marine protected areas and fisheries
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
1/219
FISHERIES MANAGEMENTFISHERIES MANAGEMENT
4. Marine protected areas and sheries4. Marine protected areas and sheries
FAO
TECHNICALGUIDELINES FOR
RESPONSIBLEFISHERIES
4
ISSN 1020-5292
Suppl. 4
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
2/219
Cover illustration: Emanuela DAntoni
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
3/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
4/219
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,
whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have
been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar
nature that are not mentioned.
ISBN 978-92-5-106790-1
All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination of
material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized
free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial
purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for
permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all
queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch,
Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.
FAO 2011
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
5/219
iii
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
T
Marine Protected Areas and Fisheries Management:
Review of Issues and Considerations1
The Guidelines on
Fisheries management
1
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
6/219
iv
FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries
ABSTRACT
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
7/219
v
CONTENTS
Introduction 1 1
Part 1 What are MPAs and what do they do? 7
9
2. Fisheries management and the ecosystem approach 3
s
s
3. Biological and ecological effects of MPAs
9
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
8/219
vi
1
s
s
4. Social and economic impact: the human dimensionsof MPAs 51 s 1
s
s
s
s
s
s
PART 2 Planning and implementing MPAs 63
5. Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs 65
s
6. The MPA planning process 85 s
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
9/219
vii
s
7. MPA implementation 107
s
1
s
s
1
s
8. Information for MPAs 129
s
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
10/219
viii
s
1
s
s
9. Lessons learned and future directions 149 1
s 1
MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas 157
What amount of marine protected area is 65
and MPAs 169
1
73
Glossary 179
References 187
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
11/219
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CAR
CBD
CCRF
COFI
CORALI
CPUE EA
EAF
EEZ
ESD
GFCM
GIS
GPS
ICM, ICZM, ICAM ICRAN
IMO
IPOA
ISA
IUCN
LMMA
MARPOL
MCS
MPA
MSY
NAFO
NEAFC
NGO
NOAA
PES PPP
PSSA
RFB
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
12/219
RFMO/A
RRA/PRA
SEAFDEC
SEAFO
SLED
SPR
TAC
TURFs
UNCED
UNCLOS
UNEP
UNESCO
UNFSA
VME
VMS
WCPA
WWF
WSSD
WSSD-POI
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
13/219
PREFACE
T
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
14/219
Kevern Cochrane
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
15/219
BACKGROUND
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
16/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
17/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
18/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
19/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
20/219
Fisheries Management
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
21/219
1
INTRODUCTION
T
GUIDELINES ON MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN THE CONTEXT
OF FISHERIES
the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach,
information, including representative networks by 2012 and time/area closures
for the protection of nursery grounds and periods, proper coastal land use
and watershed planning and the integration of marine and coastal area
management into key sectors.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
22/219
2
PURPOSE AND TARGET AUDIENCE
is
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
23/219
3Introduction
STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES
Part 1
Part 2
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
24/219
4
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
25/219
5Introduction
Box 1
Recmmended reading
The Guidelines provide information on MPAs in a sheries context and discuss
how the targets of sheries management and biodiversity conservation can be
bridged. Other guidelines and documents provide information and background
on related issues, including sheries management and MPAs for biodiversity
conservation.
FAo dcuments
The FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries series, supportingimplementation of the CCRF, includes the following volumes with relevance to
the context of MPAs and the present Guidelines:
Fisheries management (FAO, 1997).
The ecosystem approach to sheries (FAO, 2003a).
The human dimensions of the ecosystem approach to sheries (FAO,
2009a).
In addition, there are several supporting FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Technical Papers:
A shery managers guidebook: management measures and their
application (FAO, 2002).
A shery managers guidebook, 2nd ed. (Cochrane and Garcia, 2009).
The ecosystem approach to sheries: issues, terminology, principles,
institutional foundations, implementation and outlook (FAO, 2003b).
Human dimensions of the ecosystem approach to sheries: an overview of
context, tools and methods (FAO, 2008b).
As part of the preparation of the present Guidelines, an expert workshop was
held and the proceedings published as:
Report and documentation of the Expert Workshop on Marine Protected
Areas and Fisheries Management: review of issues and considerations
(FAO, 2007a).
Dcuments by ther rganizatins
A number of excellent documents and guidelines on MPAs are available from
international or regional organizations and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs):
Establishing resilient marine protected area networks: making it happen(IUCN-WCPA, 2008).
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
26/219
6
(Box 1 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
27/219
PART 1
What are MPAs
and what do they do?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
28/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
29/219
9
1. MPA DEFINITION AND CONTEXT
T
While the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries does not refer explicitly
to MPAs, their use is implied in the recommendation for management measures
including closed areas, seasons and reserved zones to minimize waste,
species, in particular endangered species. The FAO technical guidelines for
1.1 WHAT IS AN MPA?
any marine geographical area that is
afforded greater protection than the surrounding waters for biodiversity
MPA
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
30/219
10
IUCN categories of protected areas
Category Description
Sources:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
31/219
11
BOX 2
Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its
features, which has been reserved by law or other effective
means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment (Kelleher,
1999).1
and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve
the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem
services and cultural values (Dudley, 2008).
within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its
cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other
effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine
or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its
surroundings
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
32/219
12
BOX 3
In Brazil
In the Philippines
In Senegal
In the United States of America
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
33/219
13
1.2 WHAT ARE THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING MPAs?
Sources:
(Box 3 cont.)
FIGURE 1
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
34/219
14
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
35/219
15
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
36/219
16
1.3 WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
37/219
17
1.4 WHAT IS AN MPA NETWORK?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
38/219
18
comprehensiveness adequacy
representativeness
1.5 WHY DO WE NEED MPA NETWORKS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
39/219
19
FIGURE 2
Protecting different life stages through network connectivity
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
40/219
20
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
41/219
21
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 1
With a view to facilitating understanding of the purpose of MPAs and MPA
networks and their effects, the meaning and characteristics of this conservation
spite of its popularity and frequent use in international fora, there is no universal
according to local needs and circumstances.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
42/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
43/219
23
2. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND THE
I
management shall promote maintenance of the quality, diversity and
wider ecosystem considerations into account.
2.1 WHAT IS FISHERIES MANAGEMENT?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
44/219
24
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
45/219
25
11
2.2 WHAT IS THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES?
11
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
46/219
26
2.3 WHAT ABOUT THE PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
47/219
27
FIGURE 3
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
48/219
28
2.4 HOW ARE MPAs AND OTHER SPATIAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS USED
IN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
49/219
29
2.5 IN WHAT SITUATIONS ARE MPAs USEFUL AS A FISHERIES
MANAGEMENT TOOL?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
50/219
30
BOX 4
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
51/219
31
BOX 5
in Chile
Government authorities monitor that the provisions of the management plan
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
52/219
32
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
53/219
33
Minimizing bycatch
Protecting habitat and biodiversity
Buffering against uncertainty
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
54/219
34
Delegating management responsibilities or tasks
Protecting traditional and cultural use rights and practices
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
55/219
35
Protecting and enhancing local livelihoods
2.6 HOW CAN MPAs BE USED TO BRIDGE FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
56/219
36
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
57/219
37
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 2
MPAs and MPA networks can constitute an important management tool, especially
objectives. However, there are many management options in addition to MPAs
that may produce better effects. The management context needs to be understood
and combinations of appropriate measures implemented accordingly.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
58/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
59/219
39
3. BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF MPAs IN A FISHERIES CONTEXT
T
management measures should be adopted for the long-term sustainability of
the productive capacity of the resources, and measures should be taken to
aquatic ecosystems and protect habitats from negative outcomes.
3.1 WHAT ARE THE KEY FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE EFFECTS
OF AN MPA OR MPA NETWORK?
The location
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
60/219
40
The sizenumbertotal area
The nature of protection
the movement ofanimals
activities outside the MPA
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
61/219
41
3.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO FISH AND THEIR ECOSYSTEMS WITHIN MPAs?
BOX 6
Effects on biomass
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
62/219
42
Preserving genetic diversity
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
63/219
43
Effects on habitats and biodiversity
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
64/219
44
BOX 7
Georges Bank
trawling on the Great Barrier Reef
Sources:Collie et al.et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
65/219
45
FIGURE 4
Average increases in densities, biomass, organism size and species
diversity inside reserves
3.3 HOW DO MPAs AFFECT FISHERY PRODUCTION OUTSIDE THEIR
BOUNDARIES AND CAN THEY CONTROL FISH MORTALITY?
Source:et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
66/219
46
Palinurus elephas)
et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
67/219
47
BOX 8
Apo Island Marine Reserve in the
west coast of Hawaii
Sources:et al.et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
68/219
48
3.4 WHAT HAPPENS IN MPA NETWORKS WITH REGARD TO
SUSTAINING FISH POPULATIONS AND SUPPORTING FISHING YIELDS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
69/219
49
3.5 HOW DO MPAs WORK AS A HEDGE AGAINST UNCERTAINTY?
et al.
et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
70/219
50
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 3
MPAs and MPA networks have biological and ecological effects both within and
conventional measures.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
71/219
51
4. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT: THE HUMAN
DIMENSIONS OF MPAs
T
management and biodiversity conservation decisions should take relevant
economic and social factors into consideration and recognize the important
food security.
MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
72/219
52
ESTABLISHING MPAs
COMMUNITIES?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
73/219
53Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
74/219
54
DESIGNATING MPAs IN A POVERTY CONTEXT?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
75/219
55Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs
4.4 HOW ARE MPAs PERCEIVED BY FISHERS AND OTHER
STAKEHOLDERS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
76/219
56
BOX 9
Impacts of MPAs on livelihoods the Hangberg case study, South Africa
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
77/219
57Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs
4.5 HOW ARE MPAs LIKELY TO AFFECT FISHERS! BEHAVIOUR,
FISHING EFFORT AND FISHING CAPACITY?
Source:Sowman et al.
(Box 9 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
78/219
58
BOX 10
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
79/219
59Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs
BOX 11
Modeling effort displacement from marine protected areas
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
80/219
60
4.6 WHAT ARE THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES OF MPA
NETWORKS OVER SINGLE MPAs?
4.7 WHY ARE THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF MPAs SO IMPORTANT?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
81/219
61Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
82/219
62
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 4
MPAs and MPA networks have social and economic impacts affecting different
stakeholder groups in different ways. Successful MPA planning and implementation
react to the MPA designation and its management rules and regulations. To be
successful, it is crucial to take both the environmental and human dimensions into
account when planning and implementing MPAs and MPA networks.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
83/219
PART 2
Planning and implementing MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
84/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
85/219
65
5. LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY
FRAMEWORKS FOR MPAs
T
The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries prescribes that states should
ensure that appropriate policy, legal and institutional frameworks are in place
5.1 WHY ARE APPROPRIATE LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY
FRAMEWORKS IMPORTANT FOR MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
86/219
66
5.2 WHAT ARE THE MAIN INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS
RELEVANT TO MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
87/219
67Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
88/219
68
BOX 12
International instruments relevant to biodiversity conservation,
Hard law:
Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United
Soft law:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
89/219
69Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
(Box 12 cont.)
5.3 WHAT CAN BE DONE TO ADDRESS PROBLEMS IN NATIONAL
LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
90/219
70
BOX 13
In Senegal
In the Philippines
Sources:et al.,
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
91/219
71Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
92/219
72
BOX 14
The establishment of national coordinating mechanisms for MPAs:
In Belize
In
tangata
whenua
tangata whenua
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
93/219
73Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
Source:
(Box 14 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
94/219
74
BOX 15
Indicators of good legislation and legislative processes for MPAsa
Source:a
5.4 WHAT ARE THE KEY POLICY FRAMEWORK CONSIDERATIONS
AND HOW DO MPAS RELATE TO BROADER SPATIAL MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
95/219
75Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
BOX 16
What are marine spatial management frameworks?
Sources:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
96/219
76
5.5 WHAT ARE THE INSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS AT THE LEVEL
OF INDIVIDUAL MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
97/219
77Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
BOX 17
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
98/219
78
5.6 WHAT ABOUT MPAs IN TRANSBOUNDARY AND INTERNATIONAL
WATERS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
99/219
79Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
BOX 18
Benguela Current Commission
Sources:et al.
5.7 WHAT IS THE INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL SITUATION FOR MPAs IN
INTERNATIONAL WATERS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
100/219
80
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
101/219
81Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
102/219
82
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 5
Planning and implementation of MPAs and MPA networks must be supported
by appropriate legal, institutional and policy structures, including cross-sectoral
coordination mechanisms and provisions for stakeholder participation. Most
conservation or sustainable use of natural resources. However, these existing
of MPAs with multiple objectives and should be revisited as required. Policy
coherence and the use of marine spatial management frameworks are important
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
103/219
83Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
104/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
105/219
85
6. THE MPA PLANNING PROCESS
T
and ecosystem objectives should be translated into management actions and
Decision-making processes should be transparent and should include
stakeholder participation.
6.1 WHAT ARE THE MAIN ENTRY POINTS FOR MPAs INTO FISHERIES
AND EAF MANAGEMENT?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
106/219
86
6.2 HOW DO MPAs RELATE TO OVERARCHING NATIONAL OR
SECTORAL POLICY GOALS AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
107/219
87The MPA planning process
6.3 WHAT IS THE PROCESS FOR PLANNING AN MPA?
6.4 WHEN AND HOW SHOULD STAKEHOLDERS BE INVOLVED IN MPA
PLANNING?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
108/219
88
FIGURE 5
Common steps of an MPA planning process
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
109/219
89The MPA planning process
BOX 19
MPA planning and implementation in the Philippines
bantay
dagat
Sources:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
110/219
90
FIGURE 6
Sources:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
111/219
91The MPA planning process
BOX 20
the Phu Quoc case study
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
112/219
92
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
113/219
93The MPA planning process
6.5 HOW ARE THE ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED BY MPAs IDENTIFIED
6.6 WHAT IS A VISION AND WHAT ARE USEFUL MPA GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
114/219
94
BOX 21
Tools for analysis and prioritization
hierarchal or problem tree
analysis
assessments
impact reviews
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
115/219
95The MPA planning process
BOX 22
MPAs should contribute to some of the following goals.
Biological/ecological goals:
Social and economic goals:
Governance goals:
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
116/219
96
BOX 23
Goals and objectives of the Prince Edward Islands MPAin South Africa
(Dissostichus eleginoides)
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
117/219
97The MPA planning process
6.7 HOW ARE THE OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR AN MPA SET?
S
M
A
R
T
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
118/219
98
6.8 WHAT ARE THE KEY MPA DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS?
How is the site for an MPA selected?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
119/219
99The MPA planning process
BOX 24
Outline of zoning provisions in the Great Barrier Reef
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
120/219
100
How much is enough area for MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
121/219
101The MPA planning process
What needs to be protected and what are the main threats?
whatlife stage or stages should be protected?
What percentage of the total potential production or biomass at eachlife stage needs to be protected?
What other management measures are already in place to protect thislife stage?
how much additional PPP isrequired, above that offered by existing management measures, to
achieve the percentage of protection required for this life stage?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
122/219
102
how much of the total area
of occurrence of the species or community needs to be protected by
an MPA or network of MPAs?
Is the life stage (or community) distributed evenly across the area?
MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
123/219
103The MPA planning process
What are the main governance systems available for MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
124/219
104
de jure
6.9 WHAT IS AN MPA MANAGEMENT PLAN?
FIGURE 7
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
125/219
105The MPA planning process
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
126/219
106
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 6
Planning of MPAs and MPA networks should be done through integrated and
participatory decision-making processes, based on good governance principles.
framework of the overall policy framework and overarching goals.
Development of a vision and overall goals and objectives:
Design of MPA:
Preparation of management plan:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
127/219
107
7. MPA IMPLEMENTATION
T
The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries urges states to ensure that
conservation and management. Decision-making processes should be
transparent and resource users involved in implementation processes.
7.1 WHAT ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS ARE NEEDED FOR MPA
IMPLEMENTATION?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
128/219
108
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
129/219
109MPA implementation
7.2 WHAT ARE THE KEY CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DRAFTING RULES
AND REGULATIONS FOR MPAs?
7.3 WHAT ABOUT COMPLIANCE WITH AND ENFORCEMENT OF MPA
MANAGEMENT RULES AND REGULATIONS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
130/219
110
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
131/219
111MPA implementation
CONTEXT OF MPA IMPLEMENTATION?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
132/219
112
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
133/219
113MPA implementation
BOX 25
Alternative livelihoods in Samoa
Source:
7.5 WHY ARE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT IN
MPA IMPLEMENTATION?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
134/219
114
BOX 26
Discovery phase (understanding the complexity of livelihoods and their
relationship with natural resources, the wider economy and society, and
developing a vision)
Direction phase (understanding and analysing the opportunities for achieving
the visions developed during the discovery phase)
Doing (developing people!s capabilities and adaptive capacity, together with
networks to support the plans for sustainable livelihood development)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
135/219
115MPA implementation
Sources:
(Box 26 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
136/219
116
7.6 WHAT RESOLUTION MECHANISMS ARE AVAILABLE IN THE CASE
OF CONFLICT IN IMPLEMENTING MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
137/219
117MPA implementation
7.7 HOW ARE MPAs MONITORED AND WHAT IS MANAGEMENT
EFFECTIVENESS?
et al.et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
138/219
118
BOX 27
Saint Lucia, the Caribbean
Source:
biological and ecological effects
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
139/219
119MPA implementation
socio-economic and distributional
effects
et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
140/219
120
BOX 28
et al
Relativechangeineffort
Relativeeffort
a) Density outside MPA/density inside MPA
b) Density ratio
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.20.20
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Figure 1.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
141/219
121MPA implementation
Sourceet al.
7.8 WHAT IS ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF MPA
IMPLEMENTATION?
(Box 28 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
142/219
122
Adaptive management
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
143/219
123MPA implementation
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
144/219
124
SUSTAINABLE RESOURCING FOR MPAs BE ADDRESSED?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
145/219
125MPA implementation
BOX 29
Payment for environmental services
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
146/219
126
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 7
Successful MPA and MPA network management requires comprehensive
and the chosen governance approach and management system.
The MPA management plan should include details of these structures and
management. Provisions are needed for staff and general administration, and the
following implementation and administrative functions should be covered:
Rules and regulations:
Compliance and enforcement:
Other implementation mechanisms:
Communication:
Management effectiveness and monitoring systems:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
147/219
127MPA implementation
Political commitment and sustainable resourcing:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
148/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
149/219
129
8. INFORMATION FOR MPAs
I
The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries states that conservation and
evidence available, also taking into account traditional knowledge of the
resources and their habitat, as well as relevant environmental, social and
economic factors. The absence of adequate information should not be a reason
8.1 WHAT IS THE BASIC INFORMATION NEEDED FOR MPA PLANNING
AND IMPLEMENTATION AND HOW IT IS IT GENERALLY COLLECTED?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
150/219
130
Biological and ecological assessment:
Social assessment:
Financial and economic assessment:
Institutional and governance assessment:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
151/219
131Information for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
152/219
132
BOX 30
Traditional ecological knowledge, local knowledgeand indigenous knowledge
Sources:
8.2 WHAT BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION AND DATA
COLLECTION ARE NEEDED FOR MPA?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
153/219
133Information for MPAs
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
154/219
134
8.3 WHAT SOCIAL INFORMATION ON COASTAL COMMUNITIES
IS REQUIRED FOR MPAs?
et al.,
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
155/219
135Information for MPAs
8.4 WHAT ARE THE KEY MPA FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC
INFORMATION NEEDS?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
156/219
136
BOX 31
Participatory information collection methodsand human dimension tools
Asset mapping
Social mapping
to draw maps illustrating their human relationships and their
Institutional analysisis the investigation of how formal and informal rules
Social impact assessment (SIA)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
157/219
137Information for MPAs
Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) involves the
(Box 31 cont.)
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
158/219
138
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
159/219
139Information for MPAs
8.5 WHAT INFORMATION IS NEEDED TO UNDERTAKE AN
INSTITUTIONAL ASSESSMENT FOR MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
160/219
140
8.6 WHAT KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION ARE NEEDED TO DESIGN
AN MPA NETWORK?
per se,
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
161/219
141Information for MPAs
8.7 HOW CAN TOOLS SUCH AS GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEMS, SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT AND MODELLING HELP MPA
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
162/219
142
GIS,
BOX 32
Geographic information systems
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
163/219
143Information for MPAs
Scenario development82
Modelling
WHEN PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
164/219
144
et al.
et al.
BOX 33
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
165/219
145Information for MPAs
8.9 IS THERE A NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH ON MPAs?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
166/219
146
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
167/219
147Information for MPAs
KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 8
As part of MPA and MPA network planning and implementation, information needs
governance aspects of the MPA. Assessments should also identify existing and
potential problems, needs and opportunities relevant to the MPA and its planning
and implementation processes. Multidisciplinary information and analyses are
required.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
168/219
148
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
169/219
149
9. LESSONS LEARNED AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
M
9.1 WHAT ARE THE KEY LESSONS ON MPAS AND FISHERIES?
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
170/219
150
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
171/219
151Lessons learned and future directions
9.2 WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF MPAs?
MPAs and opportunities in an increasingly integrated world
Integrated marine spatial management:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
172/219
152
Decentralization policies and co-management:
MPA networks:
Sustainability of MPAs:
Research and new technologies:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
173/219
153Lessons learned and future directions
Competition for resources: The
Legal, institutional and policy frameworks:
Ocean governance:
High seas management:
Food security and poverty reduction:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
174/219
154
Social buy-in and compliance:
Climate change:
Large MPAs:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
175/219
155Lessons learned and future directions
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
176/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
177/219
157
ANNEX 1
MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN THE HIGH SEAS
T
1
GOVERNANCE REGIMES FOR THE HIGH SEAS AND AREAS BEYONDNATIONAL JURISDICTION
1
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
178/219
158
in situ
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
179/219
159Annex 1 MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas
BOX 34
Additional international instruments relevant to biodiversity
Hard law:
Soft law:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
180/219
160
FIGURE 8
Competence areas of RFMO/As
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
181/219
161Annex 1 MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas
Spatial management measures in the high seas
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
182/219
162
Future prospects for MPAs in the high seas
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
183/219
163Annex 1 MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
184/219
164
Source:
BOX 36
benthic protected areas
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
185/219
165
ANNEX 2
WHAT AMOUNT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAIS NEEDED TO SUSTAIN FISH POPULATIONS?
T
SPAWNING PER RECRUIT AND MOBILITY
1
1
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
186/219
166
EXPORT OF EGGS AND LARVAE
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
187/219
167
Annex 2 What amount of marine protected area is needed to sustain
et al.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
188/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
189/219
169
ANNEX 3
MODELS USED FOR FISHERIES MANAGEMENTAND MPAs
M
MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF MPAs ON FISH MORTALITY
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
190/219
170
1
management
Risk assessment
1
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
191/219
171MPAs
Risk management
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
192/219
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
193/219
173
ANNEX 4
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
C
SOURCES OF CONFLICT
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
194/219
174
TYPOLOGY OF CONFLICTS
Data and facts:
Needs and interests:
Values:
Relationships:
THE CONCEPT OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
195/219
175
CONFLICT ASSESSMENT
Stage in the project cycle:
Legal and institutional context:
Accommodation
Withdrawal
Force
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
196/219
176
Compromise
Consensus
APPROACHES TO CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conciliation or arbitration
Negotiation
Mediation
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
197/219
177
Multistakeholder analysis
consensus-building.
SELECTING AN APPROACH
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
198/219
178
FURTHER READING
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
199/219
179
GLOSSARY
Source:
Benthic
inter alia
Source:
Bycatch
Source:
Ecosystem
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
200/219
180
Source:
Source:
Ecosystem services
Source:
Source:
Fishery
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
201/219
181Glossary
Fisheries management measures
Source:
Fisheries refugia
Source:
Fishing capacity
Source:
Fishing effort
Source:
Fish mortality
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
202/219
182
Fish population
Source:
Source:
Governance
Source:
High seas
The
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
203/219
183Glossary
Source:
Integrated management
Source:
Livelihood
Source:
Source:
Monitoring
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
204/219
184
Control Surveillance
Source:
Source:
Reference point
Source:
Resilience
Source: et al.,
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
205/219
185Glossary
et al.Source:et al.
Shadow price
Source:
Stakeholder
Source:
Sustainable use of living marine resources
Source:
Sustainable yield
Target species
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
206/219
186
Use, management and property rights
Source:
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
207/219
187
REFERENCES
Babcock, E.A., & McCall, A.D. In review
outside versus inside no-take marine reserves be used as a metric for
BCLME Programme. BCC organigram.
Berkes, F Sacred ecology: traditional ecological knowledge and
resource management.
Berkes, F. In
Berman, M. Marine
Botsford, L.W., Micheli, F. & Parma, A.M.
In
Breuil, C.Sngal.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper
566/1.
Brown, N. Devolution of authority over the management of natural
reSources: the Soufriere Marine Management Area, St Lucia, Caribbean.
Buckles, D. & Rusnak, G
In
and collaboration in natural resource management.
Caddy, J.F., & Mahon, R.
CBD.
CBD.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
208/219
188
CBD.
CBD
Protection.
Chambers, R. & Conway, G.Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical
concepts for the 21st century.
Charles, A.TCharles, A.T.
In
Christie, P.
In
tools: design, use, and evaluation of these fully protected areas,
Christie, P. & Eisma-Osorio, L Philippines.
National approaches to marine protected areas: case
studies on policy, governance and institutional issues.
R. Fluharty, D.L., McManus, L.T., Chuenpagdee, R., Pomeroy, C.,
Suman, D.O., Blount, B.G., Huppert, D., Eisma, R.-L.V., Oracion,
E., Lowry, K. & Pollnac, R.B.
Fisheries
Christie, P., Pollnac, R.B., Oracion, E.G., Sabonsolin, A., Diaz, R., & Pietri,
D.
Coastal Management
Christie, P. & White, A.T.
Coral Reefs
Christie, P. & White, A.T.
In
Clark, W.G.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
209/219
189References
Cochrane, K.L.,
measures and their applications.
Cochrane, K.L.
Law, Science, and Ocean Management
Cochrane, K.L., Augustyn, C.J., Bianchi, G., de Barros, P., Fairweather,
T., Iitembu, J., Japp, D., Kanandjembo, A., Kilongo, K., Moroff, N.,
Nel, D., Roux, J.-P., Shannon, L.J., van Zyl, B. & Vaz Velho, F.
Cochrane, K.L. & Garcia, S.M.
Collie, J., Hermsen, J., Valentine, P. & Almeida, F.
InBenthic habitats
Curtis, R.E. & McConnell, K.E.
Dahlgren, C., & Sobel, J.Marine reserves: a guide to science, design
and use.
Day, J.Ocean
& Coastal Zone Management
Dudley, N. Guidelines for applying protected area management
categories.
Dupont, D.P. Marine Resource
Ehler, C. & Douvere, F. Marine spatial planning: a step-by-step
approach toward ecosystem-based management.
Eisma-Osorio, R.L., Amolo, R.C., Maypa, A.P., White, A.T. & Christie,
P
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
210/219
190
Coastal
ManagementFAO
FAO.
introductions.
FAO
FAOFisheries management.
FAO.
FAO.
application.
FAO.
FAO.
principles, institutional foundations, implementation and outlook,
FAO.Glossary.
www.fao.org/ag/wfe2005/glossary_en.htm
FAO. Fisheries topics: governance, monitoring, control and
surveillance.
FAO. Fisheries topics: governance. The use of property rights in
FAO.The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas
FAO.
Protected Areas and Fisheries Management: review of issues and
considerations,
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
211/219
191References
FAO. The state of food and agriculture 2007: paying farmers for
environmental services. FAO.Best practices in ecosystem modelling for informing an ecosystem
FAO.
overview of context, tools and methods
FAO.
FAO.
FAO.Information and knowledge-sharing.
FAO. International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-sea
Fisheries in the High Seas/Directives internationales sur la gestion de
la pche profonde en haute mer/Directrices internacionales para laOrdenacin de las Pesqueras de Aguas Profundas en Alta Mar.
FAO & RECOFTC.
management: a training package.
Friedman, K. & Kinch, J. Samoa
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper
566/XX.
Garcia, S.M., Allison, E.H., Andrew,N.J., Bn, C., Bianchi, G., de Graaf,
G.J., Kalikoski, D., Mahon, R. & Orensanz, J.M. Towards
processes.
Goi, R., Hilborn, R., Daz, D., Mallol, S. & Adlerstein, S
Marine
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
212/219
192
Government of Australia. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
Government of New Zealand. Marine protected areas policy and
implementation plan.
Gulland, J.A.Fish
population analysis
Gulland, J.A.Fish stock assessment: a manual of basic methods.
Halpern, B.
Hart, D.
International News and Analysis on Marine Protected Areas
Hart, D.R., & Rago, P.J.
Placopecten magellanicusNorth American Journal of
Fisheries ManagementHastings, A., & Botsford, L.W.
Science
Hicks, R.L., Kirkley, J. & Strand, I.
Hilborn, R., Stokes, K. Maguire, J-J., Smith, T., Botsford, L.W., Mangel,
M., Orensanz, J., Parma, A., Rice, J., Bell, J., Cochrane, K.L., Garcia,
S., Hall, S.J., Kirkwood, G.P., Sainsbury, K., Stefansson, G. & Walters,
C.Ocean
and Coastal Management
Hilborn, R., Micheli, F. & De Leo, G.A.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Science
Howitt, R.E.American Journal of
Independent World Commission on the Oceans. The ocean: our
future.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
213/219
193References
IMM Ltd.
IMM Ltd Systematic approaches to livelihoods enhancement and
IUCN.Guidelines for protected area management categories.
IUCN. Managing marine protected areas: a toolkit for the Western
Indian Ocean.
IUCN-WCPA.
making it happen.
Japp, D.W., & Currie Potgieter, H. The development andstatus of marine protected areas in South Africa and Namibia.
FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Technical Paper 566/4.
Juda, L.
Ocean Development &
International Law
Kalikoski, D. & Vasconcellos, M.
and conservation in Brazil.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper
No. 566/1.
Kaplan, D.M. & Botsford, L.W.
Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
Kelleher, G. Guidelines for marine protected areas.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
214/219
194
Lauck, T., Clark, C., Mangel, M. & Munro, G.
(the) Locally-Managed Marine Area (LMMA) Network.
Mace, P., & Sissenwine, M.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences
Mascia, M.B.In
McGilliard, C.R., Hilborn, R., MacCall, A.D., Punt, A.E. & Field, J.
Murawski, S.A., Brown, R., Lai, H.L., Rago, P.J. & Hendrickson, L.
Bulletin of Marine Science
Myers, R.A., Bowen, K.G. & Barrowman, N.J.
Canadian Journal of. Fisheries and
Aquatic Science
New England Fisheries Management Council.
North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC).
NRC.
NRC.Marine protected areas: tools for sustaining ocean ecosystems.
Pelletier, D. & Mahevas, S.
Fish and Fisheries
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
215/219
195References
Pernetta, J.C. & Paterson, C.J.Marine protected areas and
Peterson, G.D., Cumming, G.S. & Carpenter, S.R.
Conservation Biology,
Pitcher, C.R., Austin, M., Burridge, C.Y., Bustamante, R.H., Cheers, S.J.,
Ellis, N. Jones, P.N., Koutsoukos, A.G., Moeseneder, C.H., Smith, G.P.,
Venables, W. & Wassenberg, T.J.Recovery of seabed habitat from
the impact of prawn trawling in the far northern section of the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park.
Pollnac, R.B., Crawford, B.R. & Gorospe, M.L.G.
Ocean and Coastal Management
Pomeroy, R.S. & Berkes, F.
Marine Policy
Pomeroy, R.S. & Goetze, TBelize case study
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper
No. 566/2.
Pomeroy, R.S., Parks, J.E. & Watson, L.M.How is your MPA doing? A
guidebook to natural and social indicators for evaluating marine protected
areas management effectiveness.
Pomeroy, R.S. & Riviera-Guieb, R. Fishery co-management: a
practical handbook. The legal and institutional assessment
(LIA)
Ralston, SNorth American Journal of
Fisheries Management
Ramya, R.India.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper
No. 566/1.
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
216/219
196
Restrepo, V.Annotated glossary of terms in executive summary reports
of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic TunasStanding Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS).
Russ, G., Alcala, A., Maypa, A.P., Calumpong, H.P. & White, A.T.
Salm, R.V., Clark, R.J. & Siirila, E.Marine and coastal protected
areas: a guide for planners and managers.
SEAFDEC.
In Supplementary guidelines on co-management using group user rights,
Shotton, R.
southern Indian Ocean.
Sissenwine, M. & Shepherd, J.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Sciences
Sowman, M., Hauck, M., van Sittert, L. & Sunde, J.
.
Spergel, B. & Moye, M.Financing marine conservation: a menu of
options.
Stefansson, G. & Rosenberg, A.A.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, B: Biological Sciences
Stoner, A.W., Mehta, N. & Ray-Culp, M.
Strombus gigas
Research
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
217/219
197References
Suuronen, P., Jounela, P. & Tschernij, V.
Marine PolicyUNEP-SCS.
UNEP-WCMC
http://sea.unep-wcmc.org
UNESCO-IOC. Marine spatial planning.
United Nations.
United Nations The plan for implementation and development for
the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Walker, B., Holling, C.S. Carpenter, S.R. & Kinzig, A.
and Societywww.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/
White, A.T., Alio, P.M. & Meneses, A.T. Creating and managing
marine protected areas in the Philippines.
White, A.T., Salamanca, A. & Courtney, C.A.
Coastal
Management
Williams, I.D., Walsh, W.J., Miyasaka, A. & Friedlander, A.M.
Williams, I.D., Walsh, W.J., Claisse, J.T., Tissot, B.N. & Stamoulis,
K.A.
Zebrasoma
Biological Conservation
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
218/219
198
World Bank.Score card to assess progress in achieving management
effectiveness goals for marine protected areas.
World Bank. Scaling up marine management: the role of marine
protected areas.
WWF International.So what is a representative network of MPAs?
Young, T.R.
In
-
8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries
219/219