MASKS AND

0 ver the years, I have had many op- portunities to see the performance

of masks that take place at the "end of mourning," or darl~n, ' ceremonies of the Dogon people of Mali, and to pursue the meaning and symbolism of these events. I have been able to study the masks, both in the strictly regulated processions and In the dances and mimes that take place in the public square. The masks appear ~ndi\ .~dually or in groups of men wearing the same type.

Marcel Griaule recorded the first commentaries concerning Dogon masks inMnsql~t,~ riogons (1938). The information he was given stemmed from what the Dogon call "front speech" (L~arolr ~ i e fme, orgiri st]), which is an early stage of knowledge given to children, circum- cised adolescents beginning their educa- tion, and, of course, to strangers. It con- sists of an anecdote or tale, such as a hunting or war story, that is purposely enigmatic in form and is intended to awaken the curiosity of the listener.

Since Griaule's initial publication, the study of Dogon cosmogony has necessi- tated a reconsideration of the subject of the masks. The Dogon classify cos- mogony as "clear speech"(;~ilrolr clair~~, or so rh!/ii or as "speech of the world"(~1nr01~ L ~ L I I I IC I I I I~L ' , or L ~ C I U I I O I t is revealed to highly instructed men and women, to those in charge of a section of Dogon society, to initiates responsible for a cult, and to those who persevere in penetrat- ing more deeply into Dogon knowledge. According to interpretations begun as early as 1946, masks, as well as the cos- tumes, ornaments, accessories, mimes, songs, rhythms, and dances that accom- pany them, can be integrated into the cosmogony, mythology, a n ~ i history of the Dogon. "The societv of masks,"

MYTHOLOGY AMONG

THE DOGON

Ogotemm6li told Griaule, "is the entire world. And when i t moves onto the pub- lic square it dances the step of the world, it dances the system of the world. Be- cause all men, all occupations, all for- eigners, all animals are carved into masks or woven into hoods" (Griaule 1948:179).

The Dogon term irnirzrl, which is trans- lated as "mask," refers not only to the objects made of carved and painted wood or of plaited and dyed fibers, or the huge wigs that entirely conceal the wearer's head. It also designates the cos- tume the dancer wears and the acces- sories he carries. As is generally the case in West Africa, the wearers of masks among the Dogon remain mute, with the exception of the ritual shouts they voice during the processions.

The term irnirla has still other mean- ings to its users. For example, the parti- cipants in the sigi ceremony, held every sixty years (see Dieterlen 197l:l-ll), are called "masks" although their faces re- -.

main uncovered. They sing while they dance, wearing a special costume that consists of a bonnet, cowrie-shell vests, and other ornaments; those who partici- pated in the preceding sigi wear eirery- day garments. All males. from those fifty-nine years old to the small boys who can barely walk,Vake part in the pro- sessions and the d ~ n c e s in the public

square, remaining in strict age order. A$ "masks" they represent themselves, that is to say, the generations that h a g flourished since the last sigi.

Ne\v mask types such as "madan:t.," "tourist," and "policeman" were in- vented as people with new functions ap- peared in the Dogon area, but they hav been only t e m p ~ r a r y . ~ In contrast, th 3 - masks that are permanent, that are a13 \vays included in each d~z~rln, are those; that evoke niythic personalities 3 events. These are always described~r relation to astronomy, as it is conceived. by the Dogon, and include a n c e s t o d animals, plants, and even objects thal played an important role during the long: history of the plC1lnet and its occupants.;

When seen in performance, the masks: bring to life "ancestors" that may be hu-: man, animal, or vegetal. In form the% resemble their subjects, seen from th i perspective of the Dogon aesthetic. Th4 colors with which they are painted, their; costumes, and their ornaments reveal, the presence of the four basic elements." Black refers to "water," red to "fire,"- bvhite to "air," and yellow or ochre t q "earth." These "four things" (kize tray), as the Dogon call them, are the "same"; that is, they are the matrixes with which the Creator Amma brought the universe into1 existence (Griaule & Dieterlen 1965:61)-j For the Dogon, a mask that is not brilliant colors - or not repainted if 4 had been carved and used for a previous; ilattla - is nothing but a piece of wood elegantly sculpted but devoid of life! witl-tput any \.slue.'

Except for the ritual shouts they utter1 to evoke the actions of the Fox, the maskj wearers rennain mute. Ne\,ertheless they wear ,I long banci of \\.bite cotton cloth; k~iotted around their hips, the ends ofj

,,hi; : rt'cli~i alnlo5t ~ L I LIlt'gr.0~1ncl; Liiis i'; hc . \-niI)~ii ( i t <>rc:! s p ~ ~ e c l i , 1i1ch ijra5 pye..lt.~i men and \\-hich tlivir mvthic enitor, Xommo, i17 Ihc easthl! t o r n ~ , i ; h91, \\.(11.e be t l~een his teeth \.\'itii l7is @ed toligue, in ttlc water of the fil-st

nd. TGriaLilr. l iar alreadp described t h e lyn lbol i s~~i u t th ree t!,pes of Dogon flasks in terms of the ~Fpern loSt level of pgon kno\\.ledge. Tlicse are the k n ~ r t r ~ i r ,

Imrr~i i to, a n d siri~c' masks (Figs. 2-4) (~riaulel93S:170 ti., 596 if., 587 i t ) . Each of t l~em refers to different stages of the msmogony, revealed either L>\r a detail of heir form or by the steps of theis as- rociated dances, ~vliich follo\v edch other sfid are accompan~ed by changes of hythm. All three represent e\.ents that Dok place at the beginning o f the crea- tion of the universe by a single God, m m a , \cha is immortal, orn~iipotent, + omnipresent. They refer to the movement that .Amma ilnpressrd on the @ar universe after lie created it, and $e descent of an "ark" containing all that was to live on the Earth. .:The Xni i~rgo mask r e p r e s e n t s t h e movement i~nposed up013 the unlx7erse

Anma. "The trcnibling of its \vearerfs a rm is t he movement of

.Amma's h a n d s creating the \4~orld."6 &PIS t i , ".4mma's door," represents lmma "ope11" so that the totality of crea- tion can cnlerge f rom h is b reas t , o r "dosed," after he has finished his work. me siriye mask represents the stars in great number, ~mpl\.ing infinite multipli- cation and y~rgsvsting a series of galaxies and t!izir mox-eme~its in space. I t also re- fers :. Jgcl's journe!. bct\t.een Heaven - dnd E.:~.th, \%.hen 11e \\,as trying to iind a remedy for his incompleteness; to the

d e s ~ e n t of Nommo's ark; a n d to t h e many-storied family house, which shel- ler~ the ancestral altars and \\,hose ar- 3 i t ~ c f u r e clearly recalls the preceding . -. . Wents.

Until this point in the myth the Earth Ras a hea\.enly body occupiecl hy onl!, One of Amma's creations, Ogo, who was Ern prematurely. Because of Ogo's in- completeness a n d his revolt against Amma, he \vas loxvere~i from his original !lutmn condition 2nd t s a ~ ~ s t o r n ~ e ~ i intc, a -Wdruped, the Fox. The three masks refer to the habitation of the planet by Ogo's celestial "brother," Nomrno, the

genitor of humanity; and by his .w- *ns," primordial ancestors o f the pre-

-*tpeoples who came down in the ark 1 & D i t e 1965165, f i g 48; *Oin, fig. 53; 438, fig. 101). MY @\kTii research revealed the nature

??! function of various humans, anj- -!!%ls, and plants that appear either dur-

- 1 SAWANA ISAMO) MASK WOOD PklNT 42 2cm

A-

THE METROPOLITHN MUSEUM OF AF- -~". GIF! OF LESTER WUNDE?l,^At, 6;"

& isk

ing the s tages of creation that follow these events, or in the course ot the ac- tual history of the Dogon. I give a few evamples here of how they are repre- sented by the masks.

Pullo, the F~ilarri

When Griaule collected intormatinn on the mask known aspullo, "Peul" or "Fu- lani" (Griaule 1938:569-72, fig. 150), his informant described it in terms of "front speech," parole deface. The real name ot this mask is dyobi, "the runner" (Fig. 5). It is always worn by very young men w h o h a v e just joined t h e society ot m'isks after leaving the retreat that fol- lows circumcision. The performer of this mask wears a white tunic a n d a cord around his neck from which fibers hang to his knees. In o n e h a n d h e holds a

gourd, in the other a lance; between his legs is a small wooden i~orse . The iiyobi is the first mask to appear after the d rum call. He does not dance, but rather runs here a n d there in disorder. Although keeping to the edge o t the pertormance area, he later rejoins the series o t other masks that appear atter him in single file.

The i f ! i ~ ~ b i represents Ogo betare his transformation into the Fox. Although the mask emphasizes his primar); intan- tileaspect, it also shows his characteristic independencc. It refers to Ogo's tearing out a piece of his placenta that would be- come the ark; finding himself alone a n d incomplete; stealing seeds from Amma, which he put in a gourd, likewise stolen; holding a weapon; and riding a horse, thereby recalling the journeys he made between Heaven andEarth inana t tempt to recover the rest of his placenta and his

T! -- '1" -

lost twin. The red fibers worn wi,h t~ mask are the blood of the wounds in- tlicted on Ogo - n cut tongue, Wound,a l a rynx , a n d c i rcumcised geni tals when he attempted to expropriate for himself the souls o f the Nommo whd- was sacrificed; he was thus deprived speech a n d of his primordial androgmp After all these events , h e w a s trans. formed into the Fox a n d condem. 2 d G remain on Earth (Griaule & Die;erlei 1a65:175-223; 225-384). The knowledi i that Amma accorded Ogo in the begin. ning and never removed from him would be transmitted to men on the divination tableswhere they i s ould read footprintso( the Fox's descendants. These are not, however, obligated to tell the truth.

Various features o f t h e rlyobi ma& evoke the status a111 life of the Fo . For example, the dyobi comes and g0i.q; he ambles about in the fields without order or any particular direction, or lines up with the procession of other masks. S q ilarly, the Fox's d i ~ i n a t i o n tables, drawq in the sand, are never oriented in a par; ticular direction. This is in contrast to buildings, furnishings, altars, and rock paintings, which, whenever possible, are placed in accordance with the ;.~rd. n'il direction,.

As sedentary farmers, the Dogon have inserted a bit of irony in their first levelof interpretat ion o t the p~i l lo mask. The p ~ i l l o , t h e y o u n g " F u l a n i nomad' ' herdsman, is like the Fox; he is withoil land of his own. Provided with a goura tor carrying water and ~ v i t h a lance for attacking or detending himself, he wan- ders tirelessly, alone, irom pasture land- to pasture land, lending his herd. I

Walu, flle A11fe1opc~

This an te lope a p p e a r s qu i te early in Dogon cosmogony (Griaule & Dieterlen 1?65:289, fig. 98). 1Valu was born at the time o f t h e sacrifice of N o m m o , thy mythic genitor of humanity, which took place in the heavens. W~7111 is the matend' s u p p o r t of o n e o t Nommo's spi::rual principles. His s t o y continues on E'lrth.

A m m a m a d e i ~ ' l l 1 1 i respons ib le for watching over the path of the sun , the Fox's transformed placenta, which the Fox is always seeking in order to take possession of his female twin. Unable to attain the sun, the Fox plots his revenge o n the antelope. H e digs holes in the earth a n d lies in wait. Running from east to west, rualcl falls into one of these holes and gravely wounds his feet. One ot the first ancestors, Dyongou Serou, tries heal him, b u t without much success, PV~1lu gets u p limping. H e tries to reach the Blacksmith, the twin of Nommo, to

2 < :;, ' . \~;q blj<S(J[jEH;,re= -2:\.! S,.i>.<.! - - . - - - ~ , ' ',1,',3CC[ .:;q. 'S . I - ',' .. ; ~ 5.: - , - ,',<

. j'? '3 I - ; FIG I :u

d,b his help, hut L?';ics c ) t his wounds at !he Black~mith's > i i c . ?:'t71li1s m'itc joins .:,? Black~mith and delii~ers her young in the Spot, thereby assuring the con- !,,,uity ot thc sp~"ies . This part of the

is represented by various objects ?"d wall paintinss in a series of rock .be]t!~r.s a n d c a v e in the region of Uppel. qanp,.:. Tra\.eling from north to south , v e ~ . m o r e t h a n a k i l o m e t e r , dne can clearly "rcLid" the path iclalr, took :,his tomb.

The dance and mime of the zcwlrt mask (Fig. 6 ) , perforllied dur ing the pro- cessions a n d in the public square , .:loquentl~ evoke these events (Griaule !;)?8:444-49). The ivearer holds a long ,tick in his hand to support his steps. Frorr rime to time he approaches the procession of other masks that he ac- ;ompanies, and makes a show of ~ i v i n g furious blows ivitli his horns, as if to chase away the Fol. If he encounters a &obi mask he redoubles his attacks to hake it flee. The ;c~nlii mask walks on to [he public square, tighting all the while, and then falls to earth as if wounded.

I The "healer" mask, which represents I

Dyoneou Serou, draws near him in order to heal him, but the ic~nllt gets up and continues his path, limping yain- fully untiI he finally exits.

The face of the snt i l i~be mask (literally, "superimposed sister") is surmounted by a female figure car\.ed in wood (Fig. 7). She is dressed in a skirt and orna- ments made of red fiber, and coiffed with a hood of braided black fibers. Her forearms are raised, and she brandishes a calabash in her left hand and an imita- tion of a fly14.11isk in her right hand. The first level of interpretation of this mask situates the person represented in the domain of the Andouniboulou, descen- dants of Ogo prior to his transformation into the Fox. The mask represents an Andoumboulou \\.oman who was the

first to discover the red fibers - u ~ l ~ o s e origin is not stated in the s i s i language -and who used them to mask herself in order to frighten the men. The men took the fibers away from her, affirming their authority, but she was named "sister" oi the masks, to commemorate her disco\-- cry.

On the level of "speech of the 14~orld" or "clear speech," the figure on the mask represents Yasigi, the female t ~ v i n ot Ogo after he hecame the Fox. Yasigi be- longed to the generation of Nommo and the Fox, that is, the oldest generation of all. The calabash that the figure holds In her hand recalls the fundamental role of woman at the celebration of the first s i g i . It was s h e w h o , a s a n e lde r , brought and distributed the beer made by the women. This drink was con- sumed by all the participants, \vho thereby celebrated the revelation of

"speech" transmitted by Nommo to the ancestors of mankind. Yasigi became the first dignitary of the ceremony; her title, yasiginc, means "woman of sigi. "

he red fibers adorning the figure re- call another episode of the myth. En- couraged by the Fox, Yasigi cultivated the fonio that he had planted, which be- came red and impure. The same hap- pened to the hibiscus that grew on the edge of the field. This was because Yasigi hoed with her clitoris, thereby excising herself and impregnating the earth and the plants with her own blood. Later, after other events, the red hibiscus fibers came to be used as ornaments on the costumes worn with the masks.

Throughout her life, Yasigi, who had the same character as her twin, the Fox, and who was often counseled by him, committed error after error and freely broke all prohibitions. Having gone too far, she was chastised by Amma and died while pregnant. Despite her sins, Yasigi was buried apart from the others, since she was the first !/(lsiiyiilc. Her body was covered with red fibers recalling her past experiences, and another ynsigiile was chosen both to replace her and to repre- sent her during the celebration of the second scgi, sixtv years later.

Today, during the installation of a !insi,yi~i~., the elder \vho officiates at the ,lItar ot the masks says: "Here is the sister ot the masks." When a ynsigirrc dies, her b o d is displayed dressed in skirts and bracelets miide otred tibers. Before being carried to the ceretery i t is greeted by masks from all the areas that had been told o i her death (Griai~le 1938:275, 337 tt.).

Duri11g thelfi~ri~~? ceremony, performed for all the recent dead, a mask called

6 .I<LIJ (i\i.ricLi)PE) hI&C VlCIO0 PAINT 49 2cn THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUN OF ART

GIFT OF LESTER IYUNDERMAN 1979

satirrrllc was carved to recall Yasigi's role during the iirst sigi. One of the songs that accompanies the dance of thes i i t~ t )~l~~ ' mask in the village of Touyougou tes- tifies to the character and tragic destiny of Yasigi: "The cunning Yasamma (liter- ally, 'wife-sister') has fallen ~ i e ~ i d . " ~ The tivo dances accompanying the sntililbc and their corresponding rhythms are re- lated to the seeds the Fox sowed by broadcasting, and the cultivating clone by Yasigi, that is, how she covered the seeds with earth.

/ * -.i - 1 " "

,= 1 ' C 's , Sa ku or Azagay I I The mask calledsa k ~ i (literally, "head of ? :. 7-

so") or n:a);ay (Fig. 8) refers to a basic ' . . C, slage of Dogon cosmogony. After Amma

created the universe and handed over its operation to the Nommo ~ i~on i to r s who

<, r!,, , .., c . ~ L . ,FULANII M ~ S ~ J L E R A U E R t ~ d i ! SAi.l(;A n1aintaint.d the order he had i.stClblished

FRJ,\,I GEIAULE 1938 ~ ~ 7 0 :.:L; I ~ , in Heaven and on Earth, he momentarily

stopped working (Griaule & D 1965:506). The Fox, who had acted in oppositior! to the Creat declared that Amma was taking power. He decided to beer from the seeds of the grains h hidden from Amma. and dance on the terrace of his "fat to celebrate his funera the Fox wanted to domination o i the No in terrestrial waters and who wa over the spiritual principlesof hum ings, his "children." To do this he p off the bark of the sn tree, the ea symbol of the sacrifice and of Nommo, and fabri it. ,The torn bark was red lik this act had the effect of flay' alive, of repeating on Ex th that had ocsurrcci in H t , a \ . ~ n . ~ The $??"I drank i hit of beer, hut his contain?[ $ imrnediatel!. strusL ~ I o r v n . ~ . ~ c s l . i d ~

. . *a!, l l L , Li<lllLL~L~ ~1 LYt :-i:: \\.'l. cllLlseL~; 9e 1 , .j , I L ~ ~ I I I L ~ ~ I - . ~ I ~ ~ 111: ::i,:~k J I I L ~ svL>k- - ,,,s !,!tlge I l l '1 C < l \ . L > . i l 1 C n e \ t <l'l\., q o ~ 1 ? n l ~ ~ C J L I S C ' L ~ '1 5,) ~ Y L ' L thCl t \\.CIS ali\.<x Ind I L I I I oi Ica\-c'. to dance; men , tlie de- -ynd.'.iits of h ' o n ~ m c ~ , had also made a kask from it." T ~ I , Fo\ remains t!ie first to ha1.c. initi,~ted funtxr,~r!. rites, cind to ha\.e ut 'ated the first otall the masks, t l i ~

k i i . The ri\.alr! for priniac!. bet\vecn fie 5, i:! and the masks madc of Iea\,e: /giri;':iii., literall!., "so nest") has ne\.er ;east.d.

Dybnune, t l~c "H~~illcr."

f ie mask called ii?/iil~~cric represents a elhealer," a speclalist consulted by one and all for every sort of problem (Fig. 9). In one hand the \\.carer oi this mask holds a car\,ed \vooden CLIP, a n imitation of the pottery \-essel in \\.liich healers macc;-ate plants and other therapeutic ingredients. In his other hand he carries a f ly \c l~ i sk . H e walks a longs ide t h e masks d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s i o n s a n d moves a r o u n d alone d u r i n g t h e per- formances that take place in the public square. Squandering his niedicines, he

to plunpe his fly\vhisk into the $-JM~I and to sprinkle tlie masked dancers and the audience as soon as an). disorder

c u ; =.'If a mask breaks or if fibers fall to the ground during the dances, they are picked up imnit.diately b!. an elder or an unmasked dancer. The cf!/i)r:rrrrc. sprinkles the ground where the incident occurred, topurifj.it (Griaulel938:552 ff., fig. 147).

The mask refers especially to Dyongou Serou, one of the primordial ancestors \vho c a m e d o \ ~ n o n S o n i m o ' s a r k . D j n - ~ o u Serou was the first expert in

leal! 2. H e tried to heal the wounded antelope, icli7lri, a n d as a result he in-

vented medicine and the knowledge of healing products. This accomplishment is u n d e r s c o r e d by t h e f o r m of t h e

Gooden mask. For knfi\\.ledgeable view- ers, the carved figures surmounting the face of the mask clearly e l ~ o k e the ap- pearance of death on Earth, first among the .~.ndoumboulou (the descendants of Ogo -fter his transformation into the Fox) and then that of Dyongou Shrou, Who was the first human to die. These sequences of the myth lie outs ide the scope of this article.

"Old CVolnail"

The " o ~ d woman" mask consists o f a braided hood with a wig of undyed fibers imitaiing white hair (Fig. 10); two oblong

h a r d . ; are suspended at chest level to represent her flaccid breasts (Griaule 1938:534). T h i s m a s k r e p r e s e n t s a metamorphosis, o r deputy, of Amma,

;?ho according to legend intervened dur- _'ng the migration of the Dogon. Seated F s s a path on the edge of the cliff, the

--old lcoman" observed the behavior of the new immigrants, both that of the el-

7 :.:- '!ai wooc P A I N T ' i c 27-

;-F ! . 'CTR35 ,L lTAI< rfuSE.~:.' L; -= - - , , n t ,? MICtilE_ C R3Cb::FELLER I / i l i i j R i A ' 2:-.ECTlON

PLIP<L'-TZF '!ELSC''. ,I HOCEL'ILLEF 5 7 ' 9L?

ilers w h o s t e p p e d o \ .e r her ~ v i t l i o ~ i t g ree t ing he r a n d t h ~ t of the y o u n g Adouon, who stoppec! to talk to her. She identified those whose attitude bespoke the ability to eflectivel!. assume supreme authority, ancl then helped them.

For all those fami11ar with this se - quence of the legendary history ot tlie Arou, the miming done by the wearer of this mask is clear. He slaps liimselion the shoulder as if to chase arvay flies. Fie ~ l s o holds a calabash containing fragments of fruits o r rags, cvhich he distributes to the youngest spectators during the clances. His slaps o n the shoulders are not to chase away tlies, but to recall the young .Advuon, abandoned on the road by his elders. After greeting the "old woman," 1 4 d u ~ ~ o n complained o f h ~ ~ n g e r ; slie told him to climb on her sl~oulclers and the nape of her neck, and to take the rice tliat he would find o n her head. Then slie ga1.e him several objects that he wo l~ ld iirid useful. Rejoining his starving older brothers, he gave away the major por- tion of these gifts in order to nourish them, thereby acting like a noble, gener- ous being despi te having been aban- cloned and insulted b\. them (Dieterlen 1982:ll-l-16, 166-67).

The behavior of the auclience also re- ..-eals the meaning of this ~nask . "When tile mask has made the ruunds ot t I ie~1~1- d~cince i t sits in the center of the square 2:1d receives offerings o t cowries that tlie spectators make while kneeling, a 01s- t~)rn~ir), gesture ot respect towarci elders" [Griaule 1938539). It 1s e\.en more reveal- ing \\.hen one knows that the mask hears tcitness to the presenc* oi Aninici.

The Samo are an ensemble of lineages that occupy part of the r e ~ i o n sur ro~~l - td- ing the village of Kani Gogouna. The

jirilial:a mask depicts a member of this ethnic group (Fig. 1). Only one srlrllrmil m'isk participates in the ceremonies, un- like other masks, which appear in multi- ple examples. Its face, displaying scariti- cation marks, l o is verv elongated and is generally surmounted by a thin blade of wood , the whole painted a brilliant white. The wearer brandishes a lance in his right hanel and a scvord in his left (Griaule 1938:579, fig. 135).

Tliesa111il17rr mask and its behavior ha\.e been desci-ibeci m a n times by Griaule. "The exa~ge ra t ed skull of this mask is an important comic element that plays a role in the mime of the dancer" (Griaule 1938:797, n. 1). The wearer performs an exaggerated pantomime when he must take his t u rn s tepping across a wide break in the rocks, a part of the rliiirl~~ ritual that occurs on the second day of the celebration (Griaule 1938:374). He executes patterns with his weapons and

acts the boaster ( p . 571). While the crs ot all the other masks remain InUte. "he addresses the spectators and era '

cks jokes, c r u d e l y im i t a t i ng t h e Same dialect. . . . After a lengthy mock battle !vith a n i m a g i n a r y enemy , he f a l l s exhausted on the ground" (p. 803), pro- voking hilaritv from tlie auclience.

~ l t h o u g h comic, this maskand '!leaf. t i tudes of its wearer recall a hiztoric event. In an exceptional alliance with the Fulani, the Dogon waged war in orderto resis t the military incurs ions of the Tukulor, propagators of Islam, who were led bv El Hadj Omar. The Samo repre. sented by the mask was a traitor who tratfickeci with both sides and paicl torit with his life. Even though in the end the Titkulor occupied a part of Dogot- ;eri- tory L1lld imposed their dominatic.;, the battles ceased ,ind a compromise was in. itiated when a prestigious Tukulor chic[ "miraculously disappeared" in a cave in Dogon country, close to Bancliagara. The presence of the ir71rla11n mask and its ges: tures evoke the courageous - and in part glorious - resistance with which tlie Dogon have faced occupation and conversion by others.

Like us, tlie Dogon have experienced \ .irlous degree. ot teaching. Like us, they have classifieci their ciiscourse into \ . ' i r io~~s categories of "speech," \\.hich cnsol-np~lsses everythins \\.e call the~r "oral literature." We must distinguish the explanations they give concerning the meanings ofpr'lyers, mottos, invoca- t ions , a n d t he like, which a r e Dro- nounceci d u r i n g public ceremo:;ies, from the stories, proverbs, 'ind legc~ids that they recite to relatives and friends, ~cne ra l l y in the c\-cning. All ,ire related to the level of kno\vledsr of their hear- ers, anci to their !\ illingness to be taught. A11 the levels are valid. ..

r-\ procession ot masks represents the ensemble of the universe. Of course, the. ;i.i7lil represents an animal of the ti-~rest that one hunts and kills in order t(: ?at. '1 his is the source tor Griaule's commen- :.iry, which is a l i ~ ~ n t i n g story. But the n ~ ~ i s k also represents an antelope ances- tor that played the mythic role described

13 :',3?,!,11:E 1 ~ 1 E b L i q \ VLSCLIEPACtR

FROM GHIALJlE 1558 fSJ FIG 1J7

P - 'C

H A L L hlASOUERADER FF;3ii,, SANGA FROM GRACILE 1938 471 FIG i10 L

- . A

briefly a b o v e . S i m i l a r l y , t h e "o ld woman" m a s k r e p r e s e n t s a n y a g e d \froman, maintaining lirr place in society. But she is also the s!.mbol of Amma's de- ut\. \vho intervened during the Dogon 2.. .

mgrjtlon. This event is described in the - legendary histor!, o f t h e A r o u , t h e Dogon group that assumed supreme au- thority and has preserved it to this day

ADieterlen 1982). The "healer" mask is a specialist who treats the sick, but more important it represents the first healer, the ancestor \vho cured the iclalli.

I - Other examples of the multiplicity of , meanings of Dogon masks abound. The hare :nask (Figs. 11,12) and two masks -representing birds are symbols of game

ursued by hunters. First and foremost, owever, they are three mythic animals

died because they ate part of the first fonio harvest. This grain, planted by

[%e Fox and cultivated by Yasigi, be- =Cdme red and impure. Likewise, on one level the monkey masks (Fig. 13) un- doubtedly represent those dreaded de- sboy- rs of crops who devour the heads 0fmil;t.t on the stalk in fields far from set- tlements. But o n another l e ~ ~ e l they are evidence of the cathartic alliance uniting the Dogon of the Sanga and Bamba re- gions. This alliance brings with it the ob- ligation of mutual assistance, such a s Purifications for the gravest violations of Prohibitions. It also calls fo r t h e ex- change of gibes a n d insults. For exam- Ple, \ ~ h e n a person from Bamba arrives

+the market, one can hear a Dogon from -nga call out to him joyfully: "Greet- t %s, old monkey from Bamba!" to which

the other replies in the same insolent and

! -Qmic tone. " In order to understand the role of the

i :&masks in relation to the Dogon system of 'bought, when w e were in the field Mar- 1 .%- ~~

,. . , e l r a ~ J : $1 L i I . - L . c , , , , . . :, ~ L J L , ' . i 01 cd;.,i;;.,Ldl <:i.! ~,:. \ .>i , , . , taught at the I n q t i t ~ ~ t d'Ethnc>logic~ h\ , Iiappc~licd to such and s~ lc l i a plant to h4arccl h l a ~ l s s . ~ ' \\'Iic~ii controntcd \vith a c a ~ ~ b t . 1 1 t c ) he rt .p~-~l>entcd s o rn~~n!, timcs mask and a col;iinCn:;1s\ ~ l ~ ~ i i i i i i i n g ti.c?m b!. a m s k . 5~1~11 q ~ ~ c s t i o l l s \<.t.;-c al\.\.ci!,i a h ~ ~ n t i i ~ g stor!, a ic~c,iidas>. cpisodc, a an~\<~crc\cl , situating the mask in mytliol- talc, or a simple a n ~ ~ c d o t e . \\.e m.ould ask og); llistor): or o n the lcvel of social or- in "spwch of thc \\-orld" \<,hat such and ganii,~:ion.

12 HARE h4ASk \4'\'OOD PAINT 40cm

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART GIFT OF h!R AND tvlPS J GORDON DOUGLAS I ! , '982

rile initi'll i n f o r m c ~ t i o n concern ing animal masks c o n t ~ i n s abundant refer- ences to the invention ot masks tor the protection ot hunters. The hunters, ancl their descendants as well, were c.~111?era- ble to attacks by the i-ital force f t l ! j r ~ ~ ~ r i ~ i of their vengetul victims. This is i 1 . h ~ hun- ters a n d warriors surround themselves ~ v i t h multiple protections such as altars, special plants, a n d amulets. The mask bvas '1 means of aftixing the force to a n irn,lge o t the animal or the enemy killed. Through a sacrifice. this image could be integrated into a series of such "dead" beings, which were depicted by the masks during the ~l i r t rr i i as thev were when alive.

Griaule collected much evidence on this funct ion, but a s early a s 1938 h e felt this interpretation was lacking. H e be- lieired that a t the base of the institution of masks there must be something other than a rite performed to protect hunters a n d warriors from theattacks of theirvic- tims.12

Our present goal is not merely to offer a comparative analysis of the commen- taries obtained at the beginning of the investigation of m a s k s ~ ~ m o n g the Dogon a n d those resulting from later research. In cases where o n e can examine the t \~ .o iliterpretations, it is clear that a n appar- ently b'inal story, fable, o r song often re-

'3 $

~:eals a subtle association with mythol: ozv. The male ii,alll antelope was tr.lpped in a "pit" made by the hunter, like the ancestor of the species w h o fell ins "hole" m a d e b y t h e Fox ( G r i a u l e 1938:426, 445). The male kn antelope was killed by the arrow of a hunter, like the antelope that was pierced three timesby the ancestor Dyongou Serou's arrow in orcier to prevent it from pursuinq th, ii'i7111 i t w a n t e d t o a t t a c k ( G r i a u l e 1938:426, 445). The s t ~ d y o f the meaning of masks, like those based o n hunting stories cited here, l 3 will permit new ap. proaches to those w h o are interested in language, oral literature, a n d systems of thought.

A performance of masks, described many times by Griaule, is an enormous aesthetic demonstrat ion. The appear; ance ot the characters, burstin; ivith color and movement, provokes the en. thusiasm not only o f local residents but also of outsiders. Those \\.ho are able- generally elder men - honor the proces, s ion of masks ~ v i t h a "greeting of t@ b u s h " o n t h e first d a y o t their per- tormance, a n d continue to praise and e s ~ l t them a f t e r ~ v a r d . ' ~ In addition, die !,erst? " e ~ i c o ~ ~ r a g e n i e n t s " are repeated tor e,icli mask as it dances, a n d [hest most otten include not only allusions to their actions but also to the rhythrns ac- companying them.

The importance of the d rums in the performance of masks should not be oi.erlooked. Drums are mentioned frex quently in the speeches pronounced in- siyi language d u r i n g the ceremoniesi "The drums have beaten, have bcaten ~vell; the men have danced with the2 legs, danced with their arms" (Griaule- 1938:132,137,139, 151, 342, 515, 538, 544, 597) . T h e s o n g s a n d m o t t o s pro-' nounceci d u r i n g t h e funeral o r rlamll ceremonies when these masks appear, have been stuclied, a s have the dancesol pantoniimes performeel by those whq Ivear them. Their meaning is most o f t m associated with niythology.. But bvhd prec i se ly is t h e c o n t r i b u t ~ o n o : the nLlmerous d r ~ ~ m m e d rhythms that sup: port anci direct them? G r i a ~ ~ l e recorded the names of more than eighty rhythms accompanying the mask and ~ ~ n d e r s c o r e d their importance: "The, rhythm is represented as if it existed in- ciependently, betore the ciance" ( ~ r i a u l e 1938:800).

bvhat are the specific relat ionshi~s be' tween rhy thms a n d dances? H o ~ v do they relate to other aesthetic forms? AC cording to a n often repeated Dogon pression, "The mask goes to the ~ i r u m Like a call, the d r u m s o p e n all e r e . monies; the procession otinasks tollo\~'S. The masks nelZer turn to\\-ard the specta;

"Br

1 LJp r<l:\l~'r 1 - dl-i::ll< t 1 1 ~ t t 1 l c >

1 "t;rt t" hc'tc71-c, Ic:\ 1.1:: tllc p~lbli i C L ~ L I ~ I - C ,

J 5 \ < ',ell tllc' \ ~ C ~ l l ' c J ~ O l t l l ~ ' : i l ' l ~ ~ ' lllcl~k t l l t5

its It'ilp, ~ i i~ i s t ~ ~ i l t i ! I! t i ~ ~ ~ i l l c s the, ~ r o ~ ~ n d . m e n \cornen appear in the square dur- f i g funerals, the! al\\.a! s a p p r ~ ~ a i h tlic drummers and dance in front of them. b,,~xe of the s!.mbc~lic \ . a l ~ ~ e of these in- ~ tumen t s , they pay homage to them.

l-he first rhythm to appear in Dogon cosmogo~iy \\'as played by tlie ancestor of t]lc genealogists xve call gi.iots. He beat on the sk~lll of tlie sacrificed Nomrno in Order to punctuate the re\.elation ot the floral word" and the teaching i t con- tained for the ancestors of mankind. Later they danced the sigi and drank the co"imunal beer (Dieterlen 1982:78). from this it seems that all a r t ic~~la ted language is inseparable from rliytlini, or lhat rhythm alone is a language "xvithout

that contirmed and supported speeih. - HOW can we understand the many admirable rhytlilns, tirelessly repeated

throughout entire nights during Dogoii funerals? They are organically dynamic and ineffable, and plunge those ~ v h o execute theni and tliose rho hear them into an almost painful euphoria, perhaps &cause of their transience and the fact that they must end at daybreak.

L A

- E\.idence of tlie importance of drums > and of the age attributed to tliis in- 3trument - is provided by the number +f lithophones that are used in Dogon .-

rituals. These sonorous, uncar\~ed rocks are found in almost all the caxres, rock

I shelters, or faults in tlie plateau in irhich t h e stages of cosmogony arc represented by \.arious turnishings and \\'all paint- ingc They are beaten ~ritli round stones -

on ;. precise spot on their surface or corner, \risibl!l worn by tlie blo~vs. In - ~

general, young goatherds played these drums to amuse themselves. The!, also played theni during the execution of an-

-. -nual rites that they alone \ v G e responsi- - - , ble for performing.Ih - It is also important to study another musical instrument, the bullroarer, in terms of the Dogon perspective, and to understand the symbolism of its hum- ming sound (Fig. 14). In the region of Sanga, three bullroarers called iiiiiiln ila are carved before the sigi ceremony by its participants. The young initiated dig- nitaries calIed ol~ ibaru , "masters of the bush," are responsible for the rites per- taining to the "Great Maskrr that bears the same name as the bullroarers and that is --

carved, painted, and consecrated for the a r e r n o n y . The olirbnru have completed a l o n g retreat, during which they have learned the special language of sigi as Well as the handling of the bullroarers, Which they generally make hum at night before and during the entire course of the ceremony.

" Elongated oval \vooden boards, these

instruments are pierced at one end by a

14 BL'LLROAHERS h4fiDE OF V\'OCD A N D IRON FROII' G Y I A U L E 1933 253 FIG 43

hole in ~ ~ h i c h a long twisted cord is at- tached, allo~ving them to be spun and turned.17 On the level of myth, each of the three bullroarers is a tongue. The first is that of the Fox, which was cut at the same time as his larynx when he tried to a p p r o p r i a t e ~ o m m o ' s sou l s a t t h e time of his sacrifice. The second is that of the sillire fish, symbol of the human fetus, which was fished improperly by the ancestor, Dyongou Serou. Dyongou Serou wished to place it on the altar he established for his own benefit, without the authorization of the resuscitated Nommo, the mythic genitor of mankind. The third bullroarerltongue is tliat of Dyongou Serou himself, who was sac- rificed to pay for this outrage and to make possible mankind's de\,elopment on Earth. After various transformations, including a resurrection in the form of a serpent follo~ved by a new death, a long w o o d e n s e r p e n t cal led t h e "Great Mask," iriiiiin izn, was carved for the sigi to represent Dyongou Serou as an ances- tor.

For t he Dogon, these bullroarers speak. Their words are: "I swallo~z., I swallow, I swallow men, wonien, chil- dren, I swallow all." They are evidence of the appearance of death on Earth - tliat of the fish, that of tlie Fox ~vl io was ultimately condemned, and that of the first man to die. After striking the ances- tor, sooner or later death would inevita- bly strike all lixring beings. The bullroarer bears the same name as the Great Mask: in effect, it too is a mask.

The bullroarer is the speecli, or what is left of it, of a dead perscn. This explains the emotiuii that grips the listeners ~ v h e n it is sounded at midiiiglit, during the funeral . All fires acconipaiiyiiig t h e mourners are extinguished, everyone disperses into the neighboring streets, all the drums fall silent: tlien one hears the repeated humniings, from low to high and from high to low, of the bull- roarer that accompanies the appearance of the Great Mask. Held verticaIly on the shoulder of a bearer, the Great Mask ar-

~ I X es in the p ~ ~ b l i c square; i t circles tlic 'ii~ar co~ i s t~c ra t~d to the Noiiimo to ask him tor the. soul tliat had been refused because oi its impurity. I t obtains i t and returns to sl io~z~ its thanks. Then i t goes to tlie terrace of the deceased's house. A member of the deceased's family at- taches a 1ix.e chicken, representing the soul that has finally been granted, to the top of the Great Mask. It tlien returns to the public square to thank its genitor. It is his speech tha t is t ranslated by the humming of the bullroarer, which con- tinues to sound while the carrier places the mask in the cave consecrated to it.

The Dogon are not satisfied merely xvitli setting up their own categories, and \i.itli establishing correspondences be- tween them. Whether it concerns a cer- eni(xiy ora familial event, the anal!?sis of a ritual test or a simple inquiry, everyone cluestioned seemed to have a keel1 taste fol. spec~ilations. As Griaule said regard- ing information ahout certain roles attri- buted both to rock paintings a n d to masks: "Rather than contradictions, these should be seen as differences in in- t e rp re t a t i ons , a s a r e f o u n d in a n y dogma" (Griaule 1938:423, n . 1). Those Dogon wlio have penetrated deeply into tlieir traditions and their interpretations become scliolars in their own fashion. They learn to ~nanipulate an exegesis of reflections that their own c~lstoms, be- liefs, and arts ha\fe inspired among their people. This is tlieir work, and the rea- son why, in view of their age, function in hociet!; and competence, they are re- spectfully listened to during meetings and sought out \vlien a problem arises in their community

Performances ofa mask and its actions are al\vaps accompanied by various tests - "speecli" -and it is clear what xralue \2'est African societies accord tliis term. Masks are witnesses of the dead that "enchant" all of society by their lively presence. As such, are they also, as a competent informant suggested, the "t\vinsr' of those \vho created and then wore them in order to tell their story? Just as one does not kill or eat one's to- temic prohibition, one never makes or Ivears a mask depicting it. 0 1 1 the other hand. tliis articular mask can be made and worn by someone with \whom one has a "joking" relationship, who as- sunies a cathartic role in regard to tlie ~ e r s o i i whose proliibition it is. The jok- ing re1atix.e can wear it with impunity, as a sort of mockery.

I f we look once again at Dogon cos- mogony, we see that the Fox, who created the mask, made it to represent his origi- nal twin, to defy and combat him, but also to recall his sacrifice and temporary death. He was immediately countered by this twin, who the next day made the same tree "dance," green a n d fully leaved.

Nofcs , ;~ngc 87

i!l,.;ig~i ol' thc LL\:' i l l , : :<I.,. i ~ i > l ~ > ! - , < c b *t~: ' : ! ,~-

i . i n t a1.1 J c t a i l i t h a t arc i ; i . ~ u - x , Z in t l i c t e x t

and c a y t t o n s a r l s o h s r i ! r ~ , ~ i 1>\ t : i c bini i ins i c . ~ . , 131 81). 5c1rne l i i z t ~ ~ r i c a l ~ I i i i t ~ g r a p l ~ s

n t i f a c i n g pages hlccci i t i t< , onc a n ~ ) t l i e r , t l ic : r

b u s y b a c k g r o u n d s m e r g i n g i n t o a b s t r a c t

c l l d o s

D e s p i t c t h r s c c o n c e r n h , F r o ~ r i //it- Laird ! l i ! i iC

Tht(~111 l'rili~s makes a fine contribution a n d li,ls

broad a p p e a l . The p h o t o g r a p h s are s p e c t a c u -

l a r , Equally i m p o r t a n t , J i ~ n a i t i s Iias c o n f i r m e d

that i t is v a l u a b l e to examine the h i s t o r y oi a c o l l e c t i o n of tribal a r t . I t is encourasing to see t h e i m p o r t a t i t h o l d i n g s 01 t l t e A t i i e r i c a n h l a - s e u t l i of Natura l Histor! r c c e i \ . i n g \\.ell- deserued a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s s t r i k i n g v o l u m e .

L1i~-k~r ia KJ1ll?t:

U i i i i ~ e r s i t y of i Y n s / ~ i r i g t < ? i ~ , S[,iittlc

notes IIICTCRLCX: Tolc'i, Ir.-zr: lri,qc. 43 Tllis artjclc IS .In c\tenslon o i the, cprii.~l l i i w c ~ n Dujiun art o r j i a n ~ ~ e d b\ Katcb E1r.i tx,riirrii,iai ; , I - 1\,11I. ?I, no 1, I'iS>l 1 In t17e D<,prn Iangil.lcc, ~liarliii rnr.lni "pruh~h~t lon." l h r ccrcmun\ known by. Iht. tialnc l~a . bwn called thc ''c.nd 0 1

~ n u u r n l n g " b r i au i r it marks the <,nd of ccrt.?in ~prohi l>~t~un\ r~.latcd lo ., pc.rsun's dec>lh that i u n r l r n not only clo\c3 -el., tivc.5 but the cnt~rc. c<>mn,un~t \ (Griaulc I03S 3-17 11) 2 . "l>ofio~r kix,n I d g r cdn bc d l \ ~ d < d ~ n l u [cur \l.lgc.i aI>lcl? are, in ordcr 111 tncreaajnq ~mynitnncr:,yirr.;i, 'tr<,nt \ycvLh Ihr f i r 1 rl.rse ofhnwr li.it;cc<,n<t\lt!is<~I \ l l i l j ~ l ~ ~ \ ( l l d l l . l l l ~ l l l .

~n W I > I C I I ,l~).tI?ic p"simd~c-r arc 0ttc11 dibjiui~ed<I. . , 1~?,2,1,~.~,, ' q i i ~ . >pprrh. In ~ v h ~ c h t1,v c \ p l ~ n r ! i ~ > n , tc>r i L . r ; . > i i ~ rllc? a n ,

gi\?n .and in n.li~cli cclirrdln.~t~rln a,-iv.,r- ~1111\ \ t i l l ~ t , ~ C . I L ~

malor dirlsii,n, . . . l\~l,.r: 'hark i l~rc . ih , ' i \ . l~>ch crntplclzs ti;,, p r~ .c<,dtn~ r a t ~ g o r ? 1.v pru\ . td~ng a!ntll~w,\ thc h ro ,~d~ , r ~ ~ O L I P L L I ~ S , .ii,lii>~,r ' C / C , I ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C I I . ' \\ h l i h t < i i > n r < , r ~ ~ r d \ r ~ t h the I '~I( ICI . of k n o \ ~ I ~ d f i ~ i n 811 :is s \ J l - o r d c r ~ d c i~rnl~lr \ t l \ (Gr~aulc. 1Y52.27). Fur rncrrc ~ ~ ~ h l r m a l ~ c l n o n the, ~ l ,nrr ,?nt !>ll.

vc.lr rcrc,rn<>nlc\ that occur during-.r\zn nm\ccu l< i c \car. I: d i ~ r r w Dogon area< .I., i?~ctcrlr~n 1U:l 1-1 1) 3 Excn 101~1n:s a r r \omvtimes pre-rnl , i,,xrlL,d u n tllr.:: gr,lndt,ltl~cr<' 5hclulacri -1. Thc s.lrnc 1s truc 1111 ~ ~ L I L > I I c p c r t u r n ~ ~ l n c C ~ dnlol7g t l l c

Bamana, 8070, and 50111!1-~, lVl7('rl1 1 l h l l \ ~ , L . C . L . ~ I I I L I ' ' p > i ~ . r - nor," "atrillanr." a n d "zi.l~~mnbrle" n~ .~ ,k \ :\ nr.l.h iallcd "elc.ctrun~c rnachinc," \>a. pdrt ('1 tlic L ~ T O C C ~ \ I C I I ~ at A ICL . I~ \ .~ ! In B~rn.lko In 15'62. 7 Thi. ,ntc,ryrctnttun u: filc t u n d ~ n ~ c n t a l - v t l~ l i~ l t i \ A I L W color5 2.. ~ v l l n c ~ s r \ i.1 t i , r , ' ' c lc~n~cn!~ ' ' e\l,l.?ln. !hr ~ l l t l t i l ~ i ~ t~hcn!,,, t l ~ v I l ~ > g o r \ ~ l > ~ ~ r ~ l ~ v n R o o c i ~ , \> l>c,l,,~d t l > ~ , ~ r IILYIV!<- sion t<> f ~ l r n ~ i l ~ ~ , x i l . t \rntt.t ltlm thrilvcin):c,tthr t ~ h e r i . l l ~ ~ i the, \ \uud mash\. Thcr.lcicr~ rctuwli rr.icr.l~~ll\., i n \ o h ~ n g lhc~ ~mport,>nct~ ot 1111s ntual. ~rhich alwa!\ takes placv at a dl,- I.lncr, out of thes!ghtot t haw ~ c h < ~ d v not be!<ln): t,l t!~em.?.h sr)c>ety h 1 hr hn i r i i~n also t c f r~ ,%en t i ., \taler inwcl th.it. In order to

' , - ,:', I ! v I ,> , !N,MI!LL' t , , $ ) , s > \ T > ~ I , I > I , I ' . , > I ; ,)itt,,.,t. 'I,,.. ,:,;: I > , l l l ~ < ~ l > ~ l 1 1 7 ~ 1 ,,\ ,I,,,ci ,,!I<,: c lL, . , , , :<<!, , ,<~~!, ,<, ,~l ,~r .<>, , I ,?!!,. 1 l > c , A , , ~ j < , ' : , , ">A,!. , < , , Y < , \ < ~ , l t . t l l ~ lll>ril 0 1 , l-,,<.L, t<>~ , r I, .:. I l l < , . \ I ! , l , I , ~ l > ~ ! \ ~ l , : I,,. L , \ ' . , : L , , ,,I , , , I , , - -.

in^, I I C I ~ L . ' \ > I IL~-+ I . IVI ' ' ~ : I ! L , I > .,'I~III rc l \cdI~ lhcr ILIPII- I,!\ ,,. a ",,, , . ll ,>~ , J I>CL~<IL>, ' I>L,,'>L,.L' tile l i t . 1 ~ L , I , L , ~ ' I ~ , , , , > , I 0 > \ : > 3 ~ - l l c l ~ ~ , I t > > l f i % . \ V < h L<>l,l,><+.L~i ,,,,\<.LI lWI~l5 l l ~ l , . l ~ ~ r l ~ , , IU?rl ,411 lhc,rl~rc )'asisit( rc,nl.r,nr.d (11, Ivm.~lc l\\,in o f thc Fox l l i i iiqr Ilic. wni: q ~ ~ < > t v d hi,!< I , I c~l lur~ad bv .~nc,lhcr that ~nI,,::n~ nl%,lllh,lt l i l > l c ~ ~ ) h ~ I ~ i n<!l - >\i,ltliI n~i t - li,~n+l.~tr,. 14111 :Ill,:. c r n r I l , l ~ ~ ~ c d t11~1l i t i, I ~ I L I T ~ I I ~ ~ T C , ~ ~ bv I ~ ~ O L I ~ I I L . ~ ~ whc.n IIIL, , t r>n.~ 'c~~l tllc IX?L~\ L > I ,7 ~ l r ~ c ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ i ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 0 t l ~ c , ~-cn~c'tcrv (GT,,!,,~,, lLi;s 5-4) S Till, ,,I trc,i, i \ tlic l.rirt!rvii o.rtli: \\hen r c r n ~ , \ . ~ d . it, hark 15

t l , ~ , L L I I , ~ , , , I L?!,>,>L~ t f t . r ~ > ~ ~ t t ' , t l ,~ , I ~ ~ c . I I ~ I I > ! ; 111~. I,.~th t~bvr tn~,v.h I l~at r t ~ t ~ r

< , \ ~ m ~ t ~ > , ~ l l v ~ -> I I~ IL . ' I , ,IIILI t l ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ . . Y ~ L I L ~ ~ I C V ~ v t his .I<~IOIIS cxcr tlrnc.~ll I ~ c . ~ , u t \ ~ d r t l , r c u y e < ~ t ! I , > > . irl~rlc. ' I hc~c ,d , c , , - l i > r ~ , - .!rv r;pr,..~.i~lrJ hv ~lh~t.rl . i > r I IKL p.llnlingi In \ . r l r ~ ~ ~ ~ h c.i!c.- l lic Ic.,~ rn.ibk5 . i / 'pr.~~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ / ~ c ~ ? d ~ , ~ > t l i . _ I L > I bt>k?,c the I'.11I11 \ l idb< l l l

Ill. T5c.e s c , ~ r , t ~ c ~ t ~ c ~ t > \ ~ l v ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ t r ~ ~ l ~ ~ 117~' K , , h~d~ tc~ r>g~n 01 Ill? S . I ~ , I I - Thv hl.ilinkr. i r > n ~ n k ~ ~ .,nd D i ) ~ < , n . I ~ C not scarcficd 11. \larcr,l Gr!rlult, ,ind I ivcrc :i~ng-timc students of hlc~u.r<. and > \ ? , ~ t y ~ I ~ ~ ~ c i hi, t i ic~tI?<~~i o ) t l ~ c IIL-ILI (Fnr ~n?urc 13,s work. \t.? h.l.lus~ 1YbS 1 Our rcii~ltc :vrre iiuc to thc rcgol.lr trcq~ir,ni! 0 1 ollr rrx~.irch rnlsalon5 amonl: the Dogon a n d arncln; i ~ l l . r r ~ t l i ~ l l c S T U L I ~ ~ ~<'Ilonl \ \ I , Iclt 1 1 ~n lpc r a t~vc 100b- s e n - o o t ~ ~ ! ~ l ~ tlii,!kv<,, l4'1mh~ir~i. h b l i ~ ~ i . ~ ~ ~ k s ~ , htalinkc, , ~ n d S L > I > I ~ ~ C All < , I ll>v\c p ~ ~ p ~ ~ l , ~ t ~ o n ~ l h ~ \ c c ~ r ~ ~ l v d Ihc,ir ~ > L V I ~ "ar- r h n r.." 01 \ \ i11ch till, Inrt,t~zhi,n 171 m.l\h' 1s .l m,l)or clrrncnt iDi*h.rlcn l'ii7; 1959 2.1) Otlr rc.sc.~rih Iias alsc~ bcncfited from :hr con'idcrablc cc,nlrlhutii>n , I ( r incma. I-or exdlnplc. I I ~ C 111:11' . ? ) ,~~i t .h! je.ln 1l~)itch among lhv Vc~gon have permjl- tcii u. and o u r ~nf~rrnl . ln t i I C I viv iv .~~rci It, rc-vicn thc ccrc,~ rnontL5 a< c1!1~.n.l, nc,a.<'ir.lr\, 1 8 , clrdr,~ I < > drlvc ~ i v r ~ r , Irlto the rnL'an8ng 01 hrmjir , yravcri, ~ n d Invocat~~,~i , . 17 Tl:11., ~11 t - l dc~.rtibi~li: <111 . I ~ I I IT I~ I I ~ n . ~ $ k carved ior thr C I ~ ~ , , , , ; < > I A Iht!nlcr, I><- rccor<Is w 1721 lhc \,, ,,\ tc~!ci. " I t ,925 hoped lh .~! a : Ilw \~ ,cht hl. li,rmt,r \ ~ c t ~ t n (rc,}~rrsvntr~I L,! thc m.l.hl, t l ~ c ',oul ~ 7 1 thc ill!nIr,r, $<Illill w.15 Ina 4tatcilf ~ntertor- ~ t y lwcau~e 11 bclclnged to thi, stcirid 0 1 thc dead, wotlld be I I I~~ I I I I ( I ICLI d l l d !(.lluI~l tlre ' 1.~1 ! I l l i l l Gr~.lulc. . ~ ~ i < i r d : "The c\ylan.ll~on 11, Ihc la*t srnrrncc I, dclubtl\ll T l ~ c informants \\.c.ni back o n Ihc#r w~lrcl. 1n,111v tinlrc" (lL13S 77, 77n . 1). 13 Th~,rc . i r r a l w r \ ~ m p l c . B.~ml~.lr,i 5lorlr.s in rxl>tch ani- rn .>l~ tnter\cv~r> In thc r nv th<~ l~>s \ or ' 1 i 5 t ~ l r y t l ~ c peuplc o i t h ~ . Z ~ y r r !xnd . and drc rcyl-c~s~,nlc~i rn.l\ks 14 Ti?~.rrn<,trc,n p r i~ ioL~ ,d hi. thr ,1:;1>, 01 !hv r ~ ~ a b L \ !\.,!. r r - \~c.>Icd me 17~ cli.in<c~ E ~ ~ l c r o i g ~ ~ r<?c) 'n \ \ , I ? L , L < ~ r11,15ks und<>r \ t n d ~ i . t \ l . i r r ~ ~ l C . n a u l c ~ r ~ ' ~ ~ r c ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ n r : \to-vd. I tacrndouroidebt ~nlorn:.:nt. Aml.~bc R,lbadvt.. crt,urI>ln: In trunt ot thcrn, re- pc.,linq .<>Ill. I,: , , X r I.lnpcta~c "\1d1k, y t>~v~,r ful . p t9~vcr iul . burn ,ng . Lrurn~n$." t i c w.1~ t l ~ i ~ c kranildting. I<,r lh~mself, the v x t ~ l t ~ t ~ o n h c IL.II Iron) all that tliv n1.1.k~ rrprcscnted. 15 .A !aim ~ b o l l l lhl' .llldl!411 5 1 1 D ~ g o l \ ~il111111nin): h ,a\ n l l d r I N 1907 bi Gilbert R u ~ ~ ) : r t ~ 1 1 d Ir.,n R t > t ~ i l ~ lh \IL lh,~!v ~ ~ ~ t v ~ ~ d c ~ ~ l ni.ni! t l ? ~ r ~ t ~ ~ , i l \ - c)r r,tudl g a n ~ ? s -- ,I! r.lc Ll~rgon c o ~ t h c i d . In Il>c ! % , p c > n <)i S.,ng.,, at \Jrlc,us 11ntc5 i , \ ~ , ~ :Ilc \~,~ir. I hcse rcler L L I ~n~por t i ln t ~ p ~ \ o d r < i ~ , the r<,.rn~,;on! T t r ech~ l~ i r c~~ i ,iI>\.,>\.h .let ahmr, n o acinlt rs admit- f t . ~ i , n.,' r \ tn !IT<,.<, wh<rfi,>vc 1he1ii llhc ~ r ~ , ~ t ~ r ~ , ~ l ~ t h ~ ~ y ncccic~d fur thr cw iuhun ni tlic r~lc ,* TI7t.w .Irtl\ ~ t l c s lha\.c nntorlu- natrl\ br.c,n .lhan3c,ned f o r Ihc pa51 2-3 r.v.~t>, clue, perh'lps lo i<lu)ol, tlw l0c.71 t .conim~\., c<.>ivt.rawns . ~ n d l,olillis. 17. Each o f the t!lrce bullri,ar<,r\ IS dlstin~ucshed by certain dctn~ls ul torm and a cornpletrly d~fferent Ihumrn~ng sound.