marsden new rural territories

8/2/2019 Marsden New Rural Territories

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Jour nal o] 'Rural Studies, Vo l. 14, No. 1, pp. 11)7-117, 1998 1 9 9 8 P u b l i s h e d b y E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e L t dP r i n t e d i n G r e a t B r i t a i n . A l l r ig h t s r e s e r v e d0743-0167/q8 $19.00 + 0.1~1

New Rura l Ter r i tor ies : Regula t ing theDi f ferent ia ted Rura l SpacesTerry Marsden

University of Wales Cardiff, D epa rtm ent o f City and R egional Planning, P O Box906, Cardiff CF1 3Y, N UKA b s t r a c t - - Taking the different ia t ing countrys ide as a major feature of ruralspatia l change, this pape r explores som e of the key deve lopm ent spheres which areinfluencing the process of differentiation with reference to the British case.Com bina tions of local and non -local networks, supply chains and regu latorysystems incorporate different rural spaces . Four part icular development spheres :mass food markets, quality food markets, agriculturally related changes and ruralrestruc turing implicate, in their differe nt combinations, the diffe rent rural spaces.This analyt ical framework raises some important concerns for the governance ofdifferentiating rural space in its regional context. In particular, i t suggests thatnotion s of integratio n and holism o f rural spaces will be difficult to achieve; andthat governance and regulat ion becomes highly variable according to the relat ivesignificance of local/non-local networks. In conclusion, the imp lications o f theanalys is are examined in relat ion to the growing rural development pol icydiscourse. This suggests the need for more regionally and spatially orientatedpol icy which is more cus tomized to the internal and external condi t ions differentreg ion al-r ura l spaces expe rience. 19 98 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. Allrights reserved

I n t r o d u c t i o n : a s s e s s i n g r u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

I n a s e r i e s o f r e c e n t p a p e r s ( M a r s d e n , 1 9 95 ;M a r s d e n e t a l . , 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 7 ) I h a v e b e e n e x p l o r i n gs o m e o f th e n e w c o n c e p t u a l p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h a r en e e d e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e d e f i n e d r o l e s a n dd e v e l o p m e n t t r a j e c t o r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t r u r a l a r ea s .T h i s i n v o lv e s r e c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e n a t u r e o f u n e v e nd e v e l o p m e n t o f r u r a l a c t i v it i es . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i sw o r k h a s h a d t o a d d r e s s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f w h a t w eh a v e t e r m e d t h e ' p o s t - p r o d u c t i o n i s t ' c o u n t r y s i d e , o rm o r e g e n e r a l l y a r u r a l w o r l d w h e r e t h e c e r t a i n t i e s o fa g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l ' r u r a l h u b 'a r e g i v in g w ay t o a m u c h m o r e p o l y v a l e n t ru r a ls c e n e a n d r e g u l a t o r y s tr u c t u r e . T h e s e g e n e r a l i z e dt r e n d s a r e n o w f a m i l i a r t e r r it o r y a n d I d o n o t w i sht o r e i t e r a t e t h e m h e r e . R a t h e r , I w i sh t o c o n s i d e r i nt hi s p a p e r s o m e o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l p a r a m e t e r sn e e d e d t o e x a m i n e t h e s e n e w r u r a l t e r r i t o r i e s , a n dt o c o n s i d e r s o m e o f t h e d y n a m i c s i n f l u e n c i n g w h a ts e e m s t o b e t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a n dr e g i o n a l l y c o n t e x t u a l i z e d c o u n t r y s i d e s w h i c h a r ee m e r g i n g . T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n r a i s e s s o m e i m p o r t a n ti ss u es c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e g u l a t i o n a n d g o v e r n a n c e o ft h e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c o u n t r y s i d e ; a n d i t s u g g e s t s as t r o n g e r c o m m i t m e n t f r o m t h e r e s e a r c h a n d p o l i c yc o m m u n i t y t o d e v e l o p m o r e r o b u s t c o m p a r a t iv e

a n a l y s e s o f r u r a l c h a n g e w i t h i n a r e g i o n a l a s w e l l a sa n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t .T h e l a te 1 99 0s r e p r e s e n t a t im e o f p r o f o u n d q u e s -t i o n in g a b o u t t h e s t r a te g i c r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y -s i d e , g i v e n t h e c o n t i n u e d r e t r e a t o f p r o d u c t i v i s ta g r i c u l t u r e a n d a r e n e w e d c o m m i t m e n t t o r e s t r i c t i v es t a t e p o l i c i e s a n d f u n d i n g i n a d v a n c e d n a t i o n - s t a t e sg e n e r a l l y , a n d f o r r u r a l a r e a s i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h i s h a sm o s t r e c e n t l y b e e n e x p r e s s e d i n th e C o r k D e c l a r a -t i o n a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e b a t e s a t t h e E u r o p e a nl e v e l , s u c h a s t h e A g e n d a 2 0 0 0 p o l i c y d o c u m e n t( E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n , 1 9 9 7 ) . I n t h e B r i t i s hc o n t e x t , m o r e o v e r , t h e r e c e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f W h i t eP a p e r s f o r E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d a n d W a l e s w e r e v e r ym u c h a n e x e r c i s e i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e a b i l -i t i e s a n d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r r u r a l a r e a s a n d p e o p l e t o' l o o k a f t e r t h e m s e l v e s ' a s o p p o s e d t o b e i n gb e h o l d e n o n s t a te s u p p o r t . T h e y w e r e , a f t e r o v e r ad e c a d e a n d a h a l f o f u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e n a t i o n a ls t r at e g i c r o l e o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h er e t r e a t o f t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e a s t h e l e a d e r a n d p r o v i d e ro f s u p p o r t . O u r a n a l y s e s n e e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o e x p l o r et h c d e g r e e t o w h i c h d i f f e r e n t r u r a l a r e a s a r ed e v e l o p i n g c o n t r a s t i n g s t ra t e g i e s o f a d j u s t m e n t a n dc o m p r o m i s e w i t h b o t h t h e s t a t e a n d t h e w i d e re c o n o m y .


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1 0 8 T . M a r s d e nO f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e h e r e i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h ev a r y i n g l e v e l s o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n sw i t h d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s i n r e g i o n a l r u r a lspaces . I t i s th i s in t e rac t ion which i s cent ra l toe x p l o r i n g r u r a l c h a n g e . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e nt y p e s a n d l e v el s o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d t h e d e g r e e t ow h i c h s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s r e a c t t o , a s w e l l a s i n f l u e n c et h e s e , is m o s t c l e a r ly e x p r e s s e d i n l a n d d e v e l o p m e n ti s s u e s a n d p r o c e s s e s . T h i s p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n ta n a l y t i c a l v e h i c l e , t h e r e f o r e , i n a s s e s s i n g r u r a l d i f f e r -e n t i a t i o n a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e a n d s o c i a l s h a p e o f r e g u -l a t i o n a n d s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n .D e s p i t e t h e d e c l i n e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y i nm a n y r u r a l a r e a s a n d t h e s u c c e e d i n g a r r a y o fd i s p a r a t e p o l i t i c a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e sa f f e c t in g th e r e g u l a t i o n a n d g o v e r n a n c e o f r u r a ls p a c e ( s e e G o o d w i n , t h i s i s s u e ) , w e h a v e t o r e c o g -n i z e th a t i n t e r m s o f b r o a d e r p r o c e s s e s o f r e s t ru c -t u r i n g i n r u r a l a r e a s , a n d i n t e r m s o f t h ec o n s u m p t i o n o f r u r al r e s o u r c e s , a g r i c u lt u r a l a n db r o a d e r l a n d - b a s e d s o ci a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e l a t io n ss t i l l h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t h o l d o n t h e s h a p i n g o f r e g u l a -t i o n , a n d o n t h e p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h r u r a l a re a s a r ed i f f e r e n t i a t i ng .I n e a r l i e r w o r k m y c o l l e a g u e s a n d I h a v e b e g u n t ot r a c e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f ru r a l s p a c e t h r o u g h t h ed e l i n e a t i o n o f i d e a l t y p i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ( s e e M a r s d e ne t a l . , 1 9 9 3 ; M u r d o c h a n d M a r s d e n , 1 9 9 4 ; M a r s d e n ,1 9 9 5 ) . V a r i a t i o n s i n r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l r u r a l s p a c e sa r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r o l e a n d p o w e ro f a g r ic u l tu r a l , r e s id e n t i a l a n d o t h e r c o m m e r c i a li n t e r e s t s , g i v i n g a t l e a s t f o u r d i s t i n c t t y p e s o f r u r a ls o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n . W e h a v e t e r m e dt h e s e t h e : p r e s e r v e d , m u c h o f s o u t h - e a s t E n g l a n d ;c o n t e s t e d , p a r t s o f ru r a l D e v o n ; p a t e r n a l i s t i c , p a r t s o fE a s t A n g l i a a n d L i n c o l n s h i r e / N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ; a n dc l i e n t e l i s t i c , p a r t s o f W a l e s a n d C u m b r i a ,c o u n t r y s i d e s . *A k e y e l e m e n t o f c h a n g e i n r u r a l s p a c e is c o n c e r n e dw i t h b o t h t h e a g r i c u l t u ra l u s e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o fl a n d . R u r a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n ,

*The four-fold ideal typical classification was developedand repor ted in Marsden et al . (1993) and Murdoch andMarsden (1994). I t has been developed in a series ofpapers ( s ee Munton , 1995 ; Marsden , 1995 , Marsden,1997). I t has been appl ied to a wider European context byHoggar t et al. (1996). A brief descript ion of some of thekey characteristics can be includ ed here.( i ) The preserved countryside: evident in the Englishlowlands as well as the attractive and accessibleupland areas ; they are characterized by s t rong ant i -

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o m m o d i t i z a t i o n h a v e b e e n s h o w nt o b e a n i m p o r t a n t l o c u s a r o u n d w h i c h s o c i a l a n de c o n o m i c c h a n g e o c c u r s ( M a r s d e n , 1 9 9 5) . T h i so c c u r s a t d i f f e r e n t s p e e d s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t d i re c t i o n sa c c o r d i n g t o l o c a l a n d e x t e r n a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f r e l a -t i o n s h i p s o p e r a t i n g i n r u r a l l o c a l i t ie s . I f o n ee x a m i n e s e q u i v a l e n t r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a n da p p r o a c h e s i n m a i n l a n d E u r o p e , f o r i n s t a n c e i n I t a l y( s e e I a c a p o n i et a l . , 1 9 9 5 ) , T h e N e t h e r l a n d s ( v a n d e rP l o e g , 1 9 9 7 ) , w e c a n s e e t h a t s i m i l a r p r o c e s s e s s e e mt o b e o c c u r r i n g e v e n i f t h e t e r m i n o l o g y ( e .g . l o c als y s t e m s , r u r a l i n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i c t s , n e w f a r m i n g s t y l e s )a n d r e g u l a t o r y s y s t e m s d i f f e r . O n e e l e m e n t o fc o n v e r g e n c e c o n c e r n s t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f a g r i c u l -t u r a l a n d n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o p e r t y r ig h t s a r o u n d

development and preservat ionis t a t t i tudes and deci-s ion-making. There are s t rongly entrenchedmiddle-class fractions who can impose their viewsthroughout the planning sys tem on potent ia l devel-opers . In addi t ion, demand from these fract ionsprovides the bas is for new development act ivi t iesassociated with leisure, industry and residentialproperty. The reconst i tut ion of rural i ty is oftenhighly contes ted by art iculate consumption interes tswho use the local political system to protect theirpositional goods.(ii) The contested countryside: this refers to areas whichl ie outs ide the main commuter catchments and mayhave no special environ men tal qual ity. He re, farmers(as landowners) and dev elopm ent interes ts may bepolitically dominant and thus be able to pushthrough d evelop men t proposals. These are increas-ingly opposed by incomers who adopt the posi t ionsthat are so effective in the preserved countryside.Thus , the development process is marked byincreasing conflict between old and new groups.Ex-urban in-migration is recent and increasing inmany parts of the contes ted countryside.(iii) The paternalist ic countryside: this refers to areaswhere large private estates and large farms stilldominate , and the development process is decis ivelyshap ed by established land owners and /or largeowner-occupied farms. Many of the farms andestates have faced uncertaint ies in income, and havebeen looking for new sources of income. They ares t i l l l ikely to take a long-term management view oftheir property and adopt a t radi t ional paternal is t icrole in the rural locality. These areas are likely to besubject to the development pressures of the abovetwo types.(iv) The cl ientel ist ic countryside: these areas are likely tobe found in the remote rural regions where agri -culture and its associated political institutions stillhave power , bu t where farming and m uch of the res tof the rural e cono my can be sus tained only by sta tesubsidy (such as le ss favoured areas per capi tapayments and welfare t ransfers) . Processes of ruraldeve lopment have t rad i t iona l ly been domina ted byfarming, landowning, local capital and state agencies,usually working in close corporatist relationships.Farm ers wil l be d epen den t u pon sys tems of . di rectagricultural support, and any external investment islikely to be dependent on state aid. Local politics willbe domina ted by employment concerns and thewelfare of the rural 'community ' .


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New Rural Territor ies 109new consumption and production dynamics, whetherthese are associated with the selective spread ofex-urban populations and the concurrent demandsthese then place upon rural resources, or with newfood consumption requirements. While considerablework has documented these processes in terms offarm pluriactivity (see Arkelton Trust, 1993),scholars have yet to trace the multi-dimensionalityof these processes of change either in terms ofexternal dynamics or local response mechanisms.Similarly, while the endogenous development litera-ture begins to wrestle with these issues (see van derPloeg and Van Dijk, 1996), its focus upon the localas opposed to the interaction of the local with thenon-local tends to produce an important but stillpartial analysis of the processes which arc creatingdifferentiation (see Lowe et al., 1995).While then, there is a recognition amongst the mainliteratures about the integrative and holistic natureof the new processes of rural change (including therural White Paper debates), the approaches thus farhave yet to theoretically develop an approach whichbegins to guide a clearer understanding of theprocesses which are making things di f ferent in thepost-productivist countryside.In order to overcome some of these limitations it isnecessary to further explore the concepts of 'actionat a distance' and 'action space' developed byMurdoch and Marsden (1995). We need to givemore attention to the combination of local a n dnon-local processes which impact together upon ruralareas, and to assess how different local andnon-local combinations configure in different ruralspaces. In doing this we cannot assume that theseprocesses will necessarily interact harmoniously toproduce an integrated and functionally coherentrural space. As I shall argue below, rural holism andintegration are by no means givens in the differen-tiated countryside. Indeed, we might argue that thisis increasingly unlikely as different developmentprocesses collide in the same rural spaces, withdifferent dominant social formations and regulatoryauthorities left to modulate and reshape theseprocesses. In this way we have to conceive ruralspaces as ensembles of local and non-local connec-tions, of combinations of local actions and actions'at a distance', situated in regional economies anddifferent institutional contexts. In this sense,different rural spaces have different combinations ofnetworks to which they are connected. In developingan understanding of these we not only have toconsider the lateral or spatial degree of differentia-tion (i.e. between the preserved and the contested bitsof countryside). It is also necessary to combine thiswith an analysis to the 'vertical' chains of connectionwhich are incorporated in each, through, for

instance the largely 'at a distance' food chain rela-tionships, or the wider markets of rural consumerdemand associated with housing, tourism andleisure.This begins to take us significantly beyond the dual-istic assumptions of rural land development associ-ated with either an agricultural or non-agriculturalfocus. It also opens the way to explore the inter-sectoral developments (for instance concerning thevarious agricultural land conversion markets) whichhave become increasingly relevant to the pace anddirection of change in rural areas. What are themain parameters of these 'vertical' chains of connec-tion in a British context? And, what light do theyshed upon the variable regulation and particularlyeconomic governance of rural space?P a r a m e t e r s i n t h e n e w t e r r i t o r i a l iz a t i o n o f r u r a ls p a c e

Taking our differentia ted rural spaces (thepreserved, contested, clientlistic and paternalist iccountrysides) we can identify at least four keyspheres associated with rural land development.These reflect different dynamics which are gener-ated locally and externally, different production andconsumption relationships, and different degreesand types of regulation. Their relative significancealso varies according to the prevailing social andpolitical constitution of the rural space (i.e. how it isaligned to the ideal types). We can thus begin toidentify different internally and externally generateddynamics which have varying spheres of influence inthe differentiated countrysides. The four key dimen-sions are: mass food markets, quality food markets;agriculturally related development; rural restruc-turing (non-agricultural development).An exploration of these dimensions allows a morespecific focus upon the inter-sectoral constitution ofrural spaces, and it raises some pertinent questionsabout what might be the most effective ways toregulate the differentiated countryside in the post-productionist context.

Mass foo d market sDespite the uncertainties associated with the CAP,the growing health concerns of consumers and thepotential effects of the liberalization of global foodtrade, mass market food production still dominatesthe British rural land base (Marsh, 1997). Themajority of farmers are hooked increasingly into thevertically organized food chain which is dominated


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110 T . M arsdenb y t h e p o w er o f t h e co rp o ra t e r e t a i l e r s an d man u -fac tu rers . These se t s o f in terac t ions and re la t ion-sh ips are , therefore , na t ional and g lobal in charac terand are sub jec t to t echnolog ica l changes ( the mos trecen t o f no te be ing genet i ca l ly modi f i ed o rgan i sms)which demand in tens i ty o f p roduct ion and sca leeconomies . In add i t ion , the poss ib i l i t i es o f suchinnovat ions as genet i c manipu la t ion g ive addedinf luence to the downs t ream sec to rs in shap ing then a t u r e o f lan d -b as ed p ro d u c t i o n an d co n t ro ll i ngproduct ion schedules a t ' a rms l eng th ' o r ; ' a t ad i s t ance ' . Whi le l ess emphas i s has been p laced onth i s sphere over recen t years by ru ra l scho lars , i t i simpor tan t to recognize i t s con t inued sa l i ence andres i li ence in the shap ing o f ru ra l space .

E v en w h e re t h e r e h av e b een co n ce r t ed a t t emp t s t oreduce th i s in tens ive model , such as th rough theMacs h a r ry r e fo rms o f 1 9 9 2 , an d t h e m o re r ecen tp ro p o s a l s t o r ed u ce s u p p o r t p r i ce s an d ex p o r tsubsidies (e.g . Agenda, 2000), the effects of theg lobal o r i en ta t ion o f these market s has served tog ive impetus fo r increased l evel s o f in tens i f i ca t ionand conc en t ra t ion . F or ins tance , in many par t s o fthe p roduct ion i s t and pa terna l i s t coun t rys ides o fY o rk s h i r e an d H u mb er s i d e an d L i n co l n s h i r e , w h i chlarge ly l i e ou t s ide env i ronmenta l ly des ignated areas ,in tens ive p roduct ion , fa rm concen t ra t ion and newforms of l ease-ho ld ing and con t rac t fa rming haveco n t i n u ed d es p i t e Macs h a r ry . Mo reo v e r , an y p ro s -pect ive l ibera l i za t ion and d i smant l ing o f CAP i sl ike ly to re in force th is t rend in many of the m os tagr icu l tu ra l ly p roduct ive (and by def in i t ion g lobal lycompet i t ive) a reas . In add i t ion , as Banks andMarsden ( in p ress ) i l lus t ra te wi th reference to thedai ry sec to r , the abo l i t ion o f fo rmer corpora t i s ts t ruc tu res ( such as the Mi lk Market ing Board ,MMB) i s t en d i n g t o ex p o s e p ro d u ce r s t o t h e r eg u l a -t o ry au t h o r i ty o f th e d o w n s t r eam m an u fac t u r e r s an dre ta i l e rs even more .For the l ess agr icu l tu ra l ly p roduct ive areas , tha t i s inthe c l i en te l i st i c and poor er up lan d areas o f we s ternBr i t a in , the s low convergence to wor ld market p r i cesis l ikely to lead to the growing cal l for more subsi-d iza t ion ra ther than l ess , fo r env i ronmenta l andsocia l wel fare reasons , as much as fo r agr icu l tu ra l lyp ro d u c t i v e o n es . T h e r eg u l a t i o n o f mas s fo o dmarket s in ru ra l Br i t a in i s l ike ly to become increas -ing ly b i fu rca ted bo th in geograph ica l t e rms and interms o f the ar t i cu la t ion o f ru ra l in teres t s as theyre la te to agr icu l tu re . Eas tern lowland England maysee long- term advan tages in the t echnolog ica l lyen g i n ee red ' r a ce t o t h e b o t t o m ' g l o b a l co mp ee t i t i v escenar io ; bu t , fo r much of ru ra l Br i t a in - - no t l eas tthe areas o f p reserved as wel l as c l i en te l i s t i c ru ra lreg ions - - th i s i s no t an op t ion they can win . Theques t ion wi l l be to what ex ten t can they res i s t and

develop a l t e rna te agr icu l tu ra l s t ra teg ies so as no t toen t e r t h e r ace?

Quali ty fo od marketsFor a var i e ty o f d i f feren t reasons , l a rge ly associa tedwi th chang ing consumer cond i t ions , i t i s now c leart h a t f o o d mark e t s a r e b eco mi n g mo re d i f f e r en t i a t edon the bas i s o f a range o f soc ia l ly cons t ruc ted foodqual i ty c r i t e r ia . T h i s i s be ing re in forced by the in ten-s i v e co mp e t i t i o n b e t w een co rp o ra t e r e t a i l e r s w h oare develop ing h ierarch ica l market pos i t ion ing s t ra t -eg ies which ref l ec t soc io -economic and loca t ionalch a rac te r i st ic s o f d i f f e r en t g ro u p s o f co n s u m er s ( s eeM a r s d e n et aL, 1997) . In add i t ion , whi le the fea tu resof novel and loca t ional ly def ined foods have beenw i t h u s fo r s o me t i me , an d a r e n o w v e ry mu ch apar t o f the ru ra l development po l i cy d i scourse , i t i sc lear tha t in a more macro sense the a t t r ibu t ion o fqual i ty c r i t e r i a a long food supp ly chains i s becomingmu ch mo re i n g ra i n ed .This i s mos t ev iden t in the case o f o rgan ica l lyproduced mi lk in Denmark (see Michel son , 1995) ,represen t ing up to a th i rd o f a l l mi lk sa les ; andv a r i ed ex amp l e s f ro m I t a l y w h e re o rg an i c fo o dsupply chains are beg inn ing to t ake ho ld as consu-mers re learn the i r cu i s ines (e .g . Parmesan cheese ,mozzarel la, etc.) . I t i s interest ing to pose, forins tance , how the rec en t be ef c r i si s across Eur op e i sb eg i n n in g t o o p en o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e o rg an i c b ee fsec to r . In Umbria , fo r ins tance , the v i r tua l c los ingd o w n o f t h e mas s b ee f mark e t s f o l l o w i n g t h e b ee fscare has th rough necess i ty mean t a g rowingemp h as i s u p o n d ev e l o p i n g mo re d i r ec t l i n k sbetween producers and bu tchers ; shor t c i rcu i t ing themore soph i s t i ca ted bu t increas ing ly vu lnerab lere ta i l e r -based supp ly chains .I t i s c l ear f rom such t endencies tha t the ac t ivei n v o l v emen t o f n ea r -mark e t ag en c i e s i n fo o d s u p p l y(par t i cu lar ly the re ta i l e rs ) i s go ing to fu r therencourage the use o f ru ra l space fo r 'qua l i ty ' foodp ro d u c t s , w h e t h e r t h i s co mes f ro m Sa i n s b u ry s 'supp ly manag ers enro l l ing specif i c fa rme rs top ro d u ce co n t r ac t u a l l y d e s i g n ed an d ' f r ee r an g e ' p i gmea t u n d e r w e l f a r e an d ex t en s i v e r eg u l a t o ry co n d i -t ions (e .g . Sa insbury 's ' t ender lo in pork ' p roduced onco n t r ac t w i t h p ro d u ce r s i n H u mb er s i d e , r e a r ed i no u t d o o r w e l f a r e - f r i en d l y s y s t ems ) , o r g ro u p s o floca l ly insp i red p roducers beg inn ing to exp lo i t newm arke t n iches on the bas i s tha t i f it i s loca lly def inedi t wi l l se l l to the carefu l consumer d i rec t ly . Therea r e n o w a p l e t h o ra o f f a rm an d fo o d a s s u ran ces ch emes b e i n g d ev e l o p ed b y : r eg i o n a l f a rmer g ro u p sthemselves ( fo r ins tance , the Sco t t i sh and WelshQ u a l i t y A s s u red B ee f an d L am b s ch emes ) ; b y


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New Rural Terr i to r ies 111corporate re ta i l ers ( such as Sainsbury 's Par tnersh ipi n L i v es t o ck Sch em e , o r T es co ' s p ro d u ce r g ro u ppar tnersh ip) ; and by the represen ta t ive organiza-t i o n s l i k e t h e N FU , ( t h e N FU -R e t a i l e r Pa r t n e r s h i p )o r t h e R S P C A ( F r e e d o m f o o d s s c h em e ) .The ev idence beg ins to sugges t tha t these t endenciesare m ore s ign if icant than thei r me re n ovel ty value orex i s t ing market share would sugges t . Recent fo re-cas t s sugges t a 20% annual increase in the demandfo r o rg an i c p ro d u c t s (Sa i n s b u ry s Su p e rm ark e t sLimi ted , 1997) and severe pro b lem s of qual i tysupply . We have to ask why i t i s tha t desp i te theg ro w i n g q u es t i o n i n g o f m as s fo o d p ro d u c t i o n , s u chinnovat ions have been so s low to t ake ho ld (par t i cu-lar ly in the Br i t i sh case) . Indeed , f rom a Europeanperspect ive we can beg in to see th i s develop ing as amajor ac t ive force in market regula t ion and supplychain innovat ion po ten t ia l ly l inked to reg ionaleco n o m i c d ev e l o p m en t b en e f i t s (T o v ey , 1 9 9 7 ) . O n ewhich i s l ike ly to p rov ide new forms of comparat iveadvantage for cer ta in rura l areas over o thers .I t i s c lear tha t the degree to which d i f feren t fo rmsof qual i ty supply chain regula t ion i s develop ing inEurope var ies cons iderab ly . Moreover , th i s var ia-b i l i t y can b e s een a s t h e em erg en ce o f d i f f e r en treg ional ly induced ' insurance po l ic ies ' agains t them o re ag g reg a t ed m as s fo o d ' r ace t o t h e b o t t o m 's cen a r i o s p o r t r ay ed ab o v e . In d eed , o n e ev o l v i n gs t o ry o f E u ro p e an fo o d p o l i cy co u l d b e t h e g rad u a ld ev e l o p m en t o f r eg i o n a l q u a li ty p a ram e t e r s w h i chaim to pro tec t local farming sys tems and pro jec treg ional ly iden t i f i ab le and qual i ty assured foods tot h e m o re s en s i t i v e co n s u m er . O n e n o t ab l e ex am p l eof th i s var iab i l i ty concerns the nat ional use of theE U 1 99 2 D es i g n a t i o n o f P ro t ec t ed O r i g in (D PO )reg u l a t i o n s . T h es e p ro m o t e o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo r l o ca lsupply chains in the Euro pea n in ternal market . Thepr incip le i s to d i s t inguish product s which are der ivedf ro m m e t h o d s o f p ro d u c t i o n an d s p ec i f i cgeographical o r ig ins . For ins tance , I t a ly held over 30cheeses wi th the cer t i f i ca te and near ly 100 product soveral l by 1996.M o reo v e r , i n W al es, f o l lo w i n g th e p ro d u c t i o n o f t h eR u ra l Wh i t e Pap e r , a t t em p t s a r e b e i n g m ad e t ore inv igora te a 'Welsh food s t ra tegy ' which bu i ldsupon ear l i er p romot ional a t t empts to h igh l igh t thenovel ty and au then t ic i ty o f Welsh foods . I f suchin i t i a t ives are to gain rea l macroeconomic andpol i t i ca l g round they wi l l have to make much morerad ical in roads in to the convent ions and regula t ionss u r ro u n d i n g t h e m as s fo o d m ark e t s a s d e f i n edabove. The BSE cr i s i s p rov ides such an oppor tun i ty ;whether the main ac tors and agencies are suff i -c ien t ly capable to t ake advantage of th i s remains tob e s een .

T h es e n ew s y s t em s o f fo o d s u p p l y an d p ro d u c t i o nrequi re rev i sed organizat ional and innovat ive formsof par tnersh ip in d i f feren t ru ra l locali t ies . I t fo l lowsthat the reg ional and local capabi l i t i es and capa-c i t i es to o rganize such par tnersh ips may be muchs t ronger whe re there are longer t rad i t ions of co-opera t ion and co l labora t ion . In much of ru ra lBr i ta in the com binat ion o f a dominan t in tens ivem o d e l o f s u p p l y r eg u l a t i o n t h ro u g h t h e o p e ra t i o n o ft h e C A P, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g ro w i n g p o w er o fnat ional and in ternat ional re ta i l er - l ed d i s t r ibu t ionsys tems , has t ended to cons t ra in the oppor tun i t i esfor local ini t iat ives and supply chain innovat ions.Never theless , fo r those c l i en te l i s t i c reg ions whichhave t rad i t ional ly been rendered agr icu l tu ra l lymarg inal (e .g . Wa les and par t s o f Cumbria) , theco n s t ru c t i o n o f s u ch q u a l i t y m ark e t s co u l d b eco m esignificant insurance pol icies during a period ofuncer ta in ty over the longevi ty of ex i s t ing up landfarming suppor t s t ructures .In a p e r i o d o f ' c a r e fu l co n s u m p t i o n ' an d u n ce r t a i n t yin mass food market s , ru ra l areas are l ike ly to bed i f feren t ia l ly incorporated in to the qual i ty foodm ark e t s . T h es e w i l l b e m u ch m o re d ep en d en t u p o nt h e a t t r ib u t i o n b y o t h e r s o f s t an d a rd s an d co n v en -t ions of food product ion and t rans fer . This wi l lfu r ther in tegra te the t rad i t ional p roducer g roupsi n t o co m p ro m i s es w i t h co n s u m er d em an d s an d l eadto new inf luences upo n the u ses o f ru ra l l and andter r i to r ia l d i f feren t ia t ion .

Agriculturally related cha ngesPro b ab l y m o s t e f fo r t h as b een p l aced b y r e s ea rch e r sin speci fy ing the nature of agr icu l tu ra l ly re la tedchanges in l and development in ru ra l areas overrecen t years . This i s genera l ly def ined as 'agr icu l -tu ra l d ivers i f i ca t ion ' and t ends to concent ra te on thenew act iv i t i es farmers par t i c ipate in , inc lud ingconver t ing and develop ing l and and bu i ld ings .H o w ev er , th i s p ro cess a l s o req u i r e s t h e d e v e l o p m en tof new connect ions and networks . The ac tual agr i -cu l tu ra l d ivers i f i ca t ion ou tcomes and thei r degreesof success , a re based upon new local , reg ional andn a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e i n g fo rg ed b e t w een t h efa rm an d t h es e w i d e r n e t w o rk s .I t i s c lear tha t these developments are h igh ly loca-t ional ly speci f i c and that they re la te to the par t i cu largrowth in non- local and non-agr icu l tu ra l market s . Inmany ways i t t ends to increas ing ly h igh l igh t theau thent ic i ty o f the rura l th rough the refash ion ing offormer 'dus ty ' ru ra l ar t efac t s , whi le a t the same t imeex p o s i n g t h es e t o a co m p l e t e l y n ew au d i en ce an dmarket ized demand. I t i s thus h igh ly l inked to the


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112 T . M arsdenvagar ies o f the u rban weal thy . In the p reservedco u n t ry s i d e s o f t h e s o u t h -ea s t , t h e r ecen t b o n u s esrece ived again by success fu l c i ty bankers and dealersa r e a l r ead y c r ea t in g an o t h e r r o u n d o f co mm o d i t i z edrura l development fo r exclus ive ru ra l homes , manyof which are conve r ted farm houses and bu i ld ings .

These rounds o f ru ra l fe t i sh i sm lead , over the long-term to , in abso lu te t e rms , the con t inued u rban izedcons t ruc t ion and commodi t i za t ion o f the ru ra l . Th i sprocess o f recons t ruc t ion t akes h igh ly d i f feren t i a tedfo rms b o t h w i t h i n an d b e t w een n a t i o n - s t a t e s an drura l reg ions . What a p remature ly re t i redacco u n t an t o r b an k e r may w i sh t o d o w i t h h iss u rp l u s cap i t a l may d i f f e r co n s i d e rab l y b e t w eenn a t i o n - s t a t e s an d b e t w een r eg i o n s . T h e ru r a l a r en afo r t h e s e g ro u p s co n t i n u es t o r ep re s en t a w o r l d o fhighly posi t ional new choices .

More genera l ly , however , because o f the h i s to r i ca l lylarge amo unts o f cap i t a l , p rop er ty and po ten t i a lconsumpt ion resources t i ed up in agr icu l tu ra l l and ,i t i s inev i t ab le tha t a major in tersec to ra l a renaaround which ru ra l change and d i f feren t i a t ion wi l lco n t i n u e t o o ccu r co n ce rn s l an d d ev e l o p m en t s w h i cht rans form former agr icu l tu ra l as se t s . Agr icu l tu ra lp ro p e r t y b eco mes a d i f f e r en t i a t ed r e s o u rce p o o lwhich bo th res iden t i a l and tour i s t consumers canexplo i t . Ev idence would sugges t tha t in the Br i t i shcase, we are s t i l l at a fai r ly early s tage of develop-ment . For ins tance , desp i t e the g rowth in farmdivers i f i ca t ion and the cons iderab le po l i cy andacademic emphas i s i t has rece ived , we shou ldremember tha t on ly 75 ,000 hectares , o r 6 .6% of theto ta l l and area o f the Br i t i sh coun t rys ide i s ava i lba lefor recrea t ion by legal r igh t, fo r ins tance as coun t ryparks , na t ional parks , common land , e t c . In add i -t ion, there is l inear access provided by 200,000,kinof pub l i c r igh t s o f way . So far , on ly 15% of farmersare eng aged in the p rov i s ion o f tour i s t en terpr i ses ,accommodat ion and ho l idays ; a l though th i s r i ses to2 3 % i n t h e co n t e s t ed co u n t ry s i d e o f t h e s o u t h -w es to f E n g l an d, an d 3 5 % fo r t h e co u n t y o f Co rn w a ll .

A l t h o u g h t h e n u mb er o f n o n - r e s id en t i a l v i si to r s h a sgrown relat ively l i t t le s ince the late 1970s, theam oun t spen t and the range o f ac t iv i t ies pursu edhas increased s ignificant ly. There is an expandingspect rum of novel ac t iv i t i es associa ted wi th in formalrecrea t ion and commercia l fac i l i t i es . These rangef ro m t h e d ev e l o p men t o f th em e p a rk s , h o l id ayvi l lages, golfing complexes, hol iday cabins and wargames . There are over 400 s i t es fo r the l a t t e ract ivi ty , with rural landowners earning up to 15,000for a good faci l i ty .

These t rends are se t to con t inue , and g iven a po ten-t i a l ly more compla in t p lann ing sys tem ou t s ide thepreserved and con tes ted coun t rys ides , th i s cou ldl ead t o co n s i d e rab l e d ev e l o p men t o u t o f ag r i cu l t u r eand t radi t ional rural act ivi t ies . In the cl ientel is t icru ra l reg ions th i s i s be ing seen by government andrura l development agencies , loca l p lanners andp ro mo t i o n a l g ro u p s a s a ma i n p an acea t o t h e p ro b -lems of ru ra l depr iva t ion and jobs . In these areas ,tour i s t and recrea t ional fac i l i t i es on conver ted agr i -cu l tu ra l p roper t i es represen t subs tan t i a l p ropor t ionso f i n v es t men t i n t h e E u ro p ean O b j ec t i v e 5 b fu n d i n gfo r r u r a l a r ea s an d i n L E A D E R an d o t h e r l o ca lau t h o r i t y p ro g rammes . I n t h e Mi d l an d ' s PeakDistr ict and in Cumbria, local ini t iat ives area t t emp t i n g t o d ev e l o p emp l o y men t o p p o r t u n i t i e sa ro u n d t h e fo r ecas t ed i n c r ea s e i n t o u r i s t d eman d . I nW al e s , t h e W a l e s T o u r i s t Bo a rd ' s (W T B) 2 0 0 0s t ra tegy (1996) i s p romot ing ho l iday tour i sm as away of boos t ing jobs and on-farm d ivers i f i ca t ion .'The tour i s t ' repr esen t s a l a rger p ropor t ion o f ru ra lGDP than agr icu l tu re , and in co l l abora t ion wi thL E A D E R g r o u p s t h e W T B a r e a i m i n g t o p r o m o t ethe 'qual i ty p roduct -Welsh coun t ry ho l idays ' and toa t t rac t the fo re ign v i s i to r.

In cl ientel is t ic regions l ike Wales , with a t radi t ion-a lly marg ina l agr icu l tu re , f rag i l e ru ra l eco nom y anda p le thora o f agencies a t t empt ing to ob ta ind imin i sh ing sources o f s t a t e a id on an in tense lycompet i t ive bas i s , ' s e l l ing the ru ra l env i ronment o fWales ' i s increas ing ly seen as i t s g rea tes t as se t . Th i smean s t h a t t o u r i s m an d r ec r ea t i o n p ro mo t i o nb eco mes a ma j o r e l emen t i n ru r a l e co n o mi c g o v e rn -ance , and tha t th i s i s p red ica ted upon the con t inuedo p en i n g u p o f f o rmer ag r icu l tu r a l s p ace an dre s o u rce s t o ex t e rn a l g ro u p s an d a w i d e r r an g e o fco mmo d i f i ed s e rv i ce s . A t t h e s ame t i me , h o w ev e r ,t h e s ame ru r a l en v i ro n men t h a s t o b e ma i n t a i n ed a sa quas i -agr icu l tu ra l space . Th i s agr icu l tu ra l conver-s ion p rocess i s market l ed and agency regu la ted . I t sp r i o r i t y i s t o co n t i n u e t o u r i s m- re l a t ed emp l o y men t( f rom 7 .7 to 11 .1% b etw een 198 1 and 1991) andencourage t igh ter inves tment ga ins concern ing thereg ional and loca l inves tme nt o f s t a t e fund ing . Since1985 , the WTB has spen t 32 .6 mi l l ion in ass i s t ance ,crea t ing 4300 jobs .

The g rowth in agr icu l tu ra l ly re la ted l and develop-men t , as socia ted wi th the m eet ing o f new res iden t i a land tour i s t demands i s increas ing ly seen as a majorp an acea fo r t h e ru r a l an d r eg i o n a l d ev e l o p men tagencies in the c l i en te l i s t i c coun t rys ides o f Walesan d Cu mb r i a . A s ag r i cu l t u r a l emp l o y men t f a l l scon t inuous ly , develop ing ru ra l tour i sm th rough the


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New R u ra l T e r r i t o ri e s 1 13n eces s a ry r ed ev e l o p m en t o f fo rm er ag r i cu l t u ra la s s e ts b eco m e s a m a j o r ru ra l d ev e l o p m en t g o a l.

Rural restructuring (non-agricul tural)Over many rura l spaces i t i s c lear that the mainforms of res t ructur ing of the l and base has l i t t l e todo wi th the agr icu l tura l sphere in a pos i t ive sense .Rather , they are associa ted wi th the ex t ra-agr icu l -tura l p rocesse s which are a t t rac ted to the explo ita-t ion of the redef ined rura l resource . Theexplo i ta t ion of 'nas ty ' developments such as mineralworking, landfi l l , and toxic waste, as wel l as defencees tab l i shments , means that rura l l and r igh t s andrela t ions are somewhat sporad ical ly vu lnerab le toex t e rn a l i zed i n v es t m en t s an d d ev e l o p m en t wh i chat tempt to explo i t the phys ical and socia l resourcesof rura l space . These are , in the c l i en te l i s t i c count ry-s ides a t l eas t , o f ten g iven conferment by local andreg i o n a l eco n o m i c d ev e l o p m en t an d p l an n i n gagencies that wish to increase employment po ten t ia lfor the local popula t ion . Here , un l ike in thepreserved and contes ted rura l spaces , local p lanningi s more p l i ab le to inward forms of inves tment andd ev e l o p m en t . In wes t C u m b r i a , fo r ex am p l e , t h eoppor tun i t i es to a t t rac t open-cas t min ing , tox icwas te s i t es , indus t r i a l p rocess ing and large-scalet o u r i s t d ev e l o p m en t s m ean t h a t i m p l em en t i n genvi ronmental conservat ion pol icy i s a l l the moredif fi cu lt . M oreov er , wi th the a bsenc e of an agr icu l-tural just i f icat ion for restrict ing industrial develop-m en t , t h e re a r e g rea t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo r t h eselect ive s i t ing of industrial and retai l parks. Withthe ab sence o f a l arge preservat ion i s t res ident ia lmiddle c lass (as in the preserved count rys ide)conservat ion p lanning has to re ly upon envi ron-mental jus t i f i ca t ions associa ted wi th the need toat t rac t more tour i s t s to the reg ion . These jus t i f i ca-t ions can seem weak when job creat ion poss ib i l i t i esf rom indus t r i a l developments are a t sake.In the preserved count rys ides , however , wi th thei rgreater po ten t ia l fo r o rganic , as wel l as inward ,eco n o m i c d ev e l o p m en t , t h e p l an n i n g s y s t emb eco m es a m a j o r m ech an i s m fo r r e s t r i c t i n g s u chd ev e l o p m en t i n t h e o p en co u n t ry s i d e an d i n m o s t o fthe v i l l ages and smal l towns . Here , rura l space ,(M u rd o ch an d Ab ram , 1 9 9 8 ; t h is i s su e ) , b eco m esmiddle-c lass res ident ia l space . Where smal l -scaleindus t r i a l and serv ice developments do occur (seeMurdoch and Marsden , 1994) they are pr ivate ly l edb y en t r ep ren eu r s an d a co l lec t io n o f p r iv a t eexchange agents , consul tan t s and advisors .By con trast , in the cl ientel is t ic areas, rura l restruc-tur ing i s heavi ly publ ic ly underwri t t en and s t ruc-

tured . Emblemat ic in th i s regard i s rura l Wales , wi thi t s p le thora of development agencies including theW D A , t h e D e v e l o p m e n t B o a r d f o r R u r a l W a l e s ,local TE Cs and a ser ies of more local agencies (suchas M en t e r Po wy s , An t u r T i e fi an d Au n t u r C wmTaf) . These have general ly pr ior i t i zed inward inves t -me nt th rough provid ing a t t rac t ive publ ic ly fund edpackages for incoming manufactur ing indus t r i es .T h ey h av c b een ab l e t o c r ea t e n ew 'h o t s p o t s ' ( s u chas t h e Newt o wn -Wel s h p o o i co r r i d o r ) i n t r ad i t i o n -al ly agricul tural areas. While this has led to a growthin m an u fac t u r in g em p l o y m en t , week l y wag e ea rn i n g shave been lower than in urban areas and they havenot suff ic ien t ly sh i f t ed the rura l dep end enc e of fpubl ic ly funde d emp loym ent . In rura l W ales and inwes t C u m b r i a , d es p i t e t h e p as t 2 0 y ea r s o f g o v e rn -me nt res t ra in t and reorgan izat ion o f publ ic expendi -ture , these areas are h igh ly dependent upon theincreas ing ly se lect ive re lease of publ ic funds forsus ta in ing thei r f rag i le l abour market s . In rura lWales , the publ ic sector i s s t i l l the l arges t employer(2 8 %) . Wi d en i n g g ap s d ev e l o p b e t ween ' h o t ' an d'co ld ' spo t s wi th in the same rura l reg ions ( fori n st ance , b e t w een eas t an d s o u t h -eas t Wal es an d t h eSo u t h Wal es , o r b e t ween s o u t h -eas t an d wes tCumbria) . This means that the 'co lder ' a reas are s t i l lh igh ly re l i an t upon both a decl in ing publ ic ly fund edinfrastru cture a nd an agricul tural sec tor which, asd i scussed abov e, i s fac ing growing uncer ta in t i es .Rural res t ructur ing processes are , therefore , h igh lyinf luenced bo th in thei r in tens i ty and in type by thevary ing ins t i tu t ional and regula tory s t ructures andp ro ces s es d ev e l o p ed i n t h e d i f f e r en t t y p es o f co u n -t rys ide . This i s mos t c lear ly demons t ra ted whencompar ing the preserved and the c l i en te l i s t i ccount rys ides .

Regulating and governing the differentiatedcountrysidesOb v i o u sl y , t h e fo u r d y n am i c s p h e res o f d ev e l o p m en tout l ined here are general i zed a t t empts a t iden t i fy ings o m e o f t h e k ey eco n o m i c p ro ces s es i m p ac t i n g u p o nthe d i f feren t ia ted count rys ides in the Bri t ish andwider Eu rope an contex t . Wi th in each of them i t wi llbe nec essary to speci fy the m ore speci f ic s t rands ofcommodi ty and network re la t ionsh ips which cont r i -bu te to the overal l sphere . This wi l l become animpor tan t t ask in developing comparat ive rura lanalyses of the d i f feren t ia t ing count rys ide .Never theless , thei r b road del ineat ion helps to br ingi n t o s h a rp e r fo cu s t h e d eg ree t o wh i ch d i f f e r en tp ro p o r t i o n s o f each s p h e re b eco m e s i g n i f i can t inshaping spat ia l ru ra l d i f feren t ia t ion more general ly .In the paternal is t ic rural regions s t i l l largely domi-


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114 T . M arsdennated by in tens ive agr icu l tu ra l p rod uct ion (much o feas tern England) , i t wi l l be c lear tha t themo me n t u m o f ch an g e i n t h e mas s fo o d mark e t s an dto a l es ser ex ten t the qual i ty food market s wi l l becen t ra l . Othe r aspec t s o f non-agr icu l tu ra l res t ruc-tu r ing may a l so be occurr ing bu t i t i s as ye t per i -phera l to the t ra jec to ry o f d i f feren t i a l ru ra ld ev e l o p men t ex p e r i en ced .By co n t ra s t , t h e r eg i o n s o f p r e s e rv ed an d co n t e s t edco u n t ry s i d e n o w o w e t h e i r d ev e l o p men t mo men t u mt o t h e n o n -ag r i cu l t u r a l d ev e l o p men t fo r ce s o f r u r a lres t ruc tu r ing . The ques t ion fo r many of the loca lr e s i d en t s b eco mes o n e o f s p a t i a l r e s i s t an ce - -th rough , fo r ins tance the use o f and par t i c ipa t ion inthe p lann ing sys tem and fo rmal p reservat ion soc ie-t ie s - - t o p o ten t i a l f o rms o f d ev e l o p m en t . W a rd e tal . (1995) and Flynn and Lowe (1995) descr ibev iv id ly , fo r ins tance , how in the con tes ted coun t ry -s ide o f ru ra l Devon , agr icu l tu ra l concerns areincreas ing ly vo iced by the newer ru ra l non-farmingre s i d en t s a s mo re o f t h em ad o p t a p r e s e rv a t i o n i s tand conservat ion i s t pos i t ion , invo lv ing the newerenv i ronmenta l agencies l ike the Nat ional RiverA u t h o r i t y (n o w t h e E n v i ro n men t a l A g en cy ) .T h e d i f f e r en t an d r e l a t i v e co mb i n a t i o n s o f t h e fo u rspheres in the d i f feren t i a ted types o f coun t rys ide ac ta s ag en t s f o r t h e fu r t h e r g en e ra t i o n an d mo men t u mof soc ia l and economic changes in these spaces . Inthe c l i en te l i s t i c coun t rys ides , qual i ty food market sand the agr icu l tu ra l and non-agr icu l tu ra l res t ruc-tu r ing p rocesses are jos t l ing fo r dominance a t themore micro-spat ial levels , and i t i s in these country-s ides which are l ess cer t a in o f how these d i f feren tspheres wi l l re l a te to each o ther , o r indeed , as tow h i ch w i l l b eco me mo re d o mi n an t i n t h e l o n g e rt e rm.The four spheres iden t i f i ed a l so exh ib i t d i f feren tp ro d u c t i o n , ex ch an g e an d r ep ro d u c t i o n f ea t u r e ss u ch t h a t s o me may b e a t d i f f e r en t p h as e s o fd ev e l o p men t a t an y o n e t i me . Ru ra l s p aces a r e t h u scons t i tu ted wi th these four spheres , each ho ld ing apos i t ion re la t ive to each o ther and each hav ing the i rown tempora l and regu la to ry dynamics , invo lv ingd i f feren t ne tworks o f ac to rs , agencies and re la t ion-sh ips wi th loca l , na t ional and g lobal market s . Weneed , bo th fo r analy t i ca l and po l i cy reasons , to moveaway f rom the s t r i c t ly geograph ica l ly def ined no t ionof 'l oca l ru ra l a rea ' in th i s sense . Rathe r , we nee d toconceive o f d i f feren t i a t ing ru ra l spaces which arecaught up in d i f feren t webs o f loca l , reg ional ,na t ional and in terna t iona l supp ly chains , ne two rksand regu la to ry dynamics . For ins tance , in the pa ter -na l i s t i c ru ra l a reas where mass agr icu l tu ra l market sare p re dom inan t , they wil l obv ious ly be par t i c ipa t ingin a g lobal se t o f t e rms o f t rade , o f ne tworks and

reg u l a t o ry d y n ami cs , co mp ared w i t h t h e p r e s e rv edor cl ientel is t ic countrysides .In co mp ara t i v e t e rms w e n eed t o b e ab l e t o i d en t i fythese spheres and the i r re l a t ive pos i t ions in d i f feren tru ra l spaces , as sess how each o f them lead toaspect s o f change and s t a tus in ru ra l space , and thed eg ree o f co mp l emen t a r i t y o r co n f l i c t b e t w een t h espheres . So far we have insuff i c ien t da ta ga thered onthese ver t i ca l and l a t era l ne tworks tha t impingeupon and run th rough ru ra l space , par t ly because o fthe t rad i t ional sec to ra l o r i en ta t ion o f our su rveyme t h o d s an d p u b l i c acco u n t i n g s y s t ems . Fo rins tance , the cur ren t ba tch o f ru ra l Whi te P apersmay ce lebra te ru ra l d ivers i ty , and the mer i t s o f aho l i st ic approac h , bu t o f f ic i a l def in i t ions o f var i a t ions t i l l c l ing to phys ica l d i s t ance and cen t re-per ipherytype classi f icat ions of rural space. The analyt icalf r amew o rk ex p l o red h e re , t h e r e fo re , c a r r i e s acons idera b le em pi r i ca l burden i f we are to fu l lyu n d e r s t an d t h e n ew p a t t e rn s o f r u ra l d i f f e ren t i a ti o n(as a ser i es o f reg ional ly con tex tua l i zed ru ra l i t i es )and the role of social actors and inst i tut ions in i t .N ev e r t h e l e s s , w e can b eg i n t o map o u t s o me o f t h ekey fea tu res fo r the d i f feren t i a t ing count rys ide , andto iden t i fy par t i cu lar a reas which represen tincreased uncer ta in t i es fo r d i f feren t ru ra l spaces . Inadd i t ion , some impor tan t ques t ions are ra i sedco n ce rn i n g t h e r e l a ti v e emp o w e rme n t o f d i ff e r en tsocia l ac to rs , such as ex-urban midd le-c lass g roupsin ru ra l Buck inghamshi re ( see Abram e t a L , 1996),o r f o o d p ro d u ce r s i n E as t A n g l i a (N ew b y e t a L ,1978) . W i th in each o f the d i f feren t i a ted ru ra l spa cesd i f feren t loca l /non- loca l soc ia l conf igura t ions o fn e t w o rk s an d ac t o r s a r e d ev e l o p ed , an d t h e s e a r ea l i g n ed t o t h e s ep a ra t e d ev e l o p men t s p h e re s i d en t i -f i ed here . These conf igura t ions a l low re la t ive powerto be d i s t r ibu ted in d i f feren t ways , such tha t the' p o w er g eo me t ry o f e ach ru r a l s p ace c r ea t e sd i f feren t governance and regu la to ry i s sues andprocesses . For ins tance , in the pa terna l i s t i c and agr i -cu l t u r a l l y d o mi n a t ed a r ea s o f e a s t e rn E n g l an d ,farmers and l andowners a re increas ing ly hav ing toacco mmo d a t e t h e p r i v a t e - i n t e r e s t mo d e l s o f r eg u l a -t ion and governance which i s l ed by the corpora tere ta i l e rs . These p r iva te- in teres t power re la t ionsh ipsare in d i rec t con t ras t to the loca l /non- loca lconf igura t ions in the p reserved and the con tes tedcount rys ide . Here , loca l res iden t i a l in teres t s f indempowerment wi th the i r a r t i cu la t ion wi th loca l p lan-n ing ; which i s , o f course , supposed ly a pub l i c-in teres t sys tem of regu la t ion . Hence , the ru ra lg o v e rn an ce an d p o w er g eo me t r i e s o f t h e d i f f e r en tco u n t ry s i d e s a r e a s s o c i a t ed w i t h t h e d ev e l o p men t o fthese loca l /non- loca l conf igura t ions , and the i r a l ign-men t t o t h e fo u r s p h e re s o f r u r a l d ev e l o p men to u t l i n ed h e re .


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New Rural Territor ies 115This would suggest that there is an interactive set ofrelationships between the production and reproduc-tion of different rural-based social formations, andthe configuration of the development spheres in thedifferentiated countryside. Moreover, it also followsthat each rural space will have a different compositeset of relationships with consumers of ruralresources through their links with the differentmarkets and regulatory institutions.It should be quite clear from this discussion that tounderstand the nature of contemporary rural differ-entiation it is necessary to refine our conceptualparameters in such a way that we do not reduceinterpretations to singular categorizations basedeither on externally generated structural concerns oraspects of local empowerment alone. The emphasisneeds to be placed on integrating local a n d externalprocesses and assessing how they are expressed indifferent regional ruralities. Two major dimensionswhich are important in this process relate to: (i) thenature of supply chain regulation and theirdynamics, and (ii) the degree and character of insti-tutions and regulation associated with the differentspheres of development outlined above. Forinstance, in general terms, there are considerablevariations in the spatial and social regulation ofthese spheres. On the one hand, mass food marketsare largely internationally and corporately regulatedand are likely to be more so as trade liberalizationreduces support measures and differences betweenEU and world market prices. On the other hand,quality food markets raise the spectre of localorganization and the potential development ofregionally embedded supply chains and co-operativeorganization. Much of the agriculturally relatedrestructuring has landed, in some cases (as with golfcourses) with something of a surprise, in the form ofdevelopment proposals on the desks of the localplanners office. The land-use planning system thusbecomes a major regulatory arena (see Lowe e t a l . ,1993) for the allocation of agriculturally relateddevelopments. These differences in the type andorigin of regulation in the development spheresholds important implications for the broader andmore sensitive unders tanding of both the privateand public governance of differentiated rural space.The development spheres highlighted here are notsimply economic drivers. They bring with them anensemble of regulatory instruments, processes, prac-tices and demands. These have to be organized atdifferent spatial scales. This means that the govern-ance of rural areas is inevitably uneven in its compo-sition within each type of countryside and moreexplicitly between the differentiated countrysides.Moreover, we have to also realize that an interpreta-tion of the basic structural and institutional charac-

teristics of such variable rural governance is notsufficient in uncovering the processes of unevendevelopment. It also needs to accommodate theprocesses and practices of regulation and govern-ance within institutional structures. For instance, thesame types of planning frameworks can havedifferent results in the different countrysides. Simi-larly, economic development agencies' organizationcan be replicated but the results can differ markedly.It is the substance of governance -- the social regu-lation of practices and processes which run throughinstitutional structures of rural governance -- whichbecomes an important focus in the remoulding ofrural spaces. Moreover, it is the blend of thedifferent, and not necessarily complementary, regu-latory processes and practices, associated as they arewith the main development spheres identified above,which begin to shape regional ruralities.Within the differentiated types of countryside identi-fied we can see, therefore, that different configura-tions associated with at least four different landdevelopment spheres are helping to shape theprocess of uneven development of agrarian space.The question of regulation -- the power of authori-ties to act -- is therefore related to the dynamics ofsupply chains and the process of institution buildingin and beyond rural spaces. What is increasinglynoticeable about these dimensions -- despitegrowing rhetoric about enhancing local participationand power bases -- is the 'at a distance' influence ofexternal actors and their effects upon creatingdemands for rural resources. Rural development isincreasingly reliant upon demand conditions createdoutside its geographical boundaries.

C o n c l u s i o n : i n t e g r a t i o n , h o l i s m a n d a r e g i o n a lspat ia l po l i cy for the d i f f erent ia t ing countrys ide?

Following the publicat ion of the British Rural Whi tePapers and the Cork Declaration of November 1996there has developed a considerable consensus in thepolicy and the academic debates on rural policy toprogress a more holistic and integrated approach torural areas and to the regional economies andspaces in which they are increasingly embedded.This is reinforced by the best examples and experi-ences of recent 'bottom-up' and partnership ruralpolicies such as LEADER and Objective 5b, and thegrowing requirement to move away from the tradi-tional sectoral approaches dominated traditionallyby agriculture. In addition, after the untrammelledgrowth, partly as an effect of the breakdown of thehegemony of this sectoral approach, of agencies,quangos and government offices as well as localauthor ity and TEC initiatives, there is a growing


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1 16 T . M ar s d e nr ea l i z a t i o n t h a t o r g an i za t i o n a l i n t eg r a t i o n i s a si m p o r t an t i n d ea l i n g w i t h r u r a l n eed s a s t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s a n dac t i o n s t h em s e l v es .I f w e ac cep t t h a t m o r e ' i n t eg r a t i o n ' o f r u r a l p o l icyg o a l s s h o u l d b e an o b j ec t i v e , a s t h e C o r k D ec l a r a -t i o n s u g g es t s, t h en t h i s w i l l h av e t o i n f o r m a n d i n f lu -e n c e m a n y o f th e p r o c e s s e s a n d r e g u l a t o r y d y n a m i c so u t l i n ed i n t h i s p ap e r . I n d o i n g t h i s i t i s c l ea r f r o mt h is a n a l y t ic a l f ra m e w o r k o u t l i n e d h e r e t h a t r e l i a n c eu p o n b o t t o m - u p o r t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h e s a r e n o ts u f f i c ien t o n t h e i r o w n . T h e d i f f e r en t s p a t ia l s ca l e sa n d p o w e r s a n d a u t h o r i t ie s w i e l d e d ' a t a d i s t a n c e ' bye x t e r n a l r e g u l a t o r y sy s t e m s c a n r e n d e r m a n y l o c a li n i t ia t i v e s m e r e e x cep t i o n s o r ex em p l a r s t o t h en o r m . M o r e o v e r , w e k n o w f r o m t h e r u r a l d e v e l o p -m e n t l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e d an g e r s i n th e i n s en s i ti v i t y o ft o p - d o w n p o l i c i e s w h i ch p ay l i t t l e a t t en t i o n t o t h es p ec i f i c ch a r ac t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l o ca l r u r a l co n t ex t .R u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t p o li c y n e e d s t o a c c o m m o d a t et h e r ea l i t i e s o f ex t e r n a l an d i n t e r n a l r eg u l a t o r yc o n n e c t i o n s ( s e e M u r d o c h a n d M o r g a n , 1 9 9 6 ) . T oc r ea t e a 't h i r d - w a y ' f o r r u ra l d ev e l o p m e n t p o l icy .A s m u ch o f t h i s an a l y s i s h a s a s s u m ed , t h e r u r a ln eed s t o b e d e f i n ed a s d i f f e r en t k i n d s o f s p ace , a s as e r i e s o f l o ca l / n o n - l o ca l n e t w o r k co n f i g u r a t i o n s , an dt o r ea l i z e t h a t , t o a l a r g e ex t en t , t h e r u r a l a t ana t ional l eve l i s no t a po l icy sec to r in i t se l f , g ivent h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e s u p p l y c h a i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n tp r o ces s e s o u t l i n ed h e r e . M o r eo v e r , t h i s an a l y s i ss u g g es t s t h a t t h e d i f f e r en t i a t ed r u r a l sp aces a r e f a rf r o m h o l i s t i c o r i n t eg r a t ed en t i t i e s . R a t h e r , t h ed i f f e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e s m a y b e i n in t e n s eco m p e t i t i o n w i t h each o t h e r . A s a r e s u l t an y ' i n t e -g r a t ed r u r a l p o l i cy ' w i l l n ee d t o ex a m i n e p r o b l em -a t i c a l l y h o w t h e s e d i f f e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e san d s u p p l y ch a i n l i n k s can b e i n t eg r a t ed i n t h ed i f f e r en t i a t ed r u r a l s p aces: t h e p r e s e r v ed , c l i en t e -l i s t i c , co n t e s t ed an d p a t e r n a l i s t i c co u n t r y s i d e s . T h i sw i ll r eq u i r e m o r e a t t e n t i o n b e i n g g i v en n o t s o m u cht o t h e c r ea t i o n o f d i s t i n c t i v e r u r a l s ec t o r a l p o l i c i e s( a s o p p o s ed t o u r b an ) o r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h em s e l v es .I t s u g g e s t s a b e l a t e d n e e d t o c o n s i d e r a n i n t e g r a t e ds p a t i a l p o l i cy ap p r o ach o n a r eg i o n a l b a s i s , i n co r -p o r a t i n g b o t h u r b a n a n d r u r a l a r e a s . T h i s d o e s n o tn eces s a r i l y d en y t h e s i g n i f i c an ce an d d i s t i n c t i v en es so f r u r a l p r o b l em s . F a r f r o m i t , i t s h o u l d a t t em p t t om a x i m i z e t h e s y n e r g i e s ( f o r i n s t a n c e p r o d u c t i o n -c o n s u m p t i o n l i n k a ge s , v a l u e s t re a m s ) b e t w e e n u r b a nan d r u r a l p l ace s w i t h i n a r eg i o n a l co n t ex t , an d b em o r e r ea l i s ti c ab o u t t h e d eg r e e t o w h i ch r u r a l a r ea sc a n c a p t u r e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l v a l u e f r o m r u r a lp r o d u c t s , s e r v i ce s an d r e s o u r ce u s e . C l ea r l y , t h i sa n a l y s i s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f s u c hi n t eg r a t ed s p a t i a l p o l i cy w o u l d h av e t o b e ca r e f u l l y

cu s t o m i zed t o t h e t y p es o f r eg i o n a l co u n t r y s i d e s i tw a s r e p r e s e n t i n g . S o f a r , r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t d e b a t e sh a v e l a r g e l y a v o i d e d t h e d i f f e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n tt r a j ec t o r i e s n o w c l ea r l y i n g r a i n ed i n t h e r u r a lr eg i o n s o f B r i t a in .T h e s e ' n e w g o v e r n a n c e ' i s s u e s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o b ea d d r e s s e d w i t h t h e s h i f t i n c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n tp o l i cy in t h e U K an d t h e p o s s i b i l it i e s o f r eg i o n a la s s em b l i e s an d a l l o ca t i o n s y s t em s i n E n g l an d , W a l e san d S co t l an d ( s ee M ar s d en , 1 9 9 7 ; W e l s h O f f i ce ,1 9 9 7 ) . A s C u l l i n g w o r t h ( 1 9 9 7 ) an d m o r e b r o ad l yM ead o w cr o f t ( 1 9 9 6 ) h av e r ecen t l y a r g u ed , c en t r a l t ot h i s d eb a t e i s t h e a s s e s s m en t o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o ra n u p g r a d e d s t r a t e g i c a n d r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g s y s t e mw h i ch s h ed s i t s ' t o w n an d co u n t r y ' l an d - u s e o r i en t a -t i o n a n d b e g i n s t o c o - ev o l ve w i th t h e d e b a t e a b o u tr e g i o n a l d e v o l u t i o n , e m p o w e r m e n t a n d e c o n o m i cd e v e l o p m e n t . R e g i o n a l a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r u r a lg o v e r n a n c e a n d p l a n n in g c a n b e m o r e d e v e l o p m e n tl ed an d m o r e s en s i t i v e t o t h e n eed s o f c ap t u r i n g ,u n d e r h i g h l y c o m p e t i ti v e c o n d i t io n s , m o r e o f t h er u r a l v a l u e o f r u ra l p r o d u c t s a n d s e r v i ce s. T h ean a l y s i s h e r e s h o u l d b e s een a s a co n t r i b u t i o n t ot h e s e m o r e r ad i ca l d eb a t e s g i v en t h a t t h e r e s t r u c -t u r i n g p r o ces s e s i d en t i f i ed h e r e , w h i ch a r e r u n n i n gt h r o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n t ia t i n g c o u n t r y s id e s o f r u r a lB r i t a i n , an d m an y p a r t s o f E u r o p e , w i ll r eq u i r em o r e i m a g i n a t i v e r e g i o n a l f o r m s o f r e g u l a t i o n i fr u r a l r e s o u r c e s - - s o c i a l a n d n a t u r a l - - a r e t o b es u cces s f u l ly i n t eg r a t e d an d s u s t a i n ed . T h e an a l y s i sh e r e s u g g e st s t h a t t h e c u r r e n t d y n a m i c p r o c e s se s o fr u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g o ccu r r i n g i n t h e p o s t - p r o d u c -t i o n i s t co u n t r y s i d e a r e , u n d e r p r e s en t co n d i t i o n s , f a rf r o m h a r m o n i o u s o r i n te g r a t e d . M o r e o v e r , h o w e v e rs u cces s f u l r e cen t l o ca l i n t eg r a t ed r u r a l d ev e l o p m en ti n i t i a t i v e s h av e b een , t h ey a r e ex cep t i o n s r a t h e r t h ant h e n o r m . T o b u i l d u p o n t h e m w i l l r e q u i r e a m o r ec o n c e r t e d a n d s t r a t e g ic s p a t ia l p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h o na r eg i o n a l b a s i s w h i ch can a t l e a s t a t t em p t t or e s h a p e a n d m o d u l a t e g l o b a l a n d l o c al d y n a m i c s a st h e y i m p a c t u p o n t h e r e a l i ti e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ru r a ls p ace .

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