marketing research(1)
TRANSCRIPT
JAIDEEP S CHADHA
MARKETING RESEARCH
Marketing research is the systematic gathering, recording, and analysis of data
about issues relating to marketing products and services
Market Research is a systematic, objective collection and analysis of data about
a particular target market, competition, and/or environment
According to AMERICAN MARKETING ASSOCIATION (AMA)
Marketing Research is “the function that links the consumer, customer, and
public to the marketer through information - information used to identify and
define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate
marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding
of marketing as a process. Marketing research specifies the information
required to address these issues, designs the method for collecting information,
manages and implements the data collection process, analyzes the results, and
communicates the findings and their implications."
Objectives of Marketing Research
1. To know the demographics and psychographics of customers:- Marketing
research tries to reveal the number of persons who buy, why they buy, when they buy, the frequency of their buying, and the sources of their buying. It also includes the social status and the regional location of the customers.
2. To find out the impact of promotional efforts. 3. To know customer response to a new product. 4. To probe ‘what went wrong’.
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Applications of marketing research
Most people think that marketing research is the other name given to consumer
research. But, marketing research is much more than that , though consumer
research is an important and integral part of marketing research .
Here are some fields in which marketing research is applied -:
1. PRODUCT RESEARCH : Mainly concerned with -:
Concerned with the design, development and testing of new
products.
Improving the existing products.
Examines that the product is up to the desired attributes of the
company or not.
In-case of durable and technical products product research is
concerned with after sales service of the products.
Product research acts track –keeper of the product at every stage in
the life cycle of product.
2. SALES RESEARCH : It is mainly concerned with -:
All the selling activities of the firm.
It would examine various sales outlets or territories o the basis of their
performance in sales.
Helps in determining the position of company in the market in relation
to its competitors.
Helps in introducing new and innovative methods of distribution to make
distribution more effective.
Helps in determining the effectiveness.
3. CUSTOMER RESEARCH : Mainly concerned with -:
Study of buyer behavior. Takes into account different factors such as
sociological, economical, psychological that influence the customers in
their decision of buying the product.
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Also helps the firm in knowing whether the customer is satisfied or not
with the product and what else improvement they can do in the product
to satisfy him.
4. PRICING RESEARCH : It is concerned with the -:
Helps in determining the price of product through testing and
experimenting the product in different conditions.
Helps the company in knowing how sensitive to price change is its target
markets, in case of established products.
Helps in calculating the price elasticity of demand.
Helpful in decision making when the cost of production has been
declining.
5. ADVERTISING RESEARCH : Mainly concerned with-:
Creating of awareness about the product and service among target
group
There are mainly two types of advertising research:
Media research- Mainly concerned with alternative media like
TV, radio, newspapers and magazines.
Copy Testing- There are different types of methods that are to
be studied to determine the suitability of a particular copy
before it is finally released b the firm as an advertisement.
Marketing Information System(M.I.S.) A Marketing Information System (MIS) consists of People, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort,analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decision makers Functions: Assess, Develop and Distribute Information
To supplement the process of marketing research, marketing managers make
use of a Marketing Information System (MIS). The Marketing Information
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System is a framework for day-to-day management and structuring of
information gathered regularly from sources both inside and outside an
organisation. MIS provides a continuous flow of information considered
relevant to marketing managers.
Both marketing research and MIS are measured by their ability to efficiently
improve a marketing manager’s ability to make decisions. The cost of carrying
out the marketing research must be weighed against the benefits derived. We
must evaluate the value of the information. It is also important for marketing
managers to approach the research in a logical manner, as the difference
between good and bad research depends on the quality of the inputs, amongst
others.
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A comparison of the two concepts shows that while marketing reasearch generates
information ,marketing information system concentrates on storage and flow of information to
marketing managers. This clearly shows marketing information system is much wider concept
than marketing reasearch. A good marketing system should determine the information needs
of the organization and generate and process such information on a continuing basis. It should
also provide for its storage so that it can be used when required.
MARKETING INFORMATION
SYSTEM
MARKETING RESEARCH
1.
Information is generated on a
contnous basis.
Marketing reasearch is done with the
specific purpose in mind with the
information being generated when it is
conducting.
2. It handles both internal and
external data.
Emphasise is on handling the external
data.
3. It is concerned with preventing
as well as solving the problem.
It is concerned with solving the
problems.
4. It tends to be future oriented. It tends to focus on past information.
5. It is computer based process.E.g-
Information resource planning
system.
It needs not to be compute based.
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Steps involved in marketing research:- MARKETING RESEARCH
Problem Definition
Creation of Research Design
Creation of Sample Design Data Collection
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Report The Marketing Research process is carried out according to a designated series of steps which are required to be taken in chronological order.
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Problem Definition:- The first step in marketing research process is to defined. The problem chosen for investigation. This step is very significant one. Since it is said that “A problem will defined is half solved”. On the other hand, if the problem is defined vaguely a wrong problem is defined or the use of research is not classified, Then the research effort of an investigator would lead to futile research. Creation of Research Design:- Once the problem is defined, The next step that is the research designed becomes easier. Research design is the basic frame work which provides guidelines for the rest of the research process. It is a map or a blue print according to which the research is to be conducted. The research designed specifies the methods of data collection and data analysis. The research specifically pin point that to carry out research properly/carefully:-
(1.) How would the data been collected. (2.) Which would the data collect would be required. (3.) What sampling plan would be used.
The researcher has to carefully decide and make a choice from the group or different alternatives available to him or her.
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Creation of Sample Design Sampling is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of
samples drawn from it.
Types of Sampling
Probability sampling
Non probability sampling
Probability sampling method- The probability or the chance of every unit in the
population being included in the sample is known to us.
Non probability sampling – The section of units within a sample involves human
judgment rather than a pure chance.
Data Collection:- There are two different types of data:-
(1.) Primary data (2.) Secondary data
Primary data:- Primary data gives the original information for a specific purpose where has the secondary data consist of information which is already present or already exist. Secondary data:- Secondary data refers to those data which is gathered for some other purpose and are already available in the firm internal record or commercial, trade or government publications. Primary data can be collected through experiments or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiments then quantitative measurements or data is required to examines truth containing in marketing hypothesis.
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But in case of survey data can be collected by one of the following ways:- (1.) Questionnaire (2.) Personal interview (3.) Telephonic interview (4.) Observation
Data Analysis and interpretation:- In order to extract meaningful information from the data collected, the data analysis and interpretation is carried out. The data is first edited, coded and then tabulates for the purpose of analyzing. The analysis is basically aimed at giving inferences of associations or difference between various variables. Alternatively the collected data may be analysis by using diagrams, graphs, charts, picture etc. Finally the meaning of data may be extracted from the analysis. The conclusion, summary and recommendation of research are based on statistic analysis and inferences drawn. Report:- After the collected data is analysis and interpreted the job of marketing researcher is to present the research result in the form of systematically type report. A specifically designed format must be used for report preparation and report presentation. The report format is consists of the following in the sequence.
(1.) Title page (2.) Table of content/Index (3.) Preface/Acknowledgement (4.) Fore word (about the book itself) (5.) Statement of objectives and hypothesis (6.) Research methodology
(i.) Research design (ii.) Data collection method and instruments (iii.) Sampling plan (iv.) Feed work (v.) Scheme of analysis or interpretation of data (vi.) Limitation of the study
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(vii.) Scope (7.) Actual analysis and interpretation of data (8.) Findings (9.) Conclusion and recommendations (10.) Bibliography (11.) Appendixes
(i.) Filled form/questioners (ii.) Table used in the report
Types of Research Designs Exploratory research design In this case of research the focus is on discovery of an idea. In a business where the sales have been declined from the past few months, the management may conduct a quick study to find out what could be the possible explanation. The sales might have declined on the account of number of factors such as inferior quality of the product, increased competition, inadequate advertisement, lack of efficient and trained salesman or use of wrong distribution channels. In such a case exploratory study may be conducted to find out the most likely cause. An exploratory study is generally based on secondary data that is readily available. It does not have a formal and rigid design as the researcher may have to change his focus or direction depending upon the availability of new ideas and relationship among variables. Descriptive research design These studies are undertaken in many circumstances. When the researcher is interested in knowing the characteristics of a certain group such as age, gender, qualification, education background or income. A descriptive study may be necessary. Other cases when a descriptive study can be taken are when the researcher is interested in knowing the proportion of people of people in a given population who have behaved in a particular manner, making projections of certain things or determining the relationship between two variables. The objective of such study is to answer these what, when, whom, where, why, how of a study under investigation.
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These studies are well structured and tend to be rigid and its approach cannot be changed every now and then. Cross sectional studies A cross sectional study is concerned with the sample of elements from a given population. Thus it may deal with households, dealers, retail stores or any other entity. Data on a number of characteristics from the sample elements are collected and analyzed. Such studies are done in live situation like community schools, factories, organization, institutions etc. Longitudinal studies It is based on panel data and panel method. A panel is sample of respondents who are interviewed and reinterviewed from time to time. Panel data relates to the repeated measurement of the same variable. For e.g. each family included in the panel seconds its purchases of a number of products at a regular interval of time say weekly, monthly or quarterly such data will reflect change in buying behaviour of families. Casual research Casual design as the name implies investigation cause and effect relationships between two or more variables. For e.g. a manufacturer has sold his products at two points of time t1 and t2.the sales of t2 is much higher than the previous year. During the year, the firm has also launched on advertising campaign for its product. The manufacturer is interested in knowing whether the advertisement has caused on increase in sales in the year t2 or not. Cause Effect
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Primary Data & Secondary Data
Primary Data is defined as the data that are collected for a specific purpose from
original sources. They are based on first hand information.
For example, you want to know the popularity of a film star among school
students. For this, you will have to enquire from a large number of school
students, by asking questions from them to collect the desired information.
Secondary Data is the data which have been collected and processed by other
agency. Generally, the published data are secondary data. They can be obtained
either from published sources or from any other sources, for example, a web site.
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
Primary data is the original data collected by researcher.
Secondary data is collected by some other agency but not by the researcher.
Collection is time & cost consuming.
Easy & quick collection is possible at a lesser cost.
It is reliable & accurate when collected properly.
It may or may not be reliable
It effects the research directory. It is supplement information to primary data.
Primary data are latest & useful for current problem.
Secondary data are historical.
Primary data is defined as data that is collected for a specific purpose from
original sources.
Methods for collecting primary data are of two types
Active method: It involves querying the respondents by personal method or
non personal method.
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Passive method: It involves the observation of characteristics, by human or
mechanical devices.
Active method:
Personal interview method :it requires or consist of an interviewer asking
question, generally in face to face contact to other person or persons. This
sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal information or
indirect oral investigation. In case of direct personal investigation, the
interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned, whereas indirect oral investigation can be conductedunder
which the interviewer has to cross examine the other person who are
supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information obtained can be recorded.
Telephonic interview: This method of data collection consist of contacting
respondents over the telephone.It is not very widely used method but plays
important part in marketing research survey especially in developed
regions.
Mail survey method: This method of data collection is quite popular
particularly incase of big inquiry. It is being adopted by private
individuals,research workers,private and public organizations and evenby
government departments. In this method, a questionnaire is usually send
by post to the person concerned with the request to answer the question
and return the questionnaire.
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Passive method:
Observation method: Observation is one of the methods of collecting data
.It is used to get both past and current information. This method is common
method to study behavioral sciences. Observation is not scientific tool
when it is used for formulating the purpose of research .In this method the
information is collected by the observation.
There are different methods of observation which are as follows:
Structured-unstructured
Disguised –undisguised observation
Observation under natural setting-laboratory setting
Direct-indirect observation
Human-mechanical observation
Observation method is a technique in which the behavior of research subjects is
watched and recorded without any direct contact. Observation is not a specific
tool when it is used for formulating the purpose of research .in this method,the
information collected by a researcher is totally based on his/her observation.
For example :- if the researcher studying about different brands of shoes, he will
not ask the person where the shoes of a particular brand rather he will himself
come to same conclusion.
The advantages of observation method are :
1. The subjective biases are eliminated if the observation is done properly.
2. Te information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening. it is not complicated by the past behavior or future intension or
attitude .
3. This method is independent of respondent willingness to respond and is
relatively less demand as in case of questionnaire or interview method.
4. It verifies the data from other source.
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5. The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced. Data
collected by observation are, thus, more objective and generally more
accurate.
The disadvantages of observation method are :
1. All observation are generally expensive.
2. It provides very limited information regarding the observe matters.
3. It may be affected by some unwanted methods.
4. It is very time consuming method.
5. Its validity & reliability may be problematic.
6. Its requires skilled observer.
7. It may bias worker performance.
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Difference between Personal Interview, Mail survey and Telephonic method of
data collection.
Secondary data refers to those data which are gathered for some other purposes other than the specific research needs at hand and are already available in the firm’s internal record or commercial trade or Government publication.
BASIS MAIL SURVEY TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
Cost Often lowest Usually in between
Usually highest
Ability to probe No personal contact or observation therefore no scope of probing
Some chances of getting additional data through ellaboration on questions
Greatest opportunity for observation and building reppo for additional probing.
Convenience of respondent to answer questions
Yes , they have convenience
Perhaps but usually no
Perhaps if the interview is pre arranged
Interview bias No chance Some chances due to voice inflection
Yes greatest chances of bias
Complex questions
Least suitable Some what suitable
More suitable
Visual aids Little opportunity
No opportunity
Greatest opportunity
Negative reaction of respondent
Possible junk mail
Junk calls Invasion of privacy
Response rate Low or slow Usually high high
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USES OF SECONDARY DATA
Problem recognition
Problem clarification
Formulation of feasible alternatives
Problem solution
Advantages of secondary data
More economical
Provides valuable insight and contextual familiarity with the subject matter.
Disadvantages of secondary data
Information may be outdated or obsolete.
Difficult to find the accuracy of secondary data.
Major sources of secondary data in India
1． Internal sources: If available, internal secondary data may be obtained with
less time, effort and money than the external secondary data. In addition, they may also be more pertinent to the situation at hand since they are from within the organization. The internal sources include
Sales record : Researcher can find the information from sales record
Credit record : Researcher can find the information from credit record
Internal reports: Information can give an idea of how a particular thing is working.
If the data available within the organization are unsuitable or inadequate, the marketer should extend the search to external secondary data sources
2. External sources: External Sources are sources which are outside the company in a larger environment. Collection of external data is more difficult because the data have much greater variety and the sources are much more numerous.
External data can be divided into following classes.
Census: Since 1872, the census of India’s population is being done once a decade. Most of the demographic data are available through census.
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National sample survey: This was started in 1950 and collects data about demographic, social, and economic aspect of households. Unlike a census, which is done once a decade, this is a continuous on-going activity throughout the year.
Sample registration system: This was started in 1964 and gives annual statistics on births and deaths in a particular area.
Publication: Publications are the data collected for a particular field after a specified time period.
Government Publications- Government sources provide an extremely rich pool of data for the researchers. In addition, many of these data are available free of cost on internet websites. There are number of government agencies generating data. These are:
Registrar General of India- It is an office which generate demographic data. It includes details of gender, age, occupation etc.
Central Statistical Organization- This organization publishes the national accounts statistics. It contains estimates of national income for several years, growth rate, and rate of major economic activities. Annual survey of Industries is also published by the CSO. It gives information about the total number of workers employed, production units, material used and value added by the manufacturer.
Director General of Commercial Intelligence- This office operates from Kolkata. It gives information about foreign trade i.e. import and export. These figures are provided region-wise and country-wise.
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Ministry of Commerce and Industries- This ministry through the office of economic advisor provides information on wholesale price index. These indices may be related to a number of sectors like food, fuel, power, food grains etc. It also generates All India Consumer Price Index numbers for industrial workers, urban, non manual employees and cultural labourers.
Planning Commission- It provides the basic statistics of Indian Economy.
Reserve Bank of India- This provides information on Banking Savings and investment. RBI also prepares currency and finance reports.
Labour Bureau- It provides information on skilled, unskilled, white collared jobs etc.
National Sample Survey- This is done by the Ministry of Planning and it provides social, economic, demographic, industrial and agricultural statistics.
Department of Economic Affairs- It conducts economic survey and it also generates information on income, consumption, expenditure, investment, savings and foreign trade.
State Statistical Abstract- This gives information on various types of activities related to the state like - commercial activities, education, occupation etc.
Non Government Publications- These includes publications of various industrial and trade associations, such as
The Indian Cotton Mill Association
Various chambers of commerce
The Bombay Stock Exchange (it publishes a directory containing financial accounts, key profitability and other relevant matter)
Various Associations of Press Media.
Export Promotion Council.
Confederation of Indian Industries ( CII )
Small Industries Development Board of India
Different Mills like - Woolen mills, Textile mills etc
The only disadvantage of the above sources is that the data may be biased. They are likely to colour their negative points.
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Research Institutes: Such as-
Tata Resarch Institutes.
Birla Research Institutes.
National Research Development Corporation of India.
Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute.
Indian Institute of Experimental Medicine.
Government of Indian Departments: Such as-
Department of electronics.
Department of science and technology.
Department of irrigation.
Department of chemicals and fertilisers.
Department of statistics.
Trade Association Data: Such as-
Electronics Industries Association of Andhra Pradesh.
Hotel and Restaurant Association Of India.
Handicrafts Exporters’ Association.
Chemicals Importers and Dealers small scale Industries.
Cottage Industries Association. Population:- A population must be define in terms of element, sampling
units,extent,time.
Sampling frame :- A sampling frame is a mean of representing elementsof
population. A sampling frame may be a telephone book ,a sitting
directory,student studying in a college and university or list of all possible phone
numbers. A perfect sampling frame is a one in which every element is
represented once and only once.
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Sample unit:- is the basic unit containing the basic evidence of target population
to be sample.
Sampling
Sampling is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of
samples drawn from it.
Sampling may be define as the selection of some parts of an aggregate or totality
on the basis of which a judgment or about the aggregate or totality is made.
Advantages of sampling
1. Less time consuming:-
It saves times because fewer item are collected & processed when the
result are urgently required.
2. Less expensive:-
It reduces cost as only few selected item are study in sampling. The
reduction of cost in terms of both money & man hours.
3. Greater accuracy:-
More reliable result can be obtain because there are few chances of
sampling statistical errors. Experts or trade person can be employed for
scientific processing & analyzing limited data & they can use their high tech.
knowledge to get more accurate & reliable result.
4. Provide detailed information:-
As it’s save time, money & energy one can collect more detailed
information in sample survey.
5. Administrative convenience:-
The organization & administration of sample survey are such easier than
census method.
Limitations of sampling
1. Illusory conclusion:-
If the sample enquiry is not correctly planned, the conclusion may be
inaccurate & misleading.
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2. Sample not representative:-
To make representative sample is a difficult task. If the sample is not
representative of universe, the result may be false.
3. Lack of expert:-
As there is lack of expertise to plan, conduct a sample survey, its analysis
the result of sample survey would be not satisfaction.
4. Personal bias:-
There may be personal bias & prejudice with regard to choice of technique
& drawing samples from population.
5. Unreliable sample size:-
If the sample size is not appropriate than it may be untrue characteristics
of population.
Sampling is the method used to carry out a survey. In sampling method only a portion & not the whole population is surveyed. The sampling process Sampling process consists of 7 steps:- Step 1 :- the 1st step is to defining the population. It is necessary to determine population in terms of a) Elements b) Sampling unit c) Extent d) Time Step 2 :- The 2nd step is to identify the sampling frame, which could be a telephone directory, blocks & localities of a city or any list consisting of sampling units. If this frame is incomplete or defective then there would be some shortcomings which can’t be overcome. Step 3 :- The 3rd step is to determine the sampling unit. Sampling unit is a basic unit containing the elements of the target population. As mentioned in the previous step the sampling frame should be complete & accurate otherwise the selection of sampling might be defective. It is necessary to get a further specification of the sampling unit both in personal interview & telephone interview.
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Step 4 :- The 4th step is to identify is to determine the sampling method. It indicates how the samples are to be selected. One of the most important Decision is to determine which of the two methods to be selected Probability sampling & Non- Probability Sampling to be chosen. Probability samples are known as random samples & non- Probability samples are known as non-random samples. In probability method the chances of every sample to be selected is known & the selection is depended entirely on chance. In contrast, in non-probability sampling chance of every sample to be selected is not known. I addition, the selection of unit within a sample involves human judgement rather than pure chance. Step 5 :- The 5th step is to determine the sample size. In other words, One has to decide how many elements of the target population are to be chosen. Step 6 :- the 6th step is to specify the sample plan. It means hoe decisions made so far is to be implemented. Step 7 :- The 7th step is to select the sample. It is the final step in the sampling
process. A good deal of office & field work is involved in the actual selection of
the sampling elements. Most of the problems are faced by the interviewer while
collecting the sample .
Sampling is the process of learning about the population on the basis of sample
drawn from it.
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Types of Sampling
Probability sampling
Non probability sampling
Probability sampling method- The probability or the chance of every unit in the
population being included in the sample is known to us.
Simple random sampling:- Random sampling is known as the probability
sample. Under this method the selections of items for a sample depends
upon chance. Each and every item of population have equal chance of
being included in the sample. As a result, the element of personal bias is all
together avoided. Following are few methods of simple random sampling.
a) Lottery method :- This is common technique adopted for selecting
simple random samples. All the items in the universe are numbered on
separate slips of same size. Such slips are then folded and mixed in a box
thoroughly and shake up so that it is difficult to identify the units of
universe. Then the selection is made blindly and of the numbers of the
slips that are required for the samples.
b) Grid system :- In this method the selection of sample is made from a
particular area. A map of entire area is prepared and the screen of
square is placed on the map. The areas falling within the selected
squares are taken up for samples.
Systematic sampling:- This method is popularly used in the area where a
complete list of population from which the sample has to be drawn is
available. For eg if every tenth unit is selected the selection would be as say
seventh, seventeen, twenty seven and so on.
Stratified random sampling :- In this case the population is divided into
various groups known as strata. If the population from which the sample
has to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique can be applied so as to obtain the sample. In this
technique , the population is stratified into number of non overlapping sub
population or strata and the sample item are selected.
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Cluster sampling :- In this method the unit of sample close to each other
are chosen as cluster. For eg. Houses in the same street or successive items
of production lines. The population is divided into the cluster and some of
them are chosen randomly. Then the cluster units are selected using simple
random sample.
Multistage sampling :- This is the further development of the idea of
cluster sampling. The technique is meant for bring enquiry extending to a
large geographical area such as the entire country. Under multistage
sampling , the first stage may be is to select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts,then town and finally certain families in town.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non probability sampling – The section of units within a sample involves
human judgment rather than a pure chance.
Purposive sampling :- This is also called as judgmental sampling. This type
of sampling depends more on deliberate choice of researchers. thus, such a
selection of samples defeat the purpose of research as the sample selection
is purposely carried on according to the researchers choice
Quota sampling :- In this method of sampling , the samples are given to the
interviewer who has been given quotas to fill from the specified sub groups
of the population.
Eg. An interviewer may be told to interview 100 men between the age
group of 40 to 50.
This method is similar to stratified method of sampling, but in quota
sampling the selection of sampling is not random.
Convenience sampling :- A sample obtained from readily available list such
as telephone directory or any other prepared population statement is
known as convenience sampling. Even if the random sampling procedures
are adopted, this technique cannot be considered as random sample, the
reason being that the basic list is not prepared keeping in view the purpose
or the objective of the study. It is not advisable to use as it does not help in
achieving the objective.
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A hypothesis is an explanation for a phenomenon which can be tested in some
way which ideally either proves or disproves the hypothesis. For the duration of
testing, the hypothesis is taken to be true, and the goal of the researcher is to
rigorously test the terms of the hypothesis.
It is an approximate assumption that a researcher wants to last for its logical or
empirical consequences. It can contain either a suggested explanation for a
phenomena or a proposal having deductive reasoning to suggest possible inter
relationship between multiple phenomena.
A deductive reasoning is defined as a type of reasoning that can derive from
previous known fact.
Characteristics Of Hypothesis
Hypothesis must be conceptually clear. The concepts used in the hypothesis
should be clearly defined, operationally if possible. Such definitions should
be commonly accepted and easily communicable among the research
scholars.
Hypothesis should have empirical reference. The variables contained in the
hypothesis should be empirical realities. In case these are not empirical
realities then it will not be possible to make the observations. Being
handicapped by the data collection, it may not be possible to test the
hypothesis. Watch for words like ought, should, bad.
Hypothesis must be specific. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a
place and situation but also these should be narrowed down with respect
to its operation. Let there be no global use of concepts whereby the
researcher is using such a broad concept which may all inclusive and may
not be able to tell anything. For example somebody may try to propose the
relationship between urbanization and family size. Yes urbanization
influences in declining the size of families. But urbanization is such
comprehensive variable which hide the operation of so many other factor
which emerge as part of the urbanization process. These factors could be
the rise in education levels, women’s levels of education, women
empowerment, emergence of dual earner families, decline in patriarchy,
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accessibility to health services, role of mass media, and could be more.
Therefore the global use of the word ‘urbanization’ may not tell much.
Hence it is suggested to that the hypothesis should be specific.
Hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research.
Hypothesis may have empirical reality; still we are looking for tools and
techniques that could be used for the collection of data. If the techniques
are not there then the researcher is handicapped. Therefore, either the
techniques are already available or the researcher is in a position to
develop suitable techniques for the study.
Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory. Hypothesis has to be
supported by theoretical argumentation. For this purpose the research may
develop his/her theoretical framework which could help in the generation
of relevant hypothesis. For the development of a framework the researcher
shall depend on the existing body of knowledge. In such an effort a
connection between the study in hand and the existing body of knowledge
can be established.
That is how the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and later
on through testing the hypothesis could contribute to the reservoir of
knowledge.
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Difference between Null and Alternate Hypothesis
NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis which is the original or default hypothesis
Any other hypothesis other than the null is called an alternative hypothesis
A null hypothesis is denoted by H0 An alternative hypothesis is denoted by H1.
Reverse is not true An alternative hypothesis is used if the null hypothesis is not accepted or rejected.
A null hypothesis is the prediction. An alternative hypothesis is all other outcomes aside from the null.
A null hypothesis, is used in scientific and medical research to test the differences in treatment and control groups. It predicts that there is no difference between the control and experimental groups, but it can have other possibilities.
The alternative hypothesis can be negative. It is an essential component of statistical hypothesis testing and is generally accepted and used in modern statistical studies.
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EXAMPLE: The difference between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis is in the legal system. The original hypothesis is that the defendant is innocent until he is proven guilty. His innocence is the null hypothesis while his guilt is the alternative hypothesis. Attitude is a mental state which means an individual to act or respond against a
particular situation or an object.
Attitude depends upon individual perception,motivation,feelings and ideas.
The difficulties in measuring attitude or the Limitations of attitude measurement
are as follows:
1.The attitude is intangible and subject to visual observation. What consumer
feels and how consumer will react to a given product or a service is purely a guess
work.
2.The consumer attitude is complex affair due to multiple influences.Hence,we
cannot say with certainity that how person will react.
3.Measuring attitude lacks proper scale like physical sciences,the marketing
research has no instrument device to measure attitude correctly.
4.Difficulty also arises due to the changing nature of attitude which is caused due
to multiplicity factors influencing the attitude.T he attitude of a person may vary
with time and circumstances.
The measurement of marketing phenomenon is fundamental to provide meaningful information for marketing decision making.
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Measurement transforms the characteristics of an object into a form that can be analyzed by a research. Normally, scales are used to measure response and classified into following four categories:
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio
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1. Nominal:
A nominal scale is one in which numbers are only used as labels and have no quantitative or numerical significance. Variables such as sex, geographic location, occupation, religion, brand awareness are studied under nominal scales.
2. Ordinal scales:
Ordinal scales are used to measure attitudes, preferences, occupation, social classes etc. Ordinal scales help to place different entities like objects, individuals or responses in relative position with respect to a particular aspect.
3. Interval scales:
This scale is used to measure common statistical measures such as range, standard deviation and correlation. A researcher gauges preference, liking or importance of a particular aspect of brand on a continuous basis and distance between one point of scale to another is the same.
4. Ratio scales:
These are the most powerful of the above scales. Unlike interval scales they have a zero point. They can be used for all kind of statistical calculation. They are used for variables such as age, number of customers, sales, costs, height, length etc.
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Types of attitude measuring scales
There are many ways to present a respondent with a continuum of numbered
categories that represent the range of possible attitude judgements.
The types of scales are:
1) SINGLE – ITEM SCALE
. Itemised category Scales
. Comparitive Scales
. Rank order Scales
. Q –Sort Scales
. Pictorial Scales
. Paired Comparison Scales
2) MULTI – ITEM SCALES
. Likert Scales
. Semantic Differential Scales
. Thurstone Scales
. Stapel- Item Scales
1) Single –Item Scale
As the name itself suggests, single-item scales are those that have only one item
to measure a conduct. Under the single-item scale, the itemized-category scale is
most widely used by researchers.
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Itemised-category scales
There are four categories from which respondents can choose to indicate their
overall level of satisfaction with their present banking facilities.
These are:
Very satisfied
Quite Satisfied
Somewhat satisfied
Not at all satisfied
The itemised scales are also known as satisfaction scales with following
characterstics.
All categories are labelled
The respondent is forced to make a choice
There is no explicit comparison of the respondents.
Comparitive Scales
Another version of the preceding scale would label the categories “excellent”
“very good” “good” “fair” and “poor” thereby eliminating the implicit
comparison. The problems with a comparative scale is that the reference point is
unclear and different respondents may use different reference points or
standards.
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2) MULTI ITEMS SCALES
Likert Scale- Respondents indicate degree of agreement or
disagreement with a variety of statements about attitude, object,
person or an event. Usually the scales are 5 or 7 points. These scales
are summed across the table to get an attitude score.
Semantic Diferential scale- Respondents rates and attitudes, objects
on a number of 5 or 7 points bipolar or phrase. The selection of
objects or phrases is based on the attitude of a particular object,
person or event.
Staple Scale- it is a modification of semantic differential scale. It
differs from semantic differential scale in such a manner that the
adjectives or descriptive phrases are tested separately instead of
simultaneously by bipolar pairs. Also the points on the scale are
identified by numbers and there can be ten scale positions rather
than 5 or 7 as in case of semantic differential scale.
Thurston Scale- it means equal appearing interval scale is a method
that enables to determine the attitude of a group on a specified issue
in the form of frequency distribution.
Editing
Field editing and Office editing Field editing - Field editing becomes important when personal interviews are involved for collection of data as it is impossible for the interviewer to fill the entire questionnaire correctly. The interviewer uses short notes to answer the interviewee reviews, corrects and makes answer specific to the question. Office editing- Office editing is carried out at some central places where all telephonic interview schedule, mail questionnaire, and telephonic interview surveys are brought together. This is more important in case of mail survey as
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interview schedule and telephonic surveys may be edited at the field level but the mail survey responses are not edited or processed at all before the react of the central office.
Manual and Computerized tabulation Following are the points compare manual tabulation and computerized tabulation:
1) Manual tabulation involves more clerical work and is time consuming, whereas computerized tabulation facilitates the speed.
2) When there great deal of coded information and several analyses is required then computerized tabulation may be preferred.
3) Computerized tabulation is costly as compared to manual tabulation. 4) The process of sorting, counting is likely to produce less errors if done with
the help of computer then done manually.
Single and Cross tabulation Single tabulation - In this type of tabulation only one characteristic is used while tabulating the coded information. Eg: Medium Number of person T.V. 30 Radio 25 Internet 40 Stadium 100 Projector/LCD 5 Any other 7 Cross tabulation - Two characteristics forming two variables in two coordinate parts can be shown in cross tabulation. Eg:
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Number of children in family Income Group(Rs) 1 2 3 4 5 2000-5000 4 5 6 7 8 5000-10000 2 3 5 7 6 10000-50000 10 8 0 0 0 In the above table 8 families of income group 2000-5000 have 5 children and the income group of 10000-50000 families have 5 children and 10 families have 1 child.
Problems in editing of data 1) Fictitious Interviews: Sometimes in personal interviews and telephonic surveys some respondents may fabricate the data and fill out these in questionnaire or forms . This kind of cheating can be identified when answers show unusual inconsistency. 2) Inconsistencies: There are sometimes inconsistencies seen in the answers given. It may sometimes be given that the respondent is single and then again respondents mention about spouse occupation. To check this contradiction the editor may adjust the first answer. It may well assume that the first answer as written by mistake. 3) Illegible Responses : The hand writing of the respondent may be illegible/ unclear in some cases . The interviewer may be recalled to verify such responses. 4) Incomplete Answers : Sometimes the respondents forgets to fill any answer or fill answer incomplete. 5) Don’t Know and No Answers : When the respondent show his inability to respond to a particular question because of lack of information then it is known as don’t know answers . When the respondent is reluctant to answer a particular question because his personal life is linked to a particular question then he may respond no answer.
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FACTOR ANALYSIS – It is the most often used multivariate technique in
research studies. Specially in studies pertaining to social and behavioral
sciences.
There are two objectives of factor analysis -:
1) It simplifies the data by reducing large number of variables into small
number of variables.
2) It analysis the independence of a inter relationship among total set of
variables.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS – It is used by the researchers to place variables or
objects into subgroups or clusters. There should be by internal
homogeneity and high external hetrogenity between clusters. In marketing
research cluster analysis has been increasingly used because of its utility of
resolving the problem of classifying customers, products and services.
CONJOINT ANALYSIS – It is concerned with the measurement of a
combination of two or more attributes that are important in marketing
decisions from the point view of customers.
In this analysis marketing research suggest a new combination on the basis
of existing attributes for example – A bank would like to know which is the
most desirable combination of attributes to the frequent borrowers – Rate
of interest, installment of amount, date of payment, simple procedure.
Conjoint analysis is popular marketing technique. It is used in designing
products, changing or repositioning existing products. Evaluating the effect
of the price on the purchase intend and stimulating marketing share.
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Reports
Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the
readers. A good research report is one which does the task efficiently and
effectively. it should be clear, only words familiar to the reader, figures, ranks
ratios, charts graphics, pictures, etc. should be used.
The following are the points which must be kept in mind while writing a research
report:
1. The length of the report should depend upon the subject matter. It should not
be too lengthy that it would loose the interest of the reader and at the same time
it should not be too short to cover the entire subject matter. Use short sentences,
use simple language, use logic
2. A research report should not be dull. it should be such that it sustains the
interest of the reader. Add variety to the research report and use friendly and
informal tone.
3. Jargons, Slangs, abstract terminology should be avoided. Explain jargons and
technical terms clearly.
4. Charts, graphs and statistical tables should be included for various types of
results in the main report.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be in accordance
with the objective of research problem.
6. Report should be free from any grammatical mistakes.
7. The report must be presented in a logical manner.
8. A research report should show originality and would be an attempt to solve an
intellectual problem.
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9. Towards the end the report must state the policy implication related to the
problem under consideration.
10. Appendixes should be included in respect to all technical data in the report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is must in a good report and must be
necessarily given in the report.
12. Index is also considered as an essential part of the report and it must be
prepared to be appended at the end.
13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean whether typed or
written.
14. Objective of the study, nature of the problem, methods employed and the
analysis technique adopted must be clearly stated in the beginning of the report
in the form of introduction.