Mapping Science Education Policy in Developing Countries

Keith M Lewin

2

Policy and Planning Issues - Part 1

Two Approaches to Policy Formation

The Policy Context

Patterns of Provision

Valued Aims and Outcomes

Key Policy and Planning Questions

3

Science and Technology Policy

Technology Transfer

TechnologyAdaptation

AlternativeTechnologies

Science/Technology Generation

Tracking Decisions S and T

Knowledge Skills and Values

Assessment and

Certification

Learning and Teaching Methods

Curriculum Aims and Outcomes

Science Education Policy

4

Science Education Policy

Curriculum Aims and Outcomes

Tracking Decisions

S and T Knowledge Skills

and Values Assessment and Certification

Learning and Teaching Methods

Felt NeedsScientific literacy

Health and Nutrition Awareness

Equity (poverty,gender)

Survival Skills Environmental

Sustainability

Employment related skills

Civic Participation

Individual and Collective

Empowerment

Scientific numeracy

Rural Marginalisation

5

Key Variables

Enrolment rates at secondary and above,

Disparities in enrolment rates between groups (rich/poor; male/female; urban/rural etc.),

The proportions who specialise in science

General Policy Context

6

Financial constraints on investment in science education

Supply and demand in education and the labour market.

Patterns of provision

Valued aims and outcomes for different groups

General Policy Context (cont..)

7

Male and Female Gross Enrolment Rates at Secondary

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Gro

ss

En

rolm

en

t R

ate

(%

)

Male

Female

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Participation Rate in Science - Lower and Upper Secondary

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Burkina F PNG Senegal Thailand Morocco Botswana Mexico Malaysia Jordan Korea Japan

Par

tici

pat

ion

Rat

e

Lower Sec

Upper Sec

9

Amount Spent per Secondary Student in US$

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

Japa

n

Franc

e

United

Sta

tes

Nethe

rland

s

United

King

dom

Singap

ore

Spain

Hong

Kong

Portu

gal

Korea

Hunga

ry

Argen

tina

Mala

ysia

Mex

ico

Mor

occo

Costa

Rica

Urugu

ayChil

e

Thail

and

Mala

wi

Zimba

bwe

Kenya

Ethiop

iaCha

d

Bangla

desh

Zam

bia

Nepal

US

$

10

Supply of and Demand for Science Education

Supply Demand CommentSchoolsHigh High Improve quality; differentiate tracks and curricula; balance output with

demand from higher educationHigh Low Improve demand through public awareness; provide incentives;

encourage marginalised groups; improve links to labour marketLow High Invest in teaching facilities; train more science teachers; include

science in core curriculumLow Low Consider extending access and invest in teaching facilities;

understand why demand is low; improve links to labour marketHigher EdHigh High Improve quality; differentiate tracks and curricula; stress application;

control costsHigh Low Improve demand through public awareness; provide incentives;

encourage marginalised groups; invest in learning support; checklabour market relevance of curricula

Low High Increase supply; invest in quality and participation in schools;develop access courses; check labour market relevance of curricula

Low Low Consider development strategy in relation to S and T HRD; provideincentives if low demand leads to under supply into labour market

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Supply of and Demand for Science Qualified in theLabour Market

Supply Demand CommentLabour MktHigh High Improve quality and links between science education output and

labour market placement; differentiate curriculaHigh Low Possible over supply; adjust investment in science education

downward and/or re orientate tracking and curricula towards areasof high demand; invest in more applied programmes if in demand

Low High Invest in science and technology education and training facilities;provide incentives to study S and T; adjust curricula

Low Low Consider development strategy in relation to S and T HRD; investto improve supply demand if strategy needs greater output of Sand T HRD.

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Issues from Patterns of Provision

Early or late specialisation?

Separate subject science or integrated science?

Tracking into different types of specialised school?

National core and elective curricula?

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Issues from Patterns of Provision

Time allocations for science learning?

Nature and extent of practical work?

Extent of technological or academic orientation?

Qualification and training levels of science teachers?

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Qualified Scientists and Engineers

Students entering middle level jobs related to S + T

General population -needs for scientific literacy and numeracy

Special needs of the marginalised

A minority of those in school. Specialised or multi-level curricula?

Higher cognitive demand?

A majority of those who qualify. More application and technologised science? How selected?

Basic science knowledge and thinking skills? Science linked to application? Living skill science? Health and nutrition?

Special provision? Different aims and outcomes? Affirmative programmes or mainstreaming?

Valued Aims and OutcomesLearning needs differ. Consider different groups.

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Some Questions (1) Science Education Policy Questions

1. Is there a national science and technology development strategy and if so what does it imply for science education policy?

2. What felt needs are unmet and which should be prioritised in science education development?

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Some Questions (1) (cont.)

General Planning Questions

3. What are the patterns of supply and demand, and in participation?

4. What do they indicate about who should learn how much science to what level?

5. Which goals and outcomes should be prioritised for which groups?

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Cost and Effectiveness Issues

• Learning and Teaching Materials

• Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment

• Selection and Assessment

• Science Teacher Education and Deployment

Policy and Planning Issues - Part 2

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Learning and Teaching MaterialsComment

Quality and RelevanceHigh Focus on support for effective use of learning materials (e.g.

in service and school based programmes)Low Invest in curriculum developmentAccess to Core MaterialsHigh Consider enrichment, extending the range, and developing

networks (including the use of information technology)Low Improve production and distribution, consider subsidising

costs, identify suitable materials available from othersources

Range of MaterialsHigh Test for coherence and consistency with valued aims and

outcomes, develop quality assurance systems, ensureequitable access

Low Commission curriculum development, subsidise production,adapt existing additional materials

Costs of MaterialsHigh Reduce costs through competition, selective subsidy,

economies of scaleLow Consider improving quality, range and durability

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Practical work is time consuming and needs careful organising. It costs should be justified by learning outcomes.

•What unique outcomes does practical work contribute to?

•Are there other ways of achieving the same outcomes?

Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment

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Laboratory building costs can be very high.

• What is the minimum essential provision to achieve outcomes?

• What should be the mix of science rooms and science laboratories?

• Is expensive laboratory space adequately utilised?

Practical Science , Laboratories and Equipment (cont.)

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Science equipment is needed but can be expensive to purchase and maintain.• How much equipment is needed to

teach which science concepts?• Which strategies can lower costs,

increase use, and extend useful life? • How cost effective are science kits?

Practical Science , Laboratoriesand Equipment (cont.)

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Cost of Physics Laboratory

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

Chile

Thaila

nd C

mty

Sch.

Jord

an

Thaila

nd O

rd.

Burkin

a Fas

o

Mala

ysia

Kenya

Loc

al

Argen

tina

Seneg

al

Kenya

Aide

d

Mor

occo

Botsw

ana

Lwr.S

ec

Korea

H.S

ch

PNG Lwr.S

ec

PNG Up.

Sec

Korea

Sci

Sch

Botsw

ana

Up.Sec

US

Do

llar

s

Lab

Equip

Total

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Selection and Assessment

Selection of students for science education should be valid and reliable. If it is not it will be neither efficient or equitable.

• Are assessment instruments valid and reliable? Do they have predictive validity? Do they assess teachers or students?

• Do assessment strategies reinforce valued outcomes?

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Selection and Assessment (cont.)

• Do they provide formative information to improve learning and teaching ?

• How can the quality of school based assessment be improved?

• How should practical work be assessed?

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Science Examinations Used for Selection to Secondary Schools

Cognitive Demand - 1997 Papers

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

Application Comprehension Knowledge

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

Qu

es

tio

ns Botswana

Kenya

Lesotho

Malawi

Swaziland

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Zimbabwe

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Presentation of Questions - 1997 Papers

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Diag+Illust Graphs Text Tables

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

Qu

es

tio

ns Botswana

Kenya

Lesotho

Malawi

Swaziland

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Zimbabwe

Science Examinations Used for Selection to Secondary Schools

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Science Teacher Education and Deployment

Science is taught by teachers with many different forms of training.

•What level of science education and type of training is appropriate to teach science to which level?

•What balance should there be in training between content upgrading and science teaching methods?

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Science Teacher Education and Deployment (cont.)

• How should new teachers be supported?

• How long is the average science teachers career?

• What does this imply for approaches to teacher education and professional development?

• Are trained science teachers deployed efficiently?

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Secondary Pupil Teacher Ratios - Africa

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Moroc

co

Kenya

Ugand

a

Botsw

ana

Swazila

nd

Tanza

nia

Ghana

Madag

asca

r

Namibi

a

Côte

d’Ivo

ire

Leso

tho

Seneg

alMali

Niger

South

Afri

ca

Zimba

bwe

Camer

oon

Ethiop

ia

Burkin

a Fas

o

Mozam

bique

Pu

pil

Te

ac

he

r R

ati

o

PTR Sec

30

Life Expectancy and HIV

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Lif

e E

xpe

ctan

cy

1990-95

1995-2000

2000-2005

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Some Conclusions

Science education policy:

Human resource demands arising from economic development strategies have to be balanced with felt needs which create effective demand for science education.

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Some Conclusions (cont.)

Supply, demand and participation:

Different patterns of supply, demand and participation invite different policy and different priorities for science education.

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Some Conclusions (cont.)

.Valued outcomes:

Outcomes should differ for future professionals, middle level S + T workers, the general population and marginalised groups.

This has implications for selection, specialization, curriculum, and cost structures.

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Some Conclusions (cont.) Key Issues for cost effective science

education

Design, development and distribution of learning and teaching materials

Practical work, laboratories and equipment

Selection and assessment

Teacher education and deployment

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1. How can the availability of learning materials be improved at sustainable levels of cost?

2. Is the present cost of laboratories justified by the contribution practical work makes to learning outcomes?

Some Questions (2)

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3. Is selection and assessment efficient and equitable? If not what needs to be done?

4. What methods of teacher education will meet future needs? How should they be different from past practice and why?

5. What are the costs per student of teaching science at different levels? What is the structure of these costs and how can they be reduced?

Some Questions (2) (cont.)

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Fin