March 15th, 2012http://www.vroma.org/images/bonvallet_images/bonvall71.jpg

Rome, Capitoline Museum. Credits: Susan Bonvallet, 2002

Cassius Dio = best source; epitome; eye-witness.

HA = Extant; at times close to Dio; seems to rely most heavily on Marius Maximus; highly biased; obsessed with salacious details.

Herodian, History of the Roman Empire (ca. 170-240)

Sources must be balanced against one another; many contradictions, inconsistencies etc.

B. at Lanuvium to M. Aurelius and Faustina on August 31st, 161; a twin.

165 – Twin brother dies.

166 - Named “Caesar” at 5 years of age.

178 - Named co-Augustus at 17 years; accompanied his father on all campaigns; under the watchful eye of the best tutors etc.

March 17, 180 – M. Aurelius dead; Commodus emperor.

Contradictions begin.

Cruel disposition from the beginning.

Only became cruel over time.

Not inherently bad, but learned to be; enabled by unscrupulous minions.

“After the death of Antoninus, Marcus tried to educate Commodus by his own teaching and by that of the greatest and the best of men. 6 In Greek literature he had Onesicrates as his teacher, in Latin, Antistius Capella; his instructor in rhetoric was Ateius Sanctus. 7 However, teachers in all these studies profited him not in the least — such is the power, either of natural character, or of the tutors maintained in a palace. For even from his earliest years he was base and dishonourable, and cruel and lewd, defiled of mouth, moreover, and debauched. 8 Even then he was an adept in certain arts which are not becoming in an emperor, for he could mould goblets and dance and sing and whistle, and he could play the buffoon and the gladiator to perfection. 9 In the twelfth year of his life, at Centumcellae, he gave a forecast of his cruelty. For when it happened that his bath was drawn too cool, he ordered the bathkeeper to be cast into the furnace; whereupon the slave who had been ordered to do this burned a sheep-skin in the furnace, in order to make him believe by the stench of the vapour that the punishment had been carried out.” (HA. 1.5-7. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“This man [Commodus] was not naturally wicked, but, on the contrary, as guileless as any man that ever lived. His great simplicity, however, together with his cowardice, made him the slave of his companions, and it was through them that he at first, out of ignorance, missed the better life and then was led on into lustful and cruel habits, which soon became second nature. 2 And this, I think, Marcus clearly perceived beforehand. Commodus was nineteen years old when his father died, leaving him many guardians, among whom were numbered the best men of the senate. But their suggestions and counsels Commodus rejected, and after making a truce with the barbarians he rushed to Rome; for he hated all exertion and craved the comfortable life of the city.” (Dio. 72.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

180 – Assumed the throne amidst general enthusiasm. Left the German front; accused of abandoning the war; left the

front in capable hands; successfully concluded. Dismissed his father’s advisers; fell prey to court sycophants. Replaced many of his father’s appointees with his own amici. 182 – Perennis made Praetorian Prefect; described by HA as an

enabler; described by Dio as a good man. Gave largess to the people and the army; paid for by a tax on

senatorial property. 183 – Conspiracy of Lucilla (sister) and Crispina (wife);

retributions follow. 185 – Revolt of British legions; Perennis blamed and executed;

replaced by Cleander. 189 – Grain shortage and famine; Cleander blamed and killed by

lynch mob; spate of killings follow; disease and crime rampant. 190 – Months renamed after Commodus’ imperial titles; Legions

renamed Commodianae; Roman people renamed Commodianus etc.

192 – Failed attempt on Commodus’ life (early Dec.); Dec. 31, 192 – Commodus assassinated; Pertinax emperor.

Difficult to assess objectively.Sources generally hostile (Dio and Herodian more

balanced than HA).Little legislative activity.Something of a Nero (i.e. addicted to public spectacle,

esp. gladiators).Despised by the senate.Murderous and cruel reign.Bloodthirsty gladiator.Cruelty.Are there contradictions in the HA’s depiction of

Commodus and his reign?

“Commodus displayed in Rome itself many indications of wealth and very many more, even, of a love of the beautiful. In fact, he occasionally performed an act of public service. Thus, when Manilius, who had been associated with Cassius, had been secretary of his Latin correspondence, and had possessed the greatest influence with him, was captured after taking to flight, the emperor would not listen to a word from him, though he offered to give a great deal of information, and he burned all the conspirator's papers without reading them.” (Dio. 72.7.4. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“Then, for a short time, the emperor did everything as the advisers appointed by his father suggested. They were with him every day, giving him wise counsel; they allowed him only as much leisure as they thought necessary for the sensible care of his body. But some of his court companions interfered and tried to corrupt the character of the naive emperor. All the sycophants at his table, men who gauge their pleasure by their bellies and something a little lower, kept reminding him of the gay life at Rome, describing the delightful spectacles and musical shows and cataloging the abundance of luxuries available there. They complained about wasting their time on the banks of the Danube, pointing out that the region was not productive in summer and that the fog and cold were unending…. Then, yielding to his companions, he no longer consulted his advisers about anything.” (Herodian, 1.6.1-8. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

“Finally the actions of Commodus drove Quadratus and Lucilla, with the support of Tarrutenius Paternus, the prefect of the guard, to form a plan for his assassination. 2 The task of slaying him was assigned to Claudius Pompeianus, a kinsman. 3 But he, as soon as he had an opportunity to fulfil his mission, strode up to Commodus with a drawn sword, and, bursting out with these words, "This dagger the senate sends thee," betrayed the plot like a fool, and failed to accomplish the design, in which many others along with himself were implicated. 4 After this fiasco, first Pompeianus and Quadratus were executed, and then Norbana and Norbanus and Paralius; and the latter's mother and Lucilla were driven into exile. 5 Thereupon the prefects of the guard, perceiving that the aversion in which Commodus was held was all on account of Saoterus, whose power the Roman people could not endure, courteously escorted this man away from the Palace under pretext of a sacrifice, and then, as he was returning to his villa, had him assassinated by their private agents. 6 But this deed enraged Commodus more than the plot against himself. 7 Paternus, the instigator of this murder, who was believed to have been an accomplice in the plot to assassinate Commodus and had certainly sought to prevent any far-reaching punishment of that conspiracy, was now, at the instigation of Tigidius, dismissed from the command of the praetorian guard by the expedient of conferring on him the honour of the broad stripe. 8 And a few days thereafter, Commodus accused him of plotting, saying that the daughter of Paternus had been betrothed to the son of Julianus with the understanding that Julianus would be raised to the throne. On this pretext he executed Paternus and Julianus, and also Vitruvius Secundus, a very dear friend of Paternus, who had charge of the imperial correspondence. 9 Besides this, he exterminated the whole house of the Quintilii, because Sextus, the son of Condianus, by pretending death, it was said, had made his escape in order to raise a revolt. 10 Vitrasia Faustina, Velius Rufus, and Egnatius Capito, a man of consular rank, were all slain. 11 Aemilius Iuncus and Atilius Severus, the consuls, were driven into exile. And against many others he vented his rage in various ways.” (HA. Commodus, 4. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“Many plots were formed by various people against Commodus, and he killed a great many, both men and women, some openly and some by means of poison, secretly, making away, in fact, with practically all those who had attained eminence during his father's reign and his own, 2 with the exception of Pompeianus, Pertinax and Victorinus; these men for some reason or other he did not kill. I state these and subsequent facts, not, as hitherto, on the authority of others' reports, but from my own observation…. But as he was entering the hunting-theatre, Claudius Pompeianus formed a plot against him: thrusting out a sword in the narrow entrance, he said: "See! This is what the senate has sent you." This man had been betrothed to the daughter out of Lucilla, but had intimate relations both with the girl herself and with her mother; 5 in this way he had become friendly with Commodus, so that he was his companion both at banquets and in youthful escapades. Lucilla, who was no more modest or chaste than her brother Commodus, detested her husband, Pompeianus. It was for this reason that she persuaded him to make the attack upon Commodus; and she not only caused his destruction but was herself detected and put out of the way. 6 Commodus also put Crispina to death, having become angry with her for some act of adultery. But before their execution both women were banished to the island of Capreae.” (Dio. 4. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

Consider the interrelationship of events.

180 – Commodus is emperor; dismisses fathers’ amici (probably disagreement over continuation of Marcomannic Wars); Senior senators deprived of posts.

Successors described as sycophantic enablers. 182 – Perennis becomes Praetorian Prefect; described by HA as a

negative influence; described by Dio as a positive force. Largess and public shows paid for by tax on senatorial property. 183 – Plots against Commodus’ life originating among senior

senators and close relations. Commodus, frightened, withdraws; works through magistrates

and freedmen; trials and executions.

“Trusted” officials (i.e. Cleander) abuse their office.

The army out of control.

“He was also fond, it is true, of bestowing gifts, and frequently gave largesses to the populace at the rate of one hundred and forty denarii per man; but most of his expenditures were for the objects I have mentioned. Hence he brought accusations against both men and women, slaying some and to others selling their lives for their property. 3 And finally he ordered us, our wives, and our children each to contribute two gold pieces every year on his birthday as a kind of first-fruits, and commanded the senators in all the other cities to give five denarii apiece. Of this, too, he saved nothing, but spent it all disgracefully on his wild beasts and his gladiators.” (Dio. 73. 16.2-3. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“After this Commodus never appeared in public readily, and would never receive messages unless they had previously passed through the hands of Perennis. 2 For Perennis, being well acquainted with Commodus' character, discovered the way to make himself powerful, 3 namely, by persuading Commodus to devote himself to pleasure while he, Perennis, assumed all the burdens of the government — an arrangement which Commodus joyfully accepted. 4 Under this agreement, then, Commodus lived, rioting in the Palace amid banquets and in baths along with 300 concubines, gathered together for their beauty and chosen from both matrons and harlots, and with minions, also 300 in number, whom he had collected by force and by purchase indiscriminately from the common people and the nobles solely on the basis of bodily beauty. 5 Meanwhile, dressed in the garb of an attendant at the sacrifice, he slaughtered the sacrificial victims. He fought in the arena with foils, but sometimes, with his chamberlains acting as gladiators, with sharpened swords. By this time Perennis had secured all the power for himself. 6 He slew whomsoever he wished to slay, plundered a great number, violated every law, and put all the booty into his own pocket. 7 Commodus, for his part, killed his sister Lucilla, after banishing her to Capri. 8 After debauching his other sisters, as it is said, he formed an amour with a cousin of his father, and even gave the name of his mother to one of his concubines. 9 His wife, whom he caught in adultery, he drove from his house, then banished her, and later put her to death. 10 By his orders his concubines were debauched before his own eyes, 11 and he was not free from the disgrace of intimacy with young men, defiling every part of his body in dealings with persons of either sex.” (HA. Commodus, 5.1-11. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

“Perennis, who commanded the Pretorians after Paternus, met his death as the result of a mutiny of the soldiers. For, inasmuch as Commodus had given himself up to chariot-racing and licentiousness and performed scarcely any of the duties pertaining to his office, Perennis was compelled to manage not only the military affairs, but everything else as well, and to stand at the head of the State. 21 The soldiers, accordingly, whenever any matter did not turn out to their satisfaction, laid the blame upon Perennis and were angry with him. 2a The soldiers in Britain chose Priscus, a lieutenant, emperor; but he declined, saying: I am no more an emperor than you are soldiers" The lieutenants in Britain, accordingly, having been rebuked for their insubordination,— they did not become quiet, in fact, until Pertinax quelled them,— now chose out of their number fifteen hundred javelin men and sent them into Italy. 3 These men had already drawn near to Rome without encountering any resistance, when Commodus met them and asked: "What is the meaning of this, soldiers? What is your purpose in coming?" And when they answered, "We are here because Perennis is plotting against you and plans to make his son emperor," Commodus believed them, especially as Cleander insisted; for this man had often been prevented by Perennis from doing all that he desired, and consequently he hated him bitterly. 4 He accordingly delivered up the prefect to very soldiers whose commander he was, and had not the courage to scorn fifteen hundred men, though he had many times that number of Pretorians.10 So Perennis was maltreated and struck down by those men, and his wife, his sister, and two sons were also killed. Thus Perennis was slain, though he deserved a far different fate, both on his own account and in the interest of the entire Roman empire,— except in so far as his ambition for office had made him chiefly responsible for the ruin of his colleague Paternus. For privately he never strove in the least for either fame or wealth, but lived a most incorruptible and temperate life; and as for Commodus and his imperial office, he guarded them in complete security.” (Dio. 73.9. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“After Perennis and his son were executed, Commodus rescinded a number of measures on the ground that they had been carried out without his authority, pretending that he was merely re-establishing previous conditions. 5 However, he could not maintain this penitence for his misdeeds longer than thirty days, and he actually committed more atrocious crimes through Cleander than he had done through the aforesaid Perennis. 6 Although Perennis was succeeded in general influence by Cleander, his successor in the prefecture was Niger, who held this position as prefect of the guard, it is said, for just six hours. 7 In fact, prefects of the guard were changed hourly and daily, Commodus meanwhile committing all kinds of evil deeds, worse even than he had committed before. 8 Marcius Quartus was prefect of the guard for five days. Thereafter, the successors of these men were either retained in office or executed, according to the whim of Cleander. 9 At his nod even freedmen were enrolled in the senate and among the patricians, and now for the first time there were twenty-five consuls in a single year. Appointments to the provinces were uniformly sold; 10 in fact, Cleander sold everything for money. He loaded with honours men who were recalled from exile; he rescinded decisions of the courts. 11 Indeed, because of Commodus' utter degeneracy, his power was so great that he brought Burrus, the husband of Commodus' sister, who was denouncing and reporting to Commodus all that was being done, under the suspicion of pretending to the throne, and had him put to death; and at the same time he slew many others who defended Burrus. 12 Among these Aebutianus was slain, the prefect of the guard; in his place Cleander himself was made prefect, together with two others whom he himself chose. 13 Then for the first time were there three prefects of the guard, among whom was a freedman, called the "Bearer of the Dagger". (HA. Commodus, 6.4-13. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

Addicted to gladiatorial displays and wild beast hunts; participated personally in both (Agreement between HA and Dio).

Sexual debauchery (Ubiquitous and extreme in the HA – present but far less pronounced in Dio).

Consensus on Commodus’ sadistic behavior (though perhaps embellished in the HA).

Senatorial fear of Commodus’ cruelty was real.

“Besides these facts, it is related in records that he fought 365 gladiatorial combats in his father's reign. 11 Afterwards, by vanquishing or slaying retiarii, he won enough gladiatorial crowns to bring the number up to a thousand. 12 He also killed with his own hand thousands of wild beasts of all kinds, even elephants. And he frequently did these things before the eyes of the Roman people.” (HA. Commodus, 12.10-12. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

“Marcus, indeed, was so averse to bloodshed that he even used to watch the gladiators in Rome contend, like athletes, without risking their lives; for he never gave any of them a sharp weapon, but they all fought with blunted weapons like foils furnished with buttons. And so far was he from countenancing any bloodshed that although he did, at the request of the populace, order a certain lion to be brought in that had been trained to eat men, yet he would not look at the beast nor emancipate his trainer, in spite of the persistent demands of the spectators; instead, he commanded proclamation to be made that the man had done nothing to deserve his freedom.” (Dio. 72.29. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

In public he nowhere drove chariots except sometimes on a moonless night, for, though he was eager to play the charioteer in public, too, he was ashamed to be seen doing so; but in private he was constantly doing it, adopting the Green uniform. 2 As for wild beasts, however, he slew many both in private and in public. Moreover, he used to contend as a gladiator; in doing this at home he managed to kill a man now and then, and in making close passes with others, as if trying to clip off a bit of their hair, he sliced off the noses of some, the ears of others, and sundry features of still others; but in public he refrained from using steel and shedding human blood.” (Dio. 73.17.1-2. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“That spectacle, of the general character I have described, lasted fourteen days. When the emperor was fighting, we senators together with the knights always attended. Only Claudius Pompeianus the elder never appeared, but sent his sons, while remaining away himself; for he preferred even to be killed for this rather than to behold the emperor, the son of Marcus, conducting himself in such a fashion. 2 For among other things that we did, we would shout out whatever we were commanded, and especially these words continually: "Thou art lord and thou art first, of all men most fortunate. Victor thou art, and victor thou shalt be; from everlasting, Amazonian, thou art victor." But of the populace in general, many did not enter the amphitheatre at all, and others departed after merely glancing inside, partly from shame at what was going on, partly also from fear, inasmuch as a report spread abroad that he would want to shoot a few of the spectators in imitation of Hercules and the Stymphalian birds. 3 And this story was believed, too, because he had once got together all the men in the city who had lost their feet as the result of disease or some accident, and then, after fastening about their knees some likenesses of serpents' bodies, and giving them sponges to throw instead of stones, had killed them with blows of a club, pretending that they were giants. 21 This fear was shared by all, by us senators as well as by the rest. And here is another thing that he did to us senators which gave us every reason to look for our death. Having killed an ostrich and cut off his head, he came up to where we were sitting, holding the head in his left hand and in his right hand raising aloft his bloody sword; 2 and though he spoke not a word, yet he wagged his head with a grin, indicating that he would treat us in the same way. And many would indeed have perished by the sword on the spot, for laughing at him (for it was laughter rather than indignation that overcame us), if I had not chewed some laurel leaves, which I got from my garland, myself, and persuaded the others who were sitting near me to do the same, so that in the steady movement of our armies we might conceal the fact that we were laughing.” .” (Dio. 20-21.2. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

Initiated by praetorian prefects and his household staff.

Afraid of Commodus’ erratic behavior.

Failed attempt at poisoning; wrestler Narcissus sent to strangle Commodus.

Public reaction.

“He executed his chamberlains with no compunctions whatever, even though all that he had done had been at their bidding. 2 One of these chamberlains, however, Eclectus by name, forestalled him when he saw how ready Commodus was to put the chamberlains to death, and took part in a conspiracy to kill him…. Because of these things — but all too late — Quintus Aemilius Laetus, prefect of the guard, and Marcia, his concubine, were roused to action and entered into a conspiracy against his life. 2 First they gave him poison; and when this proved ineffective they had him strangled by the athlete with whom he was accustomed to exercise.” (HA. Commodus, 15.1-2, 17.1-2. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

“For these reasons Laetus and Eclectus attacked him, after making Marcia their confidant. At any rate, on the last day of the year, at night, when people were busy with the holiday, they caused Marcia to administer poison to him in some beef. 5 But the immoderate use of wine and baths, which was habitual with him, kept him from succumbing at once, and instead he vomited up some of it; and thus suspecting the truth, he indulged in some threats. Then they sent Narcissus, an athlete, against him, and caused this man to strangle him while he was taking a bath. 6 Such was the end of Commodus, after he had ruled twelve years, nine months, and fourteen days. He had lived thirty-one years and four months; and with him the line of the genuine Aurelii ceased to rule.” (Dio. 73.22.4-6. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“The people and senate demanded that his body be dragged with the hook and cast into the Tiber; later, however, at the bidding of Pertinax, it was borne to the Mausoleum of Hadrian.” (HA. Commodus, 17.4. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

“In this way Pertinax was declared emperor and Commodus a public enemy, after both the senate and the populace had joined in shouting many bitter words against the latter. They wanted to drag off his body and tear it from limb to limb, as they did do, in fact, with his statues; but when Pertinax informed them that the corpse had already been interred, they spared his remains, but glutted their rage against him in other ways, calling him all sorts of names. ºFor no one called him Commodus or emperor; instead they referred to him as an accursed wretch and a tyrant, adding in jest such terms as "the gladiator," "the charioteer," "the left-handed," "the ruptured." To those senators on whom the fear of Commodus had rested most heavily, the crowd called out: "Huzza! Huzza! You are saved; you have won." Indeed, all the shouts that they had been accustomed to utter with a kind of rhythmic swing in the amphitheatre, by way of paying court to Commodus, they now chanted with certain changes that made them utterly ridiculous. For now that they had got rid of one ruler and as yet had nothing to fear from his successor, they were making the most of their freedom in the interval, and were gaining a reputation for boldness of speech in the security of the moment. For they were not satisfied merely to be relieved of further terror, but in their confidence they also wished to indulge in wanton insolence.” (Dio. 74. 2. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

Born, Publius Helvius Pertinax; Not descended from nobility. Enjoyed an honorable career owing to patron, Lollianus Avitus. Career advanced under Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Cavalry commander in Syria, Parthia, Britain, and Moesia. Commander of the German fleet. Enrolled in the senate through the influence of Claudius Pompeianus (son-

in-law to M. Aurelius). Given praetorian rank by M. Aurelius and command of First Legion. Military victories in Noricum and Raetia. 175 - Command against Avidius Cassius.. 175-180 - Governor of Moesia, Dacia, and Syria. 180-185 – Retired to private business – why? 185 – Sent to Britain to quell mutiny. Supervisor of alimenta. Proconsul of Africa. Urban Prefect. 192 – Consul (for the second time – with Commodus). Dec 31, 192 – Commodus dead; Pertinax emperor

Very brief (Jan. 1, 193 – Mar. 28, 193).

Said to be democratically minded and virtuous; restored state finances without illegal confiscations.

Soldiers unhappy with Pertinax’ rule – Why?

Some senators unhappy b/c he restored due process to the senate.

Courtiers and imperial household also dissatisfied.

Killed by a band of rebellious soldiers – How?

“It was in this manner that Pertinax came into power. And he obtained all the customary titles pertaining to that office, and also a new one to indicate his wish to be democratic; for he was styled Chief of the Senate in accordance with the ancient practice. He at once reduced to order everything that had previously been irregular and confused; for he showed not only humaneness and integrity in the imperial administrations, but also the most economical management and the most careful consideration for the public welfare. Besides doing everything else that a good emperor should do, he removed the stigma attaching to those who had been unjustly put to death, and he furthermore took oath that he would never sanction such a penalty. And immediately some bewailed their relatives and others their friends with mingled tears and joy, even these exhibitions of emotion not having been permitted formerly.” (Dio. 74. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“And since Commodus had obscured the significance of the praetorian rank by countless appointments thereto, Pertinax, after securing the passage of a decree of the senate, issued an order that those who had secured the rank of praetor not by actual service, but by appointment, should be ranked below those who had been praetors in reality. 11 But by this act also he brought on himself the bitter enmity of many men.” (HA. Pertinax, 6.10-11. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).

Why?

“Since, now, neither the soldiers were allowed to plunder any longer nor the imperial freedmen to indulge in lewdness, they both hated him bitterly. The freedmen, for their part, attempted no revolt, being unarmed; but the Pretorian troops and Laetus formed a plot against him. At first they selected Falco, the consul, for emperor, because he was distinguished for both his family and wealth, and they were planning to bring him to the camp while Pertinax was at the coast investigating the corn supply. But the emperor, learning of the plan, returned in haste to the city, and coming before the senate, said: "You should not be left in ignorance of the fact, Fathers, that although I found on hand only a million sesterces, yet I have distributed as much to the soldiers as did Marcus and Lucius, to whom were left twenty-seven hundred millions. It is these wonderful freedmen who are to blame for this shortage of funds." Now Pertinax was not telling the truth when he claimed to have bestowed upon the soldiers as much as Lucius and Marcus, inasmuch as they had given them about twenty thousand, and he only about twelve thousand, sesterces apiece; and the soldiers and the freedmen who were present in the senate in very large numbers became highly indignant and muttered ominously. But as we were about to condemn Falco and were already declaring him a public enemy, Pertinax rose and exclaimed: "Heaven forbid that any senator should be put to death while I am ruler, even for just cause." Thus was Falco's life spared, and thenceforth he lived in the country, preserving a cautious and respectful demeanour.” (Dio. 74.8. Trans. E. Cary, 1921).

“However, a conspiracy was organized against Pertinax by Laetus, the prefect of the guard, and sundry others who were displeased by his integrity…. And so three hundred soldiers, formed into a wedge, marched under arms from the camp to the imperial residence…. In fact, the palace-attendants hated Pertinax with so bitter a hatred that they even urged on the soldiers to do the deed. (HA. Pertinax, 10.8, 11.1, 12.5).

Pertinax murdered in a palace coup on Mar. 28. 193.

Descended from aristocratic/consular lineage.

Cf. HA. D. Julianus, 1-2.3 for career down to Mar. 28, 193.

Condemned for conspiracy under Commodus but released.

Purchased the empire; riots.

Pescennius Niger (Gov. of Syria), Clodius Albinus (Britain), and Septimius Severus (Panonnia) hailed emperor by their troops.

Severus secures alliance with Albinus; Niger remains quiet.

Severus marches on Rome; Julianus abandoned by troops; Julianus declared public enemy by senate; executed on June 1, 193; Septimius Severus emperor.

“When the fate of Pertinax was noised about, some ran to their homes and others to those of the soldiers, all taking thought for their own safety. But Sulpicianus, who had been sent by Pertinax to the camp to set matters in order there, remained p143on the spot, and intrigued to get himself appointed emperor. 2 Meanwhile Didius Julianus, at once an insatiate money-getter and a wanton spendthrift, who was always eager for revolution and hence had been exiled by Commodus to his native city of Mediolanum, now, when he heard of the death of Pertinax, hastily made his way to the camp, and, standing at the gates of the enclosure, made bids to the soldiers for the rule over the Romans. Then ensued a most disgraceful business and one unworthy of Rome. 3 For, just as if it had been in some market or auction-room, both the City and its entire empire were auctioned off. The sellers were the ones who had slain their emperor, and the would-be buyers were Sulpicianus and Julianus, who vied to outbid each other, one from the inside, the other from the outside. 4 They gradually raised their bids up to twenty thousand sesterces per soldier. Some of the soldiers would carry word to Julianus, "Sulpicianus offers so much; how much more do you make it?" And to Sulpicianus in turn, "Julianus promises so much; how much do you raise him?" 5 Sulpicianus would have won the day, being inside and being prefect of the city and also the first to name the figure twenty thousand, had not Julianus raised his bid no longer by a small amount but by five thousand at one time, both shouting it in a loud voice and also indicating p145the amount with his fingers. So the soldiers, captivated by this excessive bid and at the same time fearing that Sulpicianus might avenge Pertinax (an idea that Julianus put into their heads), received Julianus inside and declared him emperor.” (Dio. 74.11. E. Cary, 1921).

“The people, meanwhile, detested Julianus because it had been their belief that the abuses of Commodus' regime were to be reformed by the influence of Pertinax, and he was considered to have been killed with Julianus' connivance. 8 And now, those who had begun to hate Julianus were the first to spread it abroad that on the very first day of his reign, to show his contempt for Pertinax' board, he had served an extravagant banquet embellished with such dainties as oysters and fatted birds and fish. This story, it is generally agreed, was false. 9 For according to report, Julianus was so frugal as to make a suckling pig or hare last for three days, if anyone by chance presented him with one; and often, moreover, even when there was no religious reason therefor, he was content to dine on cabbages and beans without meat. 10 Furthermore, he gave no banquet until after Pertinax was buried, and, because of his death, took what food he did in a very depressed state of mind, and passed the first night in continual wakefulness, disquieted by such a fate.” (HA. Didius Julianus. 3.7-10. Trans. D. Magie, 1927).