MARITIME MARITIME TRANSPORTATION TRANSPORTATION

MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

CARGOESCARGOES

Stowage Factor

The amount of space occupied by a given quantity of any dry commodity in whatever mode of transport (eg: grain in bags or in bulk) is said to be its stowage factor.

The stowage factor is the space occupied in cubic feet in the ship’s hold by one ton of cargo. (2.240 lb)

In terms of cubic feet per long ton or per metric tonne, but described as cubic meters per tonne.

1 Cubic Metre = 35.3148 Cubic Feet

The lighter a commodity, the more space it will occupy, and therefore, the higher its stowage factor. – Corn stowes around 50 cubic feet (1.42 cbm) per

tonne in bulk condition, heavier iron ore stowes 15 cubic feet (0.42 cbm).

Ship with a “poor cubic” – low ratio of cubic cargo space in relation to available deadweight, would have difficulty in loading a full deadweight cargo of corn, because of insufficient space in her holds.

Awkward or squared shapes can not usually fit into every nook and cranny in ship’s holds,thus loosing valuable space through what is known as broken stowage. (spaces between packages, and indeed, any commodity remaining unfilled).

4 main factors to consider in the stowage of cargo:

1) The best possible use > the ship’s deadweight and cubic capacity. (10-15 % of total cubic capacity is allowed for broken stowage)

2) Prevent damage to the ship, a proper distribution of cargo to ensure adequate stability and trim, also it must be properly secured to prevent shifting.

3) Cargo which is fragile, taints very easily, is subject to leakage, scratches easily, has strong odours or is liable to sweat, requires proper segregation.

4) A proper segregation and stowage of different consignments for various ports must be made.

BULK CARGO

Bulk cargoes have difficulty in stowage, as they tend to be conveyed in specialized vessels between two ports

They are usually loaded and discharged by mechanical means.

Cargoes such as grain, coal are usually carried in bulk and must be adequately ventilated during the voyage, as they are liable to spontaneous combustion.

GENERAL CARGO

• General cargoes are conveyed generally in cargo liners,provided with numerous decks, including tween decks, which act as pigeon holds to facilitate stowage.

• The variety of cargoes conveyed,each with its own characteristics such as fragility,tainting, sweating etc.

• Also by the wide variety of ports served by the cargo liner.

UNITISED CARGOUnitisation may increase costs to certain extent as

a result of the extra equipment required, but besides; speeding cargo handling operations, reduce pilferage and damage to goods, simplifying tallying (providing the units’ contents are of a

uniform quantity) reducing the number of stevedores required decresing in some ship types the potential cargo space

due to unit shapes and sizes; eg: broken stowage

Unitisation evolves;

Strapping

Pre-Slinging

Palletisaiton

Container

Palletisation Pallets are made in various ways. Strengths and sizes, depending on the goods to be

supported and the use to which the pallet will be put – for use with cartoons of fruit in reefer shipments

requiring perforations to assist with air circulation. The ideal of palletisation was to have every piece

of cargo palletised before the shipment. Pallets can be moved around a ship by fork-lift

truck and may be limited the number of tiers of height to which they can be stacked.

Containerasation

The concept of stowing small items in a large re-usable ‘container’ dates back to the 1960s.

The advent of containerasation heralded a revolution in cargo hangling techniques, the ramifications of which are still influencing maritime trade.

With pallets, containers can be stacked several tiers high, but care should be taken to clarify the gross weight of each container.

CONTAINER TYPES AND SIZES

General purpose (GP) containers are boxes constructed with walls of aluminium or of thin steel sheeting (with inner plywood fittings).

Often ribbed to provide strength and rigidity, with re-inforced corner posts; access being gained via double watertight doors, usually at one end.

These boxes are manufactured in a variety of sizes, although an effort to standardise by ISO.

FCLs LCLs AND ICDs FCL (Full Container Load) means that the container is

full. The shipper has the responsibility of packing the goods into the container then closing its doors and attaching a seal.

Less than a Container Loads (LCL) cargo is the same as conventional cargo; some container Lines offer an LCL service of their own, while others prefer to encourage NVOCs to consolidate such cargo.

The designation Inland Clearence Depot (ICD) handled both FCL and LCL cargo. ICD is often adopted for any depot used to assemble (or distribute) cargo even though the original name implies that it is inland and has a Cutom Offices in attandence to clear the cargo.

Wheeled and Heavy Units

Wheeled units can be divided into two– Wheeled units contain cargo– Wheeled units themselves the cargo

Wheled units containing cargo:– Shortsea RO/RO– Medium length RO/RO– Deepsea RO/RO

Many are exported over shortsea routes eg: Spain to UK, in PCC’s (Pure Car Carriers), RO/RO type vessels.

Most cars are moved on longterm contracts; shippers either own or charter on a longterm or spot basis.

Vehicles and trucks sales to developing countries lead the introduction of the PCTC(Pure Car and Truck Carrier) built with stronger hoistable cardecks which can be adjusted to accomodate somewhat varied cargoes.

CKDs (Cars Knocked Down) are simply created cars in kit form, manufactured by a major producer but exported in this manner for eventual assembly in, or enroute to the country of destination. (trades eg:Japan to S.Africa)

Cars & Trucks

Heavy Goods

Petrochemical machinery or entire desalinisation plants. Heavy Lift Ship

– operate either conventionally by lifting goods aboard or ashore,– in a roll on/roll off capacity; – by submerging itself beneath and then deballasting, and so lifting

the unit to be carried (eg: an Oil Rig); – a combination of these methods.

Turnkey Project; the operation of one or more heavy lift ships undertakes to move several units of equipment large and small, ligth and heavy (eg: a chemical complex).

GRAINS

Wheat Corn Rye Barley Oats

Rice Sorghums Soyabeans Pulses Oilseeds

Require careful pre-loading inspection, carriage and ventilation.

Either in bulk or in bags, grains are liable to heat and/or sweat, especially if damp, when they may germinate or rot.

Prior to grain load there is an inspection in the vessel to ensure that she is clean and fit to receive cargo, there is no insect or odour.

Handling equipment at loading port is sophisticated (grain elevators, storage silos).

GRAINS

The Agricultural Products

Cashewnuts Cocoa Coffee Copra Cotton

Fibres– Flax– Hemp

Potatoes Sugar

The Timber Family Logs

– Hardwood logs – Softwoods

Sawn Timber– Length packaged lumber

(flush bundled)– Truck packaged lumber

Wooden Products– Pit-props– Telegraph Polesx– Railway Sleepers, railway

ties

Timber By-Products– Chipboard/fibre-

board– Blockboard– Charcoal– Cork– Extracts– Gums

Timber for the Paper Industry– Pulpwood– Wood-Chips– Wood-Pulp(paper-

pulp)

Paper Products– Newsprint– Linerboard/ kraft

linerboard (KLB)/ kraft paper

– Sack-craft paper, fluted or corrugated papers

– Waste-paper

The Timber Family

The Coal Family Coal

– soft (bituminous), – hard (anthracite), – manufactured coal products: coal briquettes,peas or beans and

patent fuels.

** Much of the seaborne trade in coals is confined to large bulkcarriers;eg: Panamax-size and above

Coke Petroleum Coke Raw Petroleum Coke (petcoke (eg: Calcined or

calcinated petcoke) Peat

Major safety considerations;

1) Gas Explosion2) Spontaneous Combustion (the longer the

coal laden the greater the fire risk)3) Cargo Shifting at Sea4) Corrosion of ship’s holds

Stowage factors of coal vary depending on;

1) The size of the coal.2) Whether coal is wet or dry.3) Type of vessel: Mostly transported in

bulkcarriers, very little is now carried in tweendeckers.

4) Trimming Process is essential.5) Origins

The Fertiliser Family Natural Fertilisers

Limestone Lime, calcium nitrate, fluorspar (calcium

fluoride) Nitrates

Sodium nitrate saltpetre (potassium nitrate

Phosphate Di-Calcium Phosphate Natural Phosphate (guano)

Potash (wood-ash) Potassium. potassium chloride

(muriate of potash (MOP)

Sulphur (a dangerous cargo in the IMO Dangerous Goods Code) Bulk formed sulphur Prilled

The Fertiliser Family Artificial (Compound) Fertilisers

• Moved either in bulk or in bags.

• Most are harmless and safe to carry,few can be explosive.

• Main artificial fertilisers are; • Amomonium Nitrate (calcium carbonate(lime salt),

calcium ammonium nitrate and/or dolomite. • Ammonium Sulphate• Basic Slag• Mono-Ammonium Phosphate• Urea

The Cement Family

Bagged Cement Clinker Bulk Cement

The Ferrous Ores Family Ferrous Ores

Chrome Ore Hematite, important iron-ore, known also as ferric-

oxide. Iron Ore, hematite and magnetite. There are

various methods of partly refining iron-ore. Iron concentrate Sponge Iron Sintered Iron Ore Direct Reduced Iron

Magnetite Manganase Nickel Pyrites, iron-pyrites or copper-pyrites.

The Ferrous Ores Family

Ferrous Alloys

Iron ore is widely mixed with other ores and carried as a raw material or after processing of this material as an alloy used for steel making.

Ferro-chromium Ferro-manganese Ferro-phosphorus Ferro-silicon

The Mineral Family

The Alluminium Family Asbestos The Borates Family The Copper Family

– Copper Matte– Copper Slag– Copper Granules– Copper

Concentrates Fluorspar

Granites and Clays– Kaolin(China Clay)– Bentonite

Gypsum Lead Limestone Magnesium Serpentine Mica Perlite

The Mineral Family

Pumice Salt Sands Barytes

– Ilmenite– Olivine– Rutile– Silver Sand– Zincon

Tin Tar Products

– Pitch– Napthalane, tar-

campor.

Zinc

The Metals Family

Semi-processed material Ingots, alluminium

ingots,pig iron,sows Billets Blooms Slabs

Metal Articles Copper Iron products

Scrap

Steel products a)  steel sheetb)  beams & gırdersc)  steel plated)  wire rodse)  pipes

Other Cargoes Chemicals Livestock & Animal Liquids

– Vegoils– Mineral Oils ( Liquid Chemicals

Gas Dangerous Goods

Dangerous Goods IMO, a Dangerous Goods Code has

evolved encompassing recommendations as to stowage, carriage, packaging, documentation and labelling of most dangerous commodities.

In many parts of the world this Code has been given legal enforcement and embodied into local laws and regulations.

The Code classifies dangerous goods as follows Class I: Explosives 2: Gases: compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure 3: Inflammable Liquids 4a: Inflammable Solids 4b: Inflammable Solids. or substances, liable to spontaneous

combustion 4c: Inflammable Solids, or substances, which in contact with

water emit inflammable gases 5a: Oxidisıng substances 5b: Organic peroxides 6a: Poisonous (toxic) substances 6b: Infectious substances 7: Radioactive substances 8: Corrosives 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances

Samples for Dangerous Goods Asphalt and pitch in bulk; tar products; petroleum coke; sulphur; caustic soda, soda ash, salt; fishmeal; concentratcs; direct reduced iron; explosives; acids; nuclear and radioactive materials; logs; scrap; turnings; motor blocks; pellets and expellers,