THE BRITISH GOVERNMENTAL AND POLITICAL FRAMEWORK

POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

Political history in Britain & Ireland over the past 800 years illustrates:

•the growth of what is now the United Kingdom state•evolutionary changes in its composition.

The weakening of non-democratic monarchial & aristocratic power in England, Scotland, Wales & Ireland led eventually to political & legislative authority being centralized in London:

•in a UK parliament•in a UK government•in a powerful UK Prime Minister

Changing social conditions resulted in:

growth of political partiesthe extension of the vote to all adultsthe development of local governmenta 20th century transfer of some political power to Wales, Scotland & Northern Ireland

The political structures are still vigorously debatedThere is considerable public disillusionment with the political

process & politicians

The UK government in London is accused of being:Too secretiveToo centralizedToo isolatedToo media-reactiveToo controlling Insufficiently responsive to the needs of the divers peoples of the

UK

It is argued that:

The UK Parliament has lost control over the UK governmentThe political power has bypassed Parliament & shifted to a presidential P rime Minister with a prime ministerial office in Downing Street.Unappointed bodies (quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations) & political advisers have become too influentialCivil Service has been politicized & lost its independenceThere are serious weaknesses at devolved and local governmental levelsThe British political system must be reformed in order to make it more efficient, accountable & adaptable to modern requirements.

From 1997 the Labour government modernized constitutional & political areas:

Devolution (transfer of some political power to Wales, Scotland & Northern IrelandReform of the House of Lords (including the proposed creation of a Supreme Court separate from the Lords)Introduction of human rights & freedom of information legislation.

These developments have been criticized for creating more problems than they have solvedThe British constitution and separation of powers must be revitalized; otherwise they could be vulnerable to the arrogance of executive power.

Decline of the monarchy and rise of Parliament1258 – was formed an English Council by disaffected nobles

under Simon de Montford, who in 1264 summoned a broader Parliament.

1275 Edward I (1272-1307) formed the Model Parliament (the first representative English Parliament). Its two Houses (as now) consisted of:

- the Lords/Bishops- the Commons (male commoners)

1326 was first created an independent Scottish Parliament Ireland had a similarly old Parliament dating from medieval

times.

1485-1603 there was a return to royal dominance in Tudor England. Monarchs controlled Parliament and summoned it only when they needed to raise money.

Tudor monarchs (of Welsh ancestry) united England & Wales administratively, politically & legally in the 16th century.

1603 James I of England (was James VI of Scotland) formed a Stuart dynasty. He considered himself to be king of Great Britain.

The English Parliament refused royal requests for money and forced the Stuart Charles I to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628 (it prevented him from raising taxes without P arliament consent)

1642 broke out a Civil War due to Charles’ rejection of parliamentary ideals and belief in his right to rule without opposition.

Protestant Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell won the military struggle against the Catholic Royalists.

1649 Charles was beheaded – the monarchy was abolished.

1653-1660 Cromwell & his son ruled Britain as a Protectorate.

The Parliament comprised only the House of Commons.

Cromwell’s Protectorate became unpopular and most people wanted the restoration of the monarchy.

The two Houses of Parliament were re-established.

1660 they restored the Stuart Charles II to the throne.

The British governmental & political framework

Contemporary politics in Britain operate on UK, devolved, local government and European Union levels.

The UK Parliament & government in London govern the UK as a whole in many areas.

A Parliament in Scotland, Assemblies in Wales & Northern Ireland and a London Authority have varying degrees of devolved self-government and handle their own devolved powers.

Britain today has a ‘multi-level governance’ model.

Local government

Local government has grown particularly in the 19th century.

It provides local services through elected councils throughout the UK, such as:

- education

- health

- fire services

- transport

- social services

- sanitation & housing.

Devolution

Devolution = self-government or transfer of some powers from the Westminster Parliament.

It was first adopted in Ireland.

1921 Ireland was partitioned into:

- Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland with its

own Parliament)

- Northern Ireland (with a devolved Parliament)

England has a network of unelected, appointed Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) known as Regional Assemblies of Councils, which implement UK government politico-economic programmes in the regions.

Devolution does not mean:- independence or separation for Scotland, Wales &

Northern Ireland- a British federal system.

Britain has a unitary political system and remains a union of England, Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland (the United Kingdom).

Since July 2000 London has been run by an elected Greater London Authority with its elected mayor and assembly.

But the London mayor does not have the same executive & financial authority of American city mayors, on which the reform was supposed to be based.

KEN LIVINGSTONE was the first elected Mayor of the new devolved Greater London Authority 2000, reelected 2004.

The constitution

The powers of the state in many countries are defined and laid down in a written document (constitution) and are classified as executive, legislative and judicial.

These powers relate to distinctive institutions & are kept separate.

In Britain there is no clear separation of powers.

Britain is sometimes described as:-a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch reigns as head of state without executive powers under constitutional limitations.

-a parliamentary system, where the Westminster Parliament (consisting of the House of Commons, the House of Lords & formally the monarch) in London is the legislature and possesses supreme power to make laws in UK matters.

Britain has no written constitution contained in one document.

The constitution consists of distinctive elements, most of which are in written form:

- statute law (Acts of Parliament)

- common law

- conventions (principles & practices of government)

- ancient documents (Magna Carta)

- EU law

EU law is directly applicable in Britain and coexists with Acts of Parliament as part of the British constitution.

The EU’s Council of Ministers-consists of heads of government and ministers from the member states-is the EU’s supreme law-making body (some 60% of all Britain’s laws are now EU law).

Ultimately, however, the UK Parliament still has the legal right to abolish the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh & Northern Irish Assemblies and to withdraw from the EU.

The monarchy

Queen-in-Parliament = the correct constitutional title of the UK Parliament.

State & government business is carried out in the name of the monarch by the politicians & officials of the system.

The Crown is only sovereign by the will of Parliament and acceptance by the people.

The monarchy is the oldest secular institution in Britain.

There is hereditary succession to the throne, but only for Protestants.

Royal executive power has disappeared.

The monarch - has formal constitutional roles - is head of state, head of the executive, judiciary & legislature- is supreme governor of the Church of England- is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The monarch

- is expected to be politically neutral

- is supposed to reign but not rule

- cannot make laws, impose taxes, spend public money or

act unilaterally.

- acts only on the advice of political ministers, which

cannot be ignored.

Britain is governed by Her Majesty’s Government in the name of the Queen. She has a similar role in the devolved governments.

Monarch’s duties:

- the opening & dissolving of the UK Parliament

- giving the Royal Assent (or signature) to bills which

have been passed by both Houses of Parliament

- appointing government ministers & public figures

- granting honours

- leading proceedings of the Privy Council

- fulfilling international duties as head of state.

- choice and appointment of the UK Prime Minister.

The Privy Council- its members (cabinet ministers) advise the monarch on

the approval of government business which does not need to pass through Parliament and may serve on influential committees.

- there are 400 Privy Councillors, but the body works mostly through small groups.

- has the role of a constitutional forum- has a Judicial Committee which is the final court of

appeal from some Commonwealth countries and it may be used by some bodies in Britain and overseas.

UK Parliament: role, legislation & elections

Role

The UK Parliament

- is housed in the Palace of Westminster in London.

- comprises the non-elected House of Lords, the elected House of Commons & the monarch.

- gathers as a unified body only on ceremonial occasions (State Opening of Parliament by the monarch in the House of Lords. It listens to the monarch’s speech from the throne, which outlines the UK government’s forthcoming legislative programme.)

Parliament has a maximum duration of 5 years

- has legal sovereignty in all matters and can create, abolish or amend laws and institutions for all or any part(s) of Britain.This means the implementation of the sitting government’s policies. All three parts of Parliament must pass a bill before it can become an Act of Parliament and law.

- votes money to government

- examines government policies and administration

- scrutinizes EU legislation

- debates political issues

The House of Lords- consists of Lords Temporal and Lords Spiritual and Lords of

Appeal (Law Lords)

Lords Spiritual are:- the Archbishops of York and Canterbury- 24 senior bishops of the Church of England.

Lords Temporal comprise 92 peers with hereditary titles elected by their fellows and 577 life peers appointed by political parties and an independent Appointment Commission.

Lords of Appeal is the ultimate court of appeal for many purposes from most parts of Britain. It consists of 12 Law Lords who have held senior judicial office under the chairmanship of the Lord Chancellor.

The House of Commons

- comprises 646 Members of Parliament (MPs) chosen from all parts of the UK. They are elected by voters and represent citizens in Parliament. They are paid expenses and a salary.

- meets every weekday afternoon.

The Speaker is the chief officer of the House of Commons.- is chosen by the MPs, interprets the rules of the House

and is assisted by three deputy speakers.- protects the House against any abuse of procedure by

controlling debates and votes.

The proceedings of both Houses are open to the public and may be viewed from the public and visitors’ galleries.

Debates are televised.

Transactions are published in Hansard (parliamentary newspaper).

Negative comments are made about low attendance in both Houses and the behaviour of MPs in the Commons.

Bills must pass through both Houses and receive the Royal Assent before they become law.

The Commons is the first step in this process.The Lords can delay a non-financial bill. It can propose amendments. It acts as a forum for revision of bills.

When the bill has passed through the Lords, it is sent to the monarch for the Royal Assent, which has not been refused since the 18th century.

Then the bill becomes an Act of Parliament and enters the statute-book as representing the law of the land at that time.

The party political system

Since 1945 there have been 9 Labour and 8 Conservative UK governments in Britain.

The Labour Party = left-of-centre party has been supported by the trade unions, the working class and middle class.

The Prime Minister Tony Blair modernized the party as New Labour by moving to the centre, captured voters from the Conservatives and distanced himself from the trade unions, state ownership and the party’s doctrinaire past.

The Conservative Party = right-of-centre party.

It emphasizes personal, social and economic freedom, individual ownership of property and shares and law and order.It is supported by the middle and upper classes.

The Liberal Democrats were formed in 1988 when the old Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party merged into one party.They see themselves as an alternative political force to the Conservative and Labour Parties, based on the centre-left of British politics.Their strengths are in local government, constitutional reform and civil liberties.

Smaller parties represented in the House of Commons are:

- the Scottish National Party

- the Welsh National Party (Plaid Cymru)

- Protestant Northern Irish parties (the Ulster Unionists & the Democratic Unionists.

- the Social Democratic and Labour Party (moderate Roman Catholic Northern Irish party)

- Republican Northern Irish party (Sinn Fein)

The party which wins most seats in the House of Commons at a general election usually forms the new government, even if it has not obtained a majority of the popular vote (the votes actually cast at an election).

More than 33% of the popular vote must gather a party before winning a large number of seats.

Inside Parliament, party discipline rests with the Whips, who are chosen from party MPs by the party leaders and who are under the direction of a Chief Whip.

Party discipline is very strong in the Commons and less so in the Lords

The UK government

The UK government -serves the whole of Britain and normally comprises individuals who are members of the successful majority party at a general election.-is centred on Whitehall in London where its ministries and the Prime Minister’s official residence (10 Downing Street) are located.-consists of 100 ministers who can be chosen from both Houses of Parliament & who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. They are responsible to Parliament for the administration of national affairs.

The Prime Minister

- is appointed by the monarch

- is the leader of the majority party in the Commons.

- sits in the Commons

- is the connection between the monarch and the Parliament.

This convention continues in the weekly audience with the monarch, at which the policies & business of the government are discussed.

The Prime Ministry has great power within the British system of government.

It is argued that government policy is decided upon by the Downing Street political machine with its array of bureaucrats.

The Cabinet = a small executive body in the government- comprises 21 senior ministers, who are chosen & preside

over by the Prime Minister- meets in private & its discussions are meant to be secret

(the public is informed of Cabinet deliberations & disputes by the media).

The Prime Minister is responsible for Cabinet agendas and controls Cabinet proceedings.

Some Prime Ministers work within the Cabinet structure, allowing ministers to exercise responsibility within their own ministerial fields.

Government departments (ministries) = the chief instruments by which the government implements its policy.

Examples of government departments:

- Foreign Office

- Ministry of Defence

- Home Office and the Treasury

Civil Service consists of career administrators (civil servants). There are more than 500,000 civil servants in Britain today.

- they work in government activities and are responsible to the minister of their department for the implementation of government policies.

- they are politically neutral

- they serve the government impartially

The heart of the Civil Service is the Cabinet Office, whose Secretary is the head of the Civil Service. The latter is responsible for the whole Civil Service, organizes Cabinet business & coordinates high-level policy.

Attitudes to politics

Polls reveal that British politicians and political parties do not rate highly in people’s esteem.

A MORI poll in 2005 found that:-75% of respondents thought that politicians do not tell the truth-71% felt the same about government ministers.-The politicians are criticized & satirized in the media-They are corrupted and have unethical behaviour

These aspects led to an increase in political apathy, particularly among the young, and a distrust in politicians to rectify social ills.