mass communication

Mass Communication

Mass communication occurs when a small number of people send messages to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience through the use of specialized communication media.

The units of analysis for mass communication are the messages, the mediums, and the audience.

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction as in other communication contexts.

Theorie

Agenda-Setting theory

Cultivation theory

Cultural Imperialism theory

Diffusion theory

Functional Approach to Mass Communication

Human Action Approach theory

Media Dependency

Media Equation

Rules-Based theory

Spiral of Silence theory

Technological Determinism theory

Uses and Gratifications theory

Agenda Setting Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Agenda-Setting Theory says the media (mainly the news media) arent always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think about.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is good at explaining why people with similar media exposure place importance on the same issues. Although different people may feel differently about the issue at hand, most people feel the same issues are important.

Critique:

The Agenda-Setting Theory comes from a scientific perspective, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the same issues. According to Chaffee & Bergers 1997 criteria for scientific theories, Agenda-Setting is a good theory.

It has explanitory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important.It has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will feel the same issues are important.It is parsimonious because it isnt complex, and it is easy to understand.It can be proven false. If people arent exposed to the same media, they wont feel the same issues are important.Its meta-theoretical assumptions are balanced on the scientific sideIt is a springboard for further researchIt has organizing power because it helps organize existing knowledge of media effects.

Example:Actions surrounding the O.J. case and the Clinton Scandal are both excellent examples of Agenda-Setting in action. During these historic events, the media was ever-present. The placement of full page, color articles and top stories on news programming made it clear that Americans should place these events as important issues. Some people believed O.J. was guilty, and others believed he was innocent. Some believed Clinton should have been impeached, and others thought otherwise. Therefore, the media wasnt extremely successful in telling us what to think on these issues, but most Americans did believe these were both important issues for a long period of time.

Cultivation Theory


Gerbners cultivation theory says that television has become the main source of storytelling in today's society. Those who watch four or more hours a day are labeled heavy television viewers and those who view less then four hours per day, according to Gerbner are light viewers. Heavy viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are effected by the Mean World Syndrome, an idea that the world is worse then it actually is. According to Gerbner, the overuse of television is creating a homogeneous and fearful populace.

Individual Interpretations and Critique:

The cultivation theory is a scientific theory. Epistimologically speaking, Gerbner believes in one truth. The theory does not believe television viewers have a choice in whether they are effected by media violence or not. Lastly, Gerbner allows some of his own values to enter into the theory by deciding what to consider violence and by assigning a numerical value to heavy television viewing. Gerbers idea of the effects heavy television viewing is intriguing. There is definitely support to show that those who watch great amounts of television do experience the mean world syndrome, the definition of heavy needs to be reexamined. Gerbner defines heavy television viewing as watching four or more hours a day. The idea of setting a numerical value to try to equate heavy influence to a mass populace is suspect. While the theory does contain some holes it adequately opens the discussion dealing with effects of the media upon viewers.

Ideas and Implications:

The effects of Gerbners mean world syndrome can easily be seen in nursing homes. Many occupants of nursing homes watch many hours of television per day without leaving their rooms to actually see what the real world is like. Having only the media to guide their interpretation of the real world, nursing home residents believe that the world is a corrupt and violent place.

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM


Cultural Imperialism Theory states that Western nations dominate the media around the world which in return has a powerful effect on Third World Cultures by imposing n them Western views and therefore destroying their native cultures.

Individual Interpretations:

Western Civilization produces the majority of the media (film, news, comics, etc.) because they have the money to do so. The rest of the world purchases those productions because it is cheaper for them to do so rather than produce their own. Therefore, Third World countries are watching media filled with the Western world's way of living, believing, and thinking. The third world cultures then start to want and do the same things in their countries and destroy their own culture.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

This theory says that humans do not have the free will to chose how they feel, act, think, and live. They react to what they see on television because there is nothing else to compare it to besides their own lives, usually portrayed as less than what it should be.

Epistemological Assumptions:

This theory explains that there is one truth and no matter what that truth never going to change. As long as Third World countries continue to air Western Civilization's programs then the third world countries will always believe they should act, feel, think, and live as Western Civilizations act, feel, think, and live.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is value-neutral and objective. It does not matter what beliefs the people of Third World may already hold the television programs from the Western World will communicate the same message and effect them in the same way.

Critique: Scientific Theory

Explanatory Power:It explains what happens when one group of people with their own ideas sends messages through the media to a different group of people.

Predictive Power:It predicts that Third World countries' culture will be destroyed and the people will identify with Western views.

Parsimony:We can see a direct linear path from sender to receiver through the media channels and then watch the effects.

Falsifiability:The theory could be proved false should the Third World countries not be effected by Western media nd they do not lose their culture.

Internal Consistency:There is a logical flow of events and consequences within the theory.

Heuristic Provocativeness:This theory could lead to new hypotheses such as which cultures are effected more than others (if any) or whether low context differ in the reception of messages compared top high context cultures?

Organizing Power:This fits with what we already know about differences between Western civilization and Third World countries.

Example:

Several people have seen the episode of Southpark where one of the students is swapped for a "starving Ethiopian." Should someone in Ethiopia watch this cartoon, the Western stereotype of Ethiopians all starving to death will tell that person that all they are are tiny black people who cannot help themselves. If the person is not effected this way the theory is proved false but the relations between American and Ethiopian individuals will still be hurt because of those stereotypes.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY


In the Diffusion Innovation theory, communicators in society with a message influence/encourage people that have strong opinions through the media to influence the masses.


Ontological Assumption:There does not seem to be free will in this case, it is fated as to what information is received to the masses, they have no choice to what they are exposed to.

Epistemological Assumption:In this sense, the theory is scientific. There is one truth, dependent on the messages sent and received by the media and the opinion leaders.

Axiological Assumption:I feel that Diffusion of Innovations is scientific in the values sense as well. Research being done is value neutral and not biased because what is stated is pretty much how the news is run. The masses are fed what information is important.

Critique:

I think the Diffusion of Innovations does a good job of explaining how ideas are spread and is accurate in its conclusions.


The Diffusion of Innovations is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain how ideas are spread through our society from the media.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate Diffusion of Innovations involves Christmas time specials on TV programming. These programs on harmful/popular toys influence either the opinion of and/or the decision of whether to purchase a specific toy to many shoppers.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY


There are five functional approaches the media serves users: surveillance, correlation, transmission, entertainment, and mobilization.


The mass media serves many functions for our society. The five elements the theorists put together describe the audience's use for the media. Surveillance means that the media provides news and information. Correlation means that the media presents the information to us after they select, interpret, and criticize it. The cultural transmission function means that the media reflects our own beliefs, values, and norms. Media also entertains us in our free time and provides an escape from everyday life. Mobilization refers to the media function of promoting society's interest especially in times of crisis.



This theory assumes that humans have a certain amount of free will. They can use mass communication for any variety of functions but they have to use it for something. Humans can make a choice in what to watch for any variety of reasons even if it is just for noise.


The knowledge is universal and it is one truth that mass communication functions as a part of our society. It is a main source of surveillance, entertainment, correlation, transmission, and mobilization.


This theory is objective and value-neutral. It does not matter what person is going to watch the television because everyone watches it for a reason.


Explanatory Power:It explains our society's use for media and mass communication.

Predictive Power:It predicts that people will use the media for specific functions.

Parsimony:It is simple because the audience has a need and the media fulfills that need.

Falsifiability:The theory could be proved false should the media become dysfunctional or nonfunctional.

Internal Consistency:The theory makes sense in that there are several functions of the media and they are not in conflict with one another. Some people can use the media for more than one function at different times.

Heuristic Provocativeness:Is there a way that the media is dysfunctional? Does the media serve the same functions now as it did 30 years ago?

Organizing Power:We know that human beings have needs so we look for ways to fill those needs. This theory organizes how the media fits in to this equation.

Example:

You have had a really long day at school and at work. You have ten things to do this week before you go home to see your parents who are convinced that you just pretend to be busy. You can not find any one to work for you and your teachers want everything perfect and now. You turn on the television to your favorite show and for half an hour you are entertained and you have no worries. The media functioned to entertain you and relieve you of your worries (temporarily).

HUMAN ACTION APPROACH


Human behavior can be predicted because people make choices with a purpose about their actions. Behavior is chosen by individuals to reach certain goals.


Ontological Assumption:There is some fate concerning this theory, although free will does rule behavior which can be predicted when goals are observed.

Epistemological Assumption:Since there can be many different goals assessed for a person's behavior, there are many truths that could be possible for this humanistic theory.

Axiological Assumption:Values definitely play a part in this humanistic theory- which ones are more important to an individual are the ones that goals will be modeled after and could be used to track behavior.

Critique:

This theory is used as a measure to provide better understanding of behavior that has already occurred, it says nothing about future behavior.


The Human Action Approach is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain behavior that has already occurred. Studying historical events or known past experiences could use the Human Action Approach.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate the Human Action Approach is a group of people listening to a persuasive speech about smoking and lung cancer. Fear appeals had nothing to do with changing people's minds. They were presented with new information- that stopping smoking increases life expectancy even for former smokers- that was what led the audience members to quit. There was a change in behavior because the audience saw living longer as a goal.

Media Dependency Theory


This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person.


This theory is based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory and ties into the Agenda Setting Theory. Uses and Grats identifies how people use and become dependent upon the media. People use the media for many reasons. Information, entertainment, and parasocial relationships are just a few of them. The Dependency Theory says the more a person becomes dependent on the media to fulfill these needs, the media will become more important to that individual. The media will also have much more influence and power over that individual. If someone is so dependent on the media for information, and the media is that persons only source for information, then it is easy to set the agenda. The individual falls victim to Agenda Setting. As you can see, these three theories intertwine quite a bit.

Critique:

Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature. It predicts a correlation between media dependence and importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in different ways. Also, the media affects each person in different ways. According to Chaffee & Berger s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, this theory is a pretty good one.

It has explanatory power, but more of predictive power because it predicts how dependency on the media correlates with importance of the media to a certain person.It is relatively simple to understand, so it is parsimonious.It can be proven false. If a person is not dependent on the media, media will not be of great importance to that individual.It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on the same side of the continuum.It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came from other theories.It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories.

Example:Let me introduce you to Sunny, a friend of mine from Los Angeles who now resides in Lexington, KY. When Sunny lived in L.A., he would ask his mother what the weather was going to be for the day. It was usually sunny. Now that he lives in Lexington, where the weather is sporadic, Sunny uses the media for information about the weather. Every morning, he gets up and turns on the weather channel on the television, reads the paper, and checks the internet, all for the local forecast for the day. He has become very dependent on the media. One month, Sunny forgot to pay the electric bill, and his service was disconnected. He didnt know what to do. He had no idea what to put on for the day, because he relied so heavily upon the media for information. Sunny could have easily looked outside or called a friend, but he was depending on the media to provide him with the information he needed.

TO BE CONTINUED........__________________I will permit no man to narrow and degrade my soul by making me hate him.

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Mass Communication

Media Equation

Explanation of Theory:This theory predicts why people respond unconsciously and automatically to communication media as if it were human.


This theory looks at interpersonal communication between an individual and the media. We talk back to our computers, and we use the same personal spacing techniques with media as we would if that particular medium were a real person. We unconsciously act as if the media are people. Theres something unique about this theory. It is relatively new, and considers new forms of interpersonal communication

Critique:

This theory is scientific in nature, and according to Chaffee & Bergers 1997 criteria for scientific theories, it is an okay one.

It predicts that people will treat the media (according to interpersonal theory) as they would treat a real person.It explains ways the audience is active.It is relatively simple to understand.It is internally consistent on the scientific side (one truth, determinism, value nuetral).It helps organize knowledge about the action of the audience.

Example:

When the television you are watching is real small, you tend to sit closer, and when it is large, you tend to sit further away from it. Ask a friend to randomly watch you when you are watching someone you like, admire, or think is attractive on television. You can do the same for them as well. I notice that I tend to sit closer to the television, smile, and keep eye contact when I am watching someone I like on television. However, I walk away, make ugly faces, or ignore people I dont like when I am watching television.

Rules Based Theory

Explanation of Theory:Lulls rules-based theory describes three rule-governed behaviors during family television viewing. Habitual rules are non-negotiable with negative consequences for violation. Parametric rules are somewhat more negotiable and are understood boundaries (not always verbalized). Lulls last rule is tactical, which are set by the culture in general.


Ontological Assumptions:determanistic--------X-----------free will

Epistemological Assumptions:Truth-----------------X-----------------truths

Axiological Assumptions:value neutral-X--------------------value laden


Lulls rules-based theory is rests in the middle between scientific and humanistic. Epistemologically, the rules-based theory believes that although families all have television viewing rules they all do it in different ways. The theory is value neutral. Lastly, the theory rests in the middle between free will and deterministic. Lulls rules-based theory does not do much more then describe an everyday, common sense action. Lull does put names to things most people are familiar with; however, the theory does little more.


It is easy to see the rules-based theory in work anytime a parent tells a child that they can not watch television after ten oclock or not to change the channel without asking.

Spiral of Silence Theory


The Spiral of Silence theory explains why people often feel the need to conceal their opinions/preference/views/etc. when they fall within the minority of a group.


Ontological Assumption:In this sense, the theory is extremely scientific. Spiral of Silence believes that there is fate- opinions are dependent on the majority opinion of the group.

Epistemological Assumption:The theory is also quite scientific in the relationship between the research being done and the researcher. What is researched is not dependent on the observer, there is one truth; an absolute if you will concerning the Spiral of Silence. People are quiet with their opinions and that is that.

Axiological Assumption:I feel that Spiral of Silence is scientific in the values sense as well. Research being done is value neutral and unbiased on the researchers' behalf since they would have no reason or means to skew the findings in any way.

Critique:

The Spiral of Silence theory is a scientific theory that for the most part is quite sound in situations in which opinions are not of great consequence. For example, if my opinion is a strong conviction and I am unwilling to bend in my beliefs then the theory may not apply to me to such an extent. Also, if I am an opinion leader, (from the Diffusionof Innovations theory) that is I am the one voicing my opinion and affecting other people; then I also may not bend in my opinions either.


The Spiral of Silence is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain why people cover up or change their opinions when in a group setting especially when they think they are alone in their opinions.

Example:

An example to help illustrate the Spiral of Silence theory is a person going out with a new group of people or on a date with someone you do not know very well. When ordering pizza for this theory, I would conform to the mushroom lovers because I feel I am in the minority since I do not like mushrooms and i think everyone else does. Therefore I do not want to be rejected or alone in my opinions.

TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM THEORY


Technological Determinism state that media technology shapes how we as individuals in a society think, feel, act, and how are society operates as we move from one technological age to another (Tribal- Literate- Print- Electronic).


We learn and feel and think the way we do because of the messages we receive through the current technology that is available. The radio required us to only listen and develop our sense of hearing. On the other hand, television engages both our hearing and visual senses. We then transfer those developed senses into our everyday lives and we want to use them again. The medium is then our message.



Humans do not have much free will at all. Whatever society as a whole is using to communicate, they too will use to communicate. Therefore they will adapt to the medium they are using so that they can send and receive messages like everyone else.


We know that there is one truth by observing what has happened over time. As the medium changes so does society's way of communicating. People can only use the medium for which it was created (phone for talking over lines or electronic mail for talking via computer). If the medium is impersonal (television) then the message too is impersonal.


This theory is objective in that everyone will act and feel the same no matter what the medium they are using provided that they are using the same medium. Values are not involved because evidence is seen strictly through observation.


Explanatory Power: It explains when new systems of technology are developed, the culture or society is immediately changed to reflect the senses needed to use the new technology.

Predictive Power:It predicts that with every new system of media technology, society will change and adapt to that technology.

Parsimony:There is a simple cause and effect analysis between the introduction of new technology and the changes in society's way of thinking, feeling, acting, or believing.

Falsifiability:The theory could be proved false if a new technology is invented and nothing changes.

Internal Consistency:There is a logical flow of proof evidenced over time.

Heuristic Provocativeness:Would this theory only work in the USA or would it vary culture to culture within or outside the United States? Does it vary in the electronic age between those who can afford the new technology and those who can not?

Organizing Power:We know that we have developed and we know that we have changed. This theory provides a way to see why this has happened.

Example:

With everyone electronically mailing each other today, there is no longer a need to write a joke down to remember it. You can just forward it to a friend. We also do not communicate with distant friends as over the telephone anymore. We have started to only communicate through the impersonal use of the e-mail system.

USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY


Blumler and Katzs uses and gratification theory suggests that media users play an active role in choosing and using the media. Users take an active part in the communication process and are goal oriented in their media use. The theorist say that a media user seeks out a media source that best fulfills the needs of the user. Uses and gratifications assume that the user has alternate choices to satisfy their need.


Ontological Assumptions:Deterministic----------------X---free will

Epistemological Assumptions:Truth------------------------------X----Multiple Truths

Axiological Assumptions:value neutral-----------------X----value laden


Uses and gratifications theory takes a more humanistic approach to looking at media use. Blumler and Katz believe that there is not merely one way that the populace uses media. Instead, they believe there are as many reasons for using the media, as there are media users. According to the theory, media consumers have a free will to decide how they will use the media and how it will effect them. Blumler and Katz values are clearly seen by the fact that they believe that media consumers can choose the influence media has on them as well as the idea that users choose media alternatives merely as a means to and end. Uses and gratification is the optimists view of the media. The theory takes out the possibility that the media can have an unconscience influence over our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in todays society.


Uses and gratification theory can be seen in cases such as personal music selection. We select music not only to fit a particular mood but also in attempts to show empowerment or other socially conscience motives. There are many different types of music and we choose from them to fulfill a particular need.

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_______________________________________CHAPTER#1COMMUNICATION________________________________________

CONTENTS

1.1 SHORT INTRODUCTION

1.2 DEFINITIONS AND MEANINGS OF COMMUNICATION

1.3 THREE ELEMENTS REQUIRED BY COMMUNICATION

1.4 PROCEDURE OF COMMUNICATION

1.5 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1.6 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1.7 LIMITATION & PROBLEMS IN COMMUNICATION

1.8 TWO-STEP FLOW OF COMMUNICATION & ROLE OF OPINION LEADER

1.9 SUMMRY

________________________________________1.1 SHORT INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS & MEANINGS OF COMMUNICATION________________________________________

SHORT INTRODUCTION

The word communication from the Latin word Communis meaning Common. When we communicate we are trying to establishCommonness with someone. That is we are trying to share information, an idea or an attitude.

The essence of communication makes the receiver and the sender tuned together for particular message.

DEFINITIONS AND MEANINGS OF COMMUNICATION

Sending, giving or exchanging of information, ideas etc.

Process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs or behaviors.

Technique for expressing ideas effectively in a speech.

Giving or exchanging of information, signals or messages by talk, gestures, writing etc.

System of sending or receiving messages, by means like telephone, telegraph, radio etc.

An intercourse by words, letters or messages and inter-change of ideas or opinions.

The imparting, conveying, or exchanging of ideas, knowledge, etc whether by Speech, writing or sings --- Oxford English Dictionary.

Transfer of thoughts and messages.

The mechanism through which human relation exists and develops.

COMMUNICATION: Today we might define communication simply by saying that it is the sharing of an orientation toward a set of informational signs.

Or

COMMUNICATION is the transmitting information, ideas and attitude from one person to another.

________________________________________THREE ELEMENTS REQUIRED BY COMMUNICATION________________________________________

Communication always requires at least three elements, which are:

1. The Source:

A source may be an individual (speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing) or a communication organization (like a newspaper, publishing house, television station/channel, or motion picture studio).

2. The Message:

Any thing real or imagined capable of eliciting one or more responses directly or indirectly from a human, sub-human or non human receiver in a time free context is called message.

A message may be inform of ink on a paper, sound waves in the air, impulses in an electric current, a wave of the hand, a flag in the air, or any other signal capable of being interpreted meaningfully.

3. The Destination

The destination may be an individual listening, watching, or reading, or a member of a group, such as a discussion group, a lecture audience, a cricket crowd, a mob, or a mass audience.

________________________________________PROCEDURE OF COMMUNICATION________________________________________

First the source encodes his message. That is he takes the information or feeling he wants to share and puts it into a form that can be transmitted the pictures in our heads can be transmitted unless they are coded. When they are coded into spoken words, they can be transmitted easily and effectively, but they cant travel very far unless a secondary source like radio carries them. If they are coded in written words, they can go far but more slowly than the spoken words. Once coded and sent, a message is quite free of its sender, and what it does is beyond the power of the sender to change. For in order to complete the act of communication the message must be decoded.

If the source does not have adequate or clear information, if the message is not encoded fully, accurately, effectively in transmittable signs, if messages are not transmitted fast and accurately enough to the desired receiver, and specially if the message is not decoded in a patter that corresponds to the encoding, and finally, if the destination is unable to handle the decoded message so as to produce the desired response than obviously, the system is working at less than top efficiency.

A system like this, to have a maximum capacity for handling information, will depend on the separate capacities of each unit on the chain. For example;

The capacity of a channel = How fast one can talk?

The capacity of encoder = can your student understand some thing explain quickly enough?

If the coding is good e.g. No unnecessary words the capacity of the channel can be approached, but it can never be exceeded.

An important element during the communication process is redundancy. There are two types of redundancy in communication, which are as followed:

1. Language Redundancy, meaning the percentage of the message which is not open to free choice.

2. Communicators Redundancy, which is an important aspect of constructing a message. If we think audience or destination or receiver may have hard time understanding the message, we can deliberately introduce more redundancy. We can do this by repeating (just as radio operator on ship may send SOS or a Pilot may send May Day, May Day over and over again to make sure it is herd and decoded) or we can give examples and analogies. In other words, we always have to choose between transmitting more information in a given time, or transmitting less and repeating more in the hope of being better understood.

It is often difficult choice to adopt redundancy as it slows down rate of communication. Too slow a rate will bore an audience, whereas too fast a rate may confuse the audience.

The most important thing in the process of communication is the fact that RECEIVER and SENDER must be in tune. This is somewhat complicated when it means that human receiver must be able to understand a human sender.

The source can encode, and the destination can decode only in terms of the experience each has had. E.g. If you come across some one from a remote village who has never seen an airplane and you tell him what airplane is, he will only decode the sight of a plane in terms of what ever experience he has had. The air plane in his mind might appear as a bird.

If there has been no common experience, then communication is impossible. If the experiences of the source and destination have been strikingly unlike than it is going to be very difficult to get an intended meaning across from one to the other.

To avoid these difficulties, the source than tries to encode in such a way as to make it easy for the destination to tune in the message or relate the message to its parts of his experience which are much like to those of the source.

Messages are made up of SIGNS. A sign is a signal that stands for some thing in experience. The word dog is a sign that stands for our generalized experience with dogs. The word would be meaningless for someone who comes from a dog less place or for some one who has never seen or herd of a dog. But most of us are well acquainted with the word and the animal Dog. If someone called out Dog, we would recall the appearance of dogs, their sound, their feel, their smells and other experiences we might have had with dogs. But there is an important difference between a SIGN and an OBJECT. --- Sign always represents the object at reduced level of cues, by this mean that sings will not call forth all the responses that the object it self will call forth. A sign may not call forth in us the wariness or attention a strange dog might attract if it wandered into our presence. This is the price we pay for the portability in language. We have sign system that can use in place of the less portable originals e.g. a writer can write an article on dropping of atomic-bomb, while an artist can draw a picture to make the writers were vivid. But our sign system is merely a short hand. The coder has to be able to write the short hand and decoder should be able to read it.

It is obvious that each person in the communication process is both an encoder and decoder. He receives and transmits. He must be able to write readable shorthand.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN SIGNAL COMES TO US?

Remember that signal comes in form of a sign. If we have learned the sign, we have learned certain responses with it. We can call these responses mediatory responses, because the mediate what happens to the message in your nervous system. These responses hold meanings of the communication signs for us. They are learned from experience but are also affected by the state of our organism at the moment. E.g. a picture of steak will not arouse exactly the same response in us when we are overfed as it would when we are hungry.

The mediatory response is connected to various sets of other responses. Considering the various affects, the mediatory response will than determine which set of response is suitable for a certain signal. Meaning; on receiving a particular SIGN will start certain a process in our nerves and muscles. For example; lets take Fire as a SIGN, this will trigger certain activity in us considering the scenario we have come across the fire. Considering that Fire represents danger, it will start a process in our nerves and muscles (nervous system) which will make us call/yell for HELP.

COMMUNICATION IS CONTINIOUS PROCESS

It is very important to note that communication is a continuous process in which we are constantly engaged. We are constantly decoding signs from our environment, interpreting these signs and encoding something as a result. It is misleading to think of the communication process has a starting or ending point somewhere. It passes through various sources, but changed by the interpretation, habits, abilities and capabilities of each source. However, the input is always reflected in the output.

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

The final element of the communication process is Channel. In any sort of communication we rarely send out message through single channel. When we speak to each other, the sound waves from our voice are the primary channel. But there are others: the expression of our face, our gestures, relation of given message to past message, our attitude etc. Even the primary channel, in this case our voice, has various sub-channels. E.g. it gives words to decode, gives emphasis to certain words over others. The presentation, pattern of intonation and timing contribute to the total meaning to information we are conveying and thus they too are sub-channels to primary channel, which is our voice. The quality of our voice, e.g. deep, high, shrill, rasping, rich, thin, loud, soft etc, it self carries about us and what we are saying, thus they are also important sub-channels of primary channel.

In the case of print media, where the channels are most restricted, there still exist multiple channel situations. Meaning is not only conveyed by words in news but also by the size of headline, the position on the page and the page in the paper; the association with pictures, the use of boldface and other typographical devices.

________________________________________EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS________________________________________

(HOW COMMUNICATION HAS AN EFFECT?)

The chief reason we study the process of communication is to learn its effects and how are they achieved. Our objective is to know what a given kind of communication does to people. We want to be able to predict what kind of effects a given message will have upon its receiver. Nevertheless it is possible that our predictions can go wrong, in such case our communication has been a failure. The major reason for the failure off our communication can be improper implementation of the conditions of successful communication.

Conditions of successful communication by this we mean the conditions which must be fulfilled if the message is to arouse its intended responses (the message which arouses intended response is an effective communication). These conditions are:

1. The message must be designed and delivered as to gain the attention of the intended destination.

2. The message must employee signs which refer to experience common to source and destination, so as to get the meaning across.

3. The message must arouse personality needs in the destination and suggest some ways to meet those needs.

4. The message must suggest a way to meet those needs which the destination finds him self at the time when he is moved to make the desired responses.

________________________________________TYPES OF COMMUNICATION________________________________________

1. INTERA-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

Intra-personal communication takes place within an individual. It is the basis of all other forms of human communication. Without an effective intra-personal communication, an organism is unable to function in its environment. Ideally this communication system allows a person to make a decision based on information received through the senses ---For example: When we are watching a program on TV, our eyes and ears receive information and communicate it to our brain. If what we see and hear holds interest to us, our intra-personal communication will indicate our interest to our brain and we will attend and pay more attention to that program. If we don not like the program, the intra-personal communication system will send signals to brain which in return will messages to our muscles which will result in us changing the channel or turning off the TV.

NOTE: In inter personal communication; our eyes and ears become the SENDERS or TRANSMITTERS of message through a medium of communication, which in this case is our central nervous system. Our brain becomes the receiver, which in turn transmits addition responses or impulses in form of a FEEDBACK which results in some sort of physical activity e.g. changing the TV Channel.

2. INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

Inter-personal communication is face-to-face communication. Let us suppose we are talking to a friend across the room, in such case we are the Sender, our speech is the medium, our words are the message to a friend who is Receiver and the reply by our friend with an approval is the Feedback. While we are speaking and our friend is reacting or replying, inter-personal communication is taking place.

To understand inter-personal communication, it is important to recognize that each of us possesses a field of experience. When we communicate inter-personally, our fields of experience overlap. The further a relationship between two people advances, the more the field of experience will overlap. This overlapping of fields of experience is called homophily. The greater the homophily, the greater are the chances of effective meaningful Inter-personal communication taking place.

3. EXTRA-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

Another form of communication is extra-personal communication. In this form of communication we share our impressions from our environment with other life forms, i.e. Animals and Plants.

FEEDBACK:

We now need to add another element to our description of the communication process. There is always a return response to our message. This return process is called Feedback. It plays a very important part in communication as it tells us how our message in being interpreted by the receiver. The nodding of the head in agreement, the puzzled expression on the forehead, the looking away in lack of interest etc. --- all these responses by the receiver are form of a FEEDBACK and tells us how our message is being received.

It is not only the receiver who gives the feedback. In many cases the sender is also a receiver and also the one who is giving the feedback. This means we get feedback from our own messages. That is when we replay our message, that we are about to send, we hear our own voices and can correct mispronunciations if any. If we have written something we, we can re-read it and make corrections and changes if required. The kind of FEEDBACK information we get from our own message help us guide our information further and repair damages, if any.

Since feedback is a part of communication and takes place in all kinds of communications, it is subjected to be contaminated; by this we mean that feedback can be disrupted, disturbed or interfered by a NOISE.

________________________________________LIMITATION & PROBLEMS IN COMMUNICATION________________________________________

NOISE:

The problem during any type of communication is NOISE. Noise is an activity that disrupts the process of communication or it is any thing that interferes with the message. Noise is usually external, in form of a sound from any object. We also experience internal noise in form of headache. The noise can temporarily distort the process of communication, distract us from the communication topic and even add new factors to our decision making task.

There are two known types of noise:

1. CHANNEL NOISE:

It interferes in the physical transmission of the message produces distraction between the Source and the Receiver. It interferes with the signal as it passes between human communicators.

The professional communicators try to overcome such effects by paying more attention or by the principle of redundancy.

Example of Channel Noise: When we are reading a newspaper and an ambulance with siren passing through distracts us, or when a fast moving car splashes mud on the news paper, the distraction that occurs than is Channel Noise.

NOTE:The Channel noise usually occurs during intra-personal communication.

2. SEMANTIC NOISE:

This occurs when a message is misunderstood even though it is received exactly as it was transmitted. E.g. the communicator may use difficult words which audience are unable to understand or a name that is unknown to the reader or a word understood by the audience but in some other sense.

The semantic noise can be reduced if the communicator defines terms and adjust vocabulary to the interests and needs of the audience.

NOTE:The Semantic Noise usually occurs during inter-personal communication.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is the process of sharing information.In a simplistic form information is sent from a sender or encoder to a receiver or decoder. In a more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver.This requires a symbolic activity, sometimes via a language.

Specialized fields focus on various aspects of communication, and include

1. Mass Communication,2. Communication Studies,3. Organizational Communication,4. Sociolinguistics,5. Conversation Analysis,6. Cognitive Linguistics,7. Linguistics,8. Pragmatics,9. Semiotics, and10. Discourse Analysis.

DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION:

THE WORD COMMUNICATION IS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN WORD COMMUNIS THAT MEANS SOMETHING COMMON.FURTHER IT CAN BE DEFINED AS UNDER:

The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.v Communications (used with a sing. or pl. verb) The art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas. The field of study concerned with the transmission of information by various means, such as print or broadcasting. Any of various professions involved with the transmission of information, such as advertising, broadcasting, or journalism.v Communications A means of communicating, especially: A system, such as mail, telephone, or television, for sending and receiving messages. A network of routes for sending messages and transporting troops and supplies.

What are Methods of Communication?

The importance of the two-way nature of communication in which the success of the process depends heavily upon the sender receiving feedback.The sender requires assurance that his / her points are being received and understood, e.g., on a notice board, if a petition has been put up, the group organising the petition need others to put their name on the petition to give feedback, and show that the message is being spread across.It is the use of a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour in exchange for information, ideas and emotions.Communication Process

SENDER --> MESSAGE --> VISUAL / ORAL / WRITTEN -->RECIPIENT

v SOURCEv ENCODINGv MESSAGEv CHANNELv RECEIVERv DECODINGv FEEDBACK.

Example:

Sender RecipientTeacher StudentsManager Employees

The small number of employees in a small organisation means that most of the communication is informal. In a larger business, communication becomes more formal as each employee / worker will come into personal contact with few others outside their own area of work.

What are the types of communication?

Communication is the production and exchange of information and meaning by use of signs and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages, receiving and decoding them, and synthesizing information and meaning. Communication permeates all levels of human experience and it is central to understanding human behavior and to nearly all public health efforts aimed at fostering health behavior change among individuals, populations, organizations, communities, and societies.There are various methods of internal communication, which can be used in an organisation. These include notices, bulletins, newsletters, tannoy, fax, letters, telephone, memos, and communication by computer, face to face, reports, memorandums etc.

Communication may be studied empirically and critically atdifferent levelsof interaction.These levels, often described on

o A "micro-to-micro" continuum are:o "Intra-personal" (how individuals process information),o "Inter-personal" (how two individuals interact to influence one another),o Group (how communication dynamics occur among many individuals),oFormal and informal "organizations" (how communication occurs and functions in the context of organizations such as hospitals, schools, or public health agencies), and

o "Community" ando "Society" (how communication builds or changes the agenda of important issues).>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

mass communication

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