 7.01 years M = 3.86, SD = 1.62 , with aminimum of 5-year CI experience M = 7.46, So = 1.64) p rior totesting. One child (CI-8) became deafened at 16 months due tomeningitis, and the rest of the children were congenitallydeafened. The implant recipients were users of the followingNucleus devices (Lane Cove, Australia): Nucleus 22 n = 9 ),fitted with the SPEAK speech processing strategy and Nucleus24 M (n = 11), fitted with the ACE speech processing strategy. Allchildren attended mainstream elementary or secondary schools(with various levels of involvement in resource classrooms) where

oral/aural communication was emphasized.The normal-hearing (NH) participants were recruited from the




children (10 males and 10 females), ranging in age from 7.26 to15.15 years (M = 11.14, SD = 1.92). Normal hearing wasconfirmed prior to testing using a portable audiometer andearphones. Their hearing thresholds were equal to, or betterthan, 20 dB HL, at octave intervals from 250 to 4000 Hzbilaterally. For both CI and NH groups, no pardcipants presentedvisual disorders, learning disabilities, or developmental problems.All children and their parents or legal guardians were informed ofthe testing protocol, in compliance with Institutional ReviewBoard requirements.

easures

andarin elody Recognition Test MMRT). The RT wasspecifically developed for this study. It included two subtests:Translation (children's songs from Western culture translatedinto Mandarin) and Tradition (traditional Mandarin children'ssongs). Each target melody was presented in three conditions: (a)Pitch, in which the melody was made up of a stream of equal-

duration, eighth-notes that removes the characteristic rhythmicpatterns but preserves the exact melody contour; (b) Rhythm, inwhich the pitch sequence was presented with the originalrhythmic patterns intact; and (c) Lyrics, in which the melodywas sung with lyrics, while maintaining the same sequential pitchand rhythm patterns as in the Rhythm condition.

To identify songs commonly known to Taiwanese children, apool of 184 songs was compiled. Based on the opinions of experts{N = 30) in music education, music therapy, and early childhoodeducation (4 music educators, 9 music therapists, 13 preschoolteachers, 2 professors from the Department of Music Education, 2 professors from the Department of Early ChildhoodEducation at Taiwanese universities) and survey results from 61parents of pédiatrie CI recipients, 8 items with the highest rankingfor familiarity were chosen (see Table 1). High agreement wasfound between the experts and the parents with regard to songnominations. The three most well-known songs are all originatedfrom other countries, reflecting the considerable influence ofWestern culture in Taiwan. The eight selected songs were furthercategorized into two groups (four in each) according to the origin




TABLE 1

List of Selected Song Stimuli

Song title in Mandarin

Translat ion Subtest

(Liang Zhi Lao Hu)

aiB-ÊMm(Sheng Ri Kuai Le Ge)

•'hMM

(Xiao Xing Xing)í^íkSí^mM (Wang LaoXian She ng You Jua i Di)

Tradit ion Subtest

MSñ^X (Zhi Yao WoZhang Da)

^Mi^Î^Miâ (Mei Mei BeiZhe Yang Wa Wa)

Á^i^M (Huo Che Kuai Fei)

m ̂ (Hu Tie)

nglish translation

Two Tigers, same melody as Are You Sleeping

Happy Birthday Song,t ranslatedfrom Happy Birthday To You

Little Star,translated from

Twinkle, Twinkle Little StaV Old Mr. Wang Had a Farm,translated from Old MacDonaldhad a Farm

As Long as I Grow Up

The Little Cirl Carried a DoW

Flying Train

Butterfly

Targe t

Ta rge t

Ta rge t

Practice

Targe t

Ta rge t

Ta rge t

Practice

selected as target song stimuli, and the fourth song was used as apractice i tem.

The melody st imuli for the Pitch and Rhythm condit ions weredeveloped using MIDI software (Music Time Deluxe). All i temswere presented monophonical ly us ing the s tandard MIDI t imbreof an acoustic piano, in the same fundamental frequency range

(G3 to A4; 195.9 to 440 Hz) , and at the same tem po (on e qua rter-no te = 100 bp m ). Only the ini tial four phrases of each i tem werepresented (approximately 20 seconds). The st imuli for the Lyricscondi t ion mainta ined the same p i tch , tempo, and rhythmiccharacteris t ics as those of the Rhythm condit ion, and noins t rume ntal acco m pan ime nt was pres ente d with the s inging .T hese st imuli were pro du ce d by a female native M and arin-speaking musician v ia a Shure SM 57 microphone, and recordeddirectly onto a Power Mac G5 through a Digidesign Digi 002

music production system.T h e MMRT consisted of a three-alternative forced-choice



Voi. XLV No. 4 Winter 2008 97

target song stimuli were presented three times in random order

for each cond ition (Pitch, Rhythm, Lyrics). The threeconditions also appeared randomly. The overall score for theMMRTwas 54.

Participants were tested individually in a double-walled,soundproof booth. The testing program was administeredthrough a 14-inch, wide-screen HP laptop computer with twoexternal speakers (Harman/Kardon HK 195 multimedia speakersystem) placed at approximately 45 degrees and at feet from theparticipant. The digitized recorded stimuli for each test were

presented at the most comfortable level of loudness (approxi-mately 70 dB SPL) in the sound field. Participants were allowed toadjust the volume of the speaker or their speech processor to acomfortable listening level. Individual responses to each itemwere automatically coded and saved in the computer.

The participants were given the three target song titles(depending on the subtest given) first to screen for priorfamiliarity. They were asked to check the boxes next to the tidesof the songs on the computer screens, with which they werealready familiar. Next, to ensure clarity during the task, threepractice items representing the three conditions were presentedprior to the test items. Participants were asked to click on thepictorial representation of the song sdm uli, once they were sure ofthe title, without waidng until the song presentation was finished.After participants understood the instructions and the responsetask, test items were presented. Testing took approximately25 minutes. No feedback was presented on accuracy, bu t the

computer presented social reinforcement images, such as comicpictures for continued effort, as part of the program. The authoris working on establishing reliability and validity of the MMRT

Mandarin Music Background Questionnaire—Children s Version(MMBQ-C). The MMBQ-C quantifies the extent and types offormal or informal musical experiences and exposure (training inschool, at home, and within the community) according to theparticipant's age. It was adapted and translated into Mandarinfrom the English version of the Music Background Questionnaire—

Children s Version in the Iowa Music Perception and Appraisal attery(Gfeller, Witt, Kim, Knutson, 1998; Stordahl, 2002). Th e




TABLE 2

Mean Percent Correct Scores of the MMRT for CI and NH Groups

on ition

PitchRhythmLyrics

39%59%96%

CI

S

18%21 %

9%

N H

99%99%

100%

.SD

2%9%0%

experts. The units of musical experience are gathered andtransformed into numerical scores and the sum of units fordifferent categories of music activities are totaled for a score thatcould rang e from 0 to 41 . In prio r studies (Olszewski, Gfeller, &Zhang, 2005), researchers pointed out that a participant's age attesting could affect their maximum score for musical involvement(i.e., older children would have more opportunity to get moremusical experiences, and therefore, have larger scores). Toreduce the age factor, a further step towards equalization was

performed in the study. T he n um ber of units for the total musicalparticipation was divided by the participants' age (in years) to geta mean life-time MMBQ C score. T he questionnaire was conduct-ed as an interview.

Results

Because no significant differences were found between the twosubtests of the MMRT for melody recognition accuracy, all

subsequent analyses were conducted using combined scores fromthe two subtests. Table 2 shows the m ean percen t co rrect scores ofth e MMRT for the CI and N H groups. The mean scores werecompared using a 2 X 3 (Group X Condition) mixed ANOVA.Greenhouse-Geisser adjustments were applied for justifying theassumption of sphericity for repeated measures. Significant maineffects were found for both group s,/ (I , 38) = 15 6.8 5,/>< .001,and conditions, 7^(1.92,72.93) = 88 .84,/) < .001. The interactionbetween group and condition was also significant, i^(1.60, 72.93)= 79.90, p .001. Post hoc pair-wise comparisons with

Bonferroni adjustments indicated that the accuracy of the NH



Voi. XLV No. 4 Winter 2008 99

T RI E

Correlations between Melody Recognition and Demographic Data

Pitch Rhyth m Lyrics

MMBQ:C .05 .31 .31

Age .08 - .09 .21

Age at implant .00 -. 12 - . 01

Length of Cl usage .12 - . 03 .28

sons), but not for the Lyrics condition {p = .29). Within the GI

groups, group mean scores of the Ly rics condition weresignificantly higher than those of the other two conditions p <.001 for both comparisons). The accuracy for the Rhythmcondition was significantly greater than that of the Pitch condition p < .001).

Th e m ean life-tim e MMBQ C scores for th e GI and NH groupswere compared with an independent i-test**. The NH ch ildren M = 0.80, SD = 0.38, range = 0.24-1.56) were involved withgreater music experiences i 33.92) = - 3 . 1 8 , / ) = .003; unequal

variances assumed) than were the implant recipients M =0.47.45, range = 0 - 0 . 9 9 , 5 » = 0.27). No significant correlations see Table 3) were found between m elody recognition scores across all 3 conditions) and demographic variables MMBQ-C,age at tesdng, age at im plantation, or length of GI exper ienc e).

Discussion

The performance of th e M andarin-speaking ch ildren with GIs

was sim ilar to nonton al language speakers when perceiving fam iliarmelodies. Gompared with their NH counterparts, the GI pardci-pants performed with significantly less accuracy under conditionsof pitch or rhy thm features. However, their scores were com parablefor melodies containing lyrics. Gonsistent with prior studies Olzsewski, Gfeller, From an, et al., 2005; Stordah l, 2002), m ostNH participants achieved high levels of accuracy regardless of th eformat of th e m elodies presented i.e., with and with out lyrics orrhythmic patterns). These results indicate the ease of th e task for

children whose hearing mechanisms provide a normal represen-tation of these songs and who have had repeated exposure of these



• ournal of Music Therapy

tation of pitch (a key element in song recognition) and less

extensive musical listening experiences. These factors may impedethe CI participants' performances on overall melody recognition,especially when verbal information was removed from the task.

With regard to the salience of pitch, rhythm, and linguisticcues, the group data indicated that lyrics provided the most usefulinformation, while pitch cues remained less accessible for theidentification of melodies. Rhythmic patterns improved theperceptual accuracy for these prelingually deafened children,although not s reliably as in the performance of the NH children.The benefit of lyrics and the difficulty with pitch cues is similar forboth tonal and nontonal language speakers. Regardless of themodulations in pho nem ic produ ction (i,e,, vowel elongation,pitch pattern, and duration change for Mandarin tones) inMandarin lyrics (Chan, 1987), Taiwanese CI participants wereable to access lyrics and identify m elodies accurately. On the oth erhand, although the recognition of Mandarin tones requiredperceptual accuracy for pitch patterns, CI participants had

difficulty employing pitch cues to recognize familiar melodies.Thus, without additional information such as lyrics or rhythmicpatterns, the weak ability to extract pitch information from thecurrent CI devices may be insufficient for melody recognition.Nevertheless, some exceptional CI users may be found (i.e.,participant CI-12 who achieved the highest accuracy for melodyrecognition based on pitch features, = 78 ),

Taiwanese children with implants achieved significantly highermelody recognition accuracy for tasks based on pitch and rhythmfeatures than those using only pitch information. In the Rhythmcondition , four CI participants achieved 100 accuracy: CM andCI-14 for the translation subtest, and CI-8 and CI-10 for thetradition subtest. Thus, these pédiatrie CI recipients might bemore capable of extracting rhythmic cues than pitch cues inmelody recognition. A possible explanation may be related to theMandarin-speaking CI users' linguistic experience. Temporalinformation (i,e,, vowel du ration) , being closely related to

rhythmic features of music, has been found to assist Mandarintone recognition for CI listeners (Fu et al., 2004; Peng et al,,



Vol. XLV No. 4 Winter 2008 4 1

speech recognition in daily life, and this may further contribute to

their melody recognition accuracy.The Taiwanese CI participants ability to apply temporal cuesfor both tone and melody recognition is further attested by thetester s observation. A few children were able to pay attention tothe overall rhythmic structure of the songs. They distinguishedbetween the songs by focusing on the duration of the chunkphases. This was especially true for songs that were less rhythmic(i.e., primarily a sequence of equal-duration quarter-notes). Infact, one CI participant commented that he tried to match the

number of counted notes of each phrase to his recollection of thesong lyrics. Thus, even though melodies in the Rhythm cond itiondo not include lyrics, these Taiwanese children were able to drawfrom their memory of the songs and map the rhythmic patternsonto the segmental features.

As a gro up , pédiatrie CI participants report m usic behavior thatis similar to their NH peers. They listen to music regularly andexpress distinct preferences for certain types of music, songs,singers, and bands. They enjoy a variety of musical activities suchas dancing, listening to CDs or MP3s, watching MTV, download-ing music from the In ternet, etc. Nevertheless, the im pact of thesemusical experiences did not reflect greatly on their perceptualtasks. This was proved by a weak correlation between the am ountof musical involvement and their melody recognition accuracy.Casual exposure to music in daily life does not appear tosignificantly contribute to accurate recognition for children whogrew up listening through CI devices. A specific training program

geared toward the needs of children with implants may thereforebe necessary for improving their music perception.Findings of this study have several clinical implications. First,

the effective utilization of rhythm information may be helpful toenhance melody recognition accuracy in aural rehabilitation. Thiscan be implemented by using activities and techniques that directchild ren s atten tion to the characteristic rhythmic patterns ofindividual songs. Second, when new songs are introduced, theirlyrics should be included due to the crucial role that verbal cuesplay in melody recognition. In summary, children with CIs whospeak Mandarin, a tonal language, performed similarly to users



Vol. XLV No. 4 Winter 2008 4 3

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