1. PROJECT REPORTONEMPLOYEE ENPOWERMENT OF GENRAL ISSU INORGENIZATIONSubmitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for theAward of the degree ofOMKARANANDA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY(Affiliated to U.T. U; DEHRADUN)Submitted to; Submitted by;Mrs.CHARU KHURANA MASTER VIMAL SHARMAAssociate Professor MBA 4th Semester

2. CANDIDATES DECLARATIONI hereby certify that work which is being presented in the dissertation report, entitledEmployee empowerment of general issue in orgenization . for partial fulfillment of therequirement for the award of the degree of Master Of Business Administration inH.R. Submitted in Omkarananda Institute Of Management And Technology (OIMT),of Uttrakhand Technical University is record of my own work, under the guidance ofMrs.CHARU KHURANA , Asst. Professor in OIMT, RISHIKESH.DATE: MASTER VIMAL SHARMAMBA (H.R.)This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate iscorrect to the best of our knowledge.Dr. Aditya Gautam Mrs. Charu KhuranaDirector, Associate ProfessorOIMT, Rishikesh OIMT, Rishikesh 3. PREFACEAs an integral part of the curriculum, I student of M.B.A needed to get exposed to the actualH.R. environment to get a better understanding of personal management by way of undergoingpractical training.I consider myself fortunate enough that I had an opportunity to get practical training at theO.I.M.T. for gaining substantial knowledge of performance management system. Where I getthe opportunity to do the real life project and enhance my knowledge as to deal with the realenvironment (internal, external). 4. AcknowledgementThe satisfaction and euphoria that accompany a successful completion of any task would beincomplete without mentioning the people who made it possible whose consistent guidance andencouragement crowned the efforts with success.I would like to thanks my internal faculty guide Mrs.Charu Khurana , OMKARANANDAINSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY , ( RISHIKESH) for their guidance andmotivation, which is pivotal in completion of my dissertation report.I cannot forget the contribution of my project mentor and guide for their able guidance andsupport throughout the tenure of the report.I would express my thanks to O.I.M.T., as I troubled them through my queries at every stage ofmy work. I am really thankful for their patience with which they resolve my doubts amidst theirbusy schedule. I express my sincere thanks to all of them.Last but not least, I feel indebted to all those persons who have provided help directly orindirectly in successful completion of this study.Master vimal sharma 5. IntroductionEmpowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to think, behave, take action,and control work and decision making in autonomous ways. It is the state of feeling self-empoweredto take control of ones own destiny.When thinking about empowerment in human relations terms, try to avoid thinking of it as somethingthat one individual does for another. This is one of the problems organizations have experienced withthe concept of empowerment. People think that someone, usually the manager, has to bestowempowerment on the people who report to him.Consequently, the reporting staff members wait for the bestowing of empowerment, and the managerasks why people wont act in empowered ways. This led to a general unhappiness, mostly undeserved,with the concept of empowerment in many organizations.Think of empowerment, instead, as the process of an individual enabling himself to take action andcontrol work and decision making in autonomous ways. Empowerment comes from the individual.The organization has the responsibility to create a work environment which helps foster the ability anddesire of employees to act in empowered ways. The work organization has the responsibility toremove barriers that limit the ability of staff to act in empowered ways. 6. Empowerment Is Also Known As:Employee involvement and participative management are often used to mean empowerment. They arenot really interchangeable.The common dictionary definition of empowerment, "to give official authority to: delegatelegal power to: commission, authorize" (Grove, 1971, p. 744) is the one most understood bymost people. As an example, Gandz (1990) writes, "Empowerment means that managementvests decision-making or approval authority in employees where, traditionally, such authoritywas a managerial prerogative." (p. 75) However, this is not the definition of what is usuallycalled employee empowerment. One author notes empowerment is, "easy to define in itsabsencealienation, powerless, helplessnessbut difficult to define positively because it takeson a different form in different people and contexts" (Zimmerman, 1990, p.169). When mostpeople refer to employee empowerment they mean a great deal more than delegation. It is forthis reason that many authors provide their own definitions.Some of these are vague, and meant to be so. Block (1987) describes empowerment as "astate of mind as well as a result of position, policies, and practices." (p. 65) One has to read anentire chapter to understand what he means when he says,"To feel empowered means several things. We feel our survival is in our own hands. . . .Wehave an underlying purpose. . . .We commit ourselves to achieving that purpose, now." (Block,1987, p. 65). Other authors (Blanchard, Carlos & Randolph, 1996; Blanchard & Bowles, 1998)use their entire book to define empowerment. Still others provide an excellent perspective ofeffective empowerment without mentioning the word even once (Freedman, 1998).Other author provided definitions are simplistic on the surface, but have far greaterimplications than a first reading would suggest. For example, Caudron (1995) articulatesempowerment as, "when employees own their jobs; when they are able to measure andinfluence their individual success as well as the success of their departments and theircompanies." (p.28) The casual reader may think that owning ones job is what the postalworkers union seeks to provide their members. Most would agree, however, that job security isnot empowerment. Many employees must measure their jobs by submitting reports. Seekingones own individual success is what the American dream is all about. And knowing that onemakes a contribution to the success of the department and the company is a given in all but the 7. largest organizations. It is only when these ideas are taken together in one package that theyapproach a definition of employee empowerment. Ettorres (1997) definition of empowermentas, "employees having autonomous decision-making capabilities and acting as partners in thebusiness, all with an eye to the bottom-line" (p.1) is more accessible to many readers. Whilemany employees understand their contribution to the work at hand, how many know theircontribution to the bottom line?It is this essential ingredient, information with which to make decisions, from whichempowerment is created. Bowen and Lawler (1992) indicate, "We define empowerment assharing with front-line employees four organizational ingredients: [the first being] informationabout the organizations performance. . . .[another is] knowledge that enables employees tounderstand and contribute to organizational performance" (p. 32). The other two ingredientsBowen and Lawler note are, "rewards based on the organizations performance [and] power tomake decisions that influence organizational direction and performance." In a later article theseauthors conclude that, "research suggests that empowerment exists when companies implementpractices that distribute power, information, knowledge, and rewards throughout theorganization." (Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p. 73) The authors go on to note that, "if any of the fourelements is zero, nothing happens to redistribute that ingredient, and empowerment will be zero."(Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p. 74)Another author uses this type of combination of concepts to define empowerment. Spreitzer(1995) indicates, "psychological empowerment is defined as a motivational construct manifestedin four cognitions: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact. Together these fourcognitions reflect an active, rather than a passive, orientation toward a work role." (p.1442). Spreitzer notes, "the four dimensions are argued to combine additively to create anoverall construct of psychological empowerment. In other words, the lack of any singledimension will deflate, though not completely eliminate, the overall degree of feltempowerment." (p. 1442) This additive construct is distinct from Bowen & Lawler s (1995)construct noted above which is multiplicative, indicating that the absence of any one of their fourelements (power, information, knowledge, and rewards) will completely eliminateempowerment.Researchers tend to provide definitions of the concept of empowerment which reflectobserved end results or their research into concepts which are known and are or may be 8. precursors to empowerment. In his 1995 dissertation, Menon indicates, "the empowered statewas defined as a cognitive state of perceived control, perceived competence and goalinternalization. . . .The empirical results supported the view that empowerment is a constructconceptually distinct from other constructs such as delegation, self-efficacy and intrinsic taskmotivation.". In this case the constructs of delegation, self-efficacy and intrinsic task motivationare known quantities, each with its own previously tested validity. Conger and Kanungo (1988)note in their literature review that, "scholars have assumed that empowerment. . . .[is] the processby which a leader or manager shares his or her power with subordinates. Power, in this context,is interpreted as the possession of formal authority or control over organizational resources. . ..This manner of treating the notion of empowerment from a management practice perspective isso common that often employee participation is simply equated with empowerment." (p.471). However, they also note, " We believe that this approach has serious flaws." (p.471) Instead, the authors offer this definition, "empowerment is. . . a process of enhancingfeelings of self-efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditionsthat foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices andinformal techniques of providing efficacy information." (Conger & Kanungo, 1988, p.474). Implied here are new roles for managers and supervisors, that is, removing conditions thatfoster powerlessness and providing feedback about performance, in other words mentoring.Other researchers have attempted to classify what has been written and practiced previously,and found it lacking. Quinn and Spreitzer (1997) provide two such classifications. In the,"mechanistic approach" (p. 38) managers and researchers "believed that empowerment was aboutdelegating decision making within a set of clear boundaries. . . . Delegate responsibility; andHold people accountable for results." (p. 37) In the, "organic approach to empowerment" (p. 37)researchers and managers "believed that it [empowerment] was about risk taking, growth, andchange. . . .understanding the needs of the employees; model empowered behavior for theemployees; build teams to encourage cooperative behavior; encourage intelligent risk taking; andtrust people to perform." (p. 38) However, they found these two approaches lacking; somecombination of the two was needed. In the end, they indicate, "empowerment must be defined interms of fundamental beliefs and personal orientations. . . . Empowered people have a sense ofself-determination. . . .Empowered people have a sense of meaning. . . .Empowered people havea sense of competence. . . . empowered people have a sense of impact." (Quinn & Spreitzer, 9. 1997, p. 40)The most comprehensive definition of empowerment in the literature can be found in Thomasand Velthouses 1990 article entitled "Cognitive elements of empowerment: An interpretivemodel of intrinsic task motivation". The definition they provide is:To empower means to give power to. Power, however, has several meaningsauthority, so thatempowerment can mean authorization. . . .capacity. . . .However, power also meansenergy. Thus to empower also can mean to energize. This latter meaning best captures thepresent motivational usage of the term. Our perception is that the word empowerment hasbecome popular because it provides a label for a nontraditional paradigm of motivation. . ..change [has] forced a search for alternative forms of management that encourage commitment,risk-taking, and innovation. . . .the newer paradigm involves relaxed (or broad) controls and anemphasis on internalized commitment to the task itself. . . .We use the word empowerment torefer to the motivational content of this newer paradigm of management. (p. 667)In her excellent literature review of employee empowerment, Linda Honold indicates, "to besuccessful, each organization must create and define it [empowerment] for itself. Empowermentmust address the needs and culture of each unique entity." (Honold, 1997, p. 202) It is in thisspirit that I offer my own definition of empowerment. I have drawn on several of the authorsnoted above and below for concepts. I will provide credit in the appropriate sections below.Apprenticeship Empowerment DefinedEmployee empowerment is a process whereby: a culture of empowerment is developed;informationin the form of a shared vision, clear goals, boundaries for decision making, and theresults of efforts and their impact on the wholeis shared; competencyin the form of trainingand experienceis developed; resources, or the competency to obtain them when needed to beeffective in their jobs, are provided; and supportin the form of mentoring, cultural support, andencouragement of risk-takingis provided.Every employer uses employee empowerment to some extent, though it is often thought of asdelegation. No organization of more than one person can survive without some employee 10. empowerment. When the owner of a Mail Boxes, Etc. hires someone to work the weekends, thatperson is empowered. When a manager hires an accounting graduate to maintain thedepartmental ledger, that person is empowered. When the director of advertising chooses whichslogan should go on the web banner, that person is empowered. In each of these instances theempowered person has been provided with the training and experience they need to be effectivein their position. Each has the information to know how their decisions will impact the largerwhole. Each has access to the resources he or she needs to be effective. And the assumption isthat each will be supported in the decisions they make.Empowerment is a process of becoming, not a task or end result in and of itself, Just as withcontinuous improvement, no organization is ever done with its empowerment implementation;no person is ever "completely empowered". Empowerment becomes part of the culture of theorganization. Empowering others becomes a transparent act, nobody within the organizationnotices when an act of empowerment is exercised. It may be noticeable in the extreme tooutsiders, but, if the implementation effort has been successful, it will be second nature to thoseaccculturated within the organization.Clearly, empowerment is not quick nor easy, except in the case of a newly formedorganization where the leaders understand it and have committed themselves and theorganization to it. Given that this is the case it becomes necessary to demonstrate the benefitsand provide an implementation strategy which builds upon a clear understanding of all thatemployee empowerment entails. 11. To empower means to give power to. Power, however, has several meaningsauthority, so thatempowerment can mean authorization. . . .capacity. . . .However, power also meansenergy. Thus to empower also can mean to energize. This latter meaning best captures thepresent motivational usage of the term. Our perception is that the word empowerment hasbecome popular because it provides a label for a nontraditional paradigm of motivation. . ..change [has] forced a search for alternative forms of management that encourage commitment,risk-taking, and innovation. . . .the newer paradigm involves relaxed (or broad) controls and anemphasis on internalized commitment to the task itself. . . .We use the word empowerment torefer to the motivational content of this newer paradigm of management. (p. 667)In her excellent literature review of employee empowerment, Linda Honold indicates, "to besuccessful, each organization must create and define it [empowerment] for itself. Empowermentmust address the needs and culture of each unique entity." (Honold, 1997, p. 202) It is in thisspirit that I offer my own definition of empowerment. I have drawn on several of the authorsnoted above and below for concepts. I will provide credit in the appropriate sections below.To empower means to give power to. Power, however, has several meaningsauthority, so thatempowerment can mean authorization. . . .capacity. . . .However, power also meansenergy. Thus to empower also can mean to energize. This latter meaning best captures thepresent motivational usage of the term. Our perception is that the word empowerment hasbecome popular because it provides a label for a nontraditional paradigm of motivation. . ..change [has] forced a search for alternative forms of management that encourage commitment,risk-taking, and innovation. . . .the newer paradigm involves relaxed (or broad) controls and anemphasis on internalized commitment to the task itself. . . .We use the word empowerment torefer to the motivational content of this newer paradigm of management. (p. 667)In her excellent literature review of employee empowerment, Linda Honold indicates, "to besuccessful, each organization must create and define it [empowerment] for itself. Empowermentmust address the needs and culture of each unique entity." (Honold, 1997, p. 202) It is in thisspirit that I offer my own definition of empowerment. I have drawn on several of the authorsnoted above and below for concepts. I will provide credit in the appropriate sections below. 12. Examples of EmpowermentThese are examples of empowerment in action.The manager of the Human Resources department added weeks to the process of hiring newemployees by requiring his supposedly empowered staff members to obtain his signature onevery document related to the hiring of a new employee. When the time problem was brought tohis attention, he fostered empowerment by telling employees they no longer needed his signatureunless the hire involved extraordinary circumstances.John empowered himself to discuss the career objectives he wished to pursue with his supervisor.He told his supervisor, frankly, that if the opportunities were not available in his current company,he would move on to another company.Mary took charge of her career by fueling her sense of empowerment when she developed a , metwith her manager to ask for her assistance to achieve it, and set goals for its accomplishment inher performance development plan.The companys management style involved sharing the goals, sharing each employeesexpectations and framework with the employee, and then, getting out of the way while employeeswere empowered to set goals, accomplish their objectives, and determine how to do their jobs.Empowerment is a desirable management and organizational style that enables employees to practiceautonomy, control their own jobs, and use their skills and abilities to benefit both their organizationand themselves. 13. Literature ReviewThis thesis examines the topic of employee empowerment and seeks to provide a model for itsimplementation which addresses needs identified in the literature but insufficiently addressedpreviously. Empowerment is defined as a process whereby: a culture of empowerment isdeveloped, information is shared, competency is developed, and resources and support areprovided. Each of the components of empowermentculture, information sharing, competencydevelopment, resource provision, and supportis examined in detail as addressed in theliterature. The benefits of employee empowerment are noted, and objections to it areaddressed. Theoretical foundations of employee empowerment are examined in an extensiveliterature review.A model for understanding and implementing employee empowerment is provided basedupon the precepts of apprenticeship. The apprenticeship model suggests that employees beviewed first as apprentices while their skills and knowledge within a given task set aredeveloping, then as journeypersons through continued development, and finally as masters oftheir craft. An assessment of organizational empowerment is provided and training responsesbased upon this assessment are suggested.To feel empowered means several things. We feel our survival is in our ownhands. . . .We have an underlying purpose. . . .We commit ourselves to achievingthat purpose, now. 14. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:An exploratory research has been carried out to study the behavior of employees. To meet theresearch objective a research formats, to collect information from the respondents was made &the information was collected through individual interaction with the researcher. The data wascollected using scientific method as per the questionnaire sample elements have been chosen byobservation techniques.Research DesignResearch was conducted to know the scope of employee empowerment, so it was designed asAnalytical.1. Sample Design: Data for this study has been collected from primary sources. For thecollection of data CONVENIENCE SAMPLING has been used.2. Sample Size: Sample size for the study was 40 for the universe of the urban area,Dehradun.Primary data: Primary data was collected with the help of:1. Questionnaire2. Personal Interviews 15. Employee EmpowermentDefinition: Employee EmpowermentEmpowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to think, behave, takeaction, and control work and decision making in autonomous ways. It is the state of feeling self-empowered to take control of ones own destiny.When thinking about empowerment in human relations terms, try to avoid thinking of it assomething that one individual does for another. This is one of the problems organizations haveexperienced with the concept of empowerment. People think that "someone," usually themanager, has to bestow empowerment on the people who report to him.Consequently, the reporting staff members "wait" for the bestowing of empowerment, and themanager asks why people wont act in empowered ways. This led to a general unhappiness,mostly undeserved, with the concept of empowerment in many organizations.Think of empowerment, instead, as the process of an individual enabling himself to take actionand control work and decision making in autonomous ways. Empowerment comes from theindividual.The organization has the responsibility to create a work environment which helps foster theability and desire of employees to act in empowered ways. The work organization has theresponsibility to remove barriers that limit the ability of staff to act in empowered ways.[h3Also Known As:Employee involvement and participative management are often used to mean empowerment.They are not really interchangeable. 16. ExamplesThe manager of the Human Resources department added weeks to the process of hiring newemployees by requiring his supposedly "empowered" staff members to obtain his signature onevery document related to the hiring of a new employee.John empowered himself to discuss the career objectives he wished to pursue with hissupervisor. He told his supervisor, frankly, that if the opportunities were not available in hiscurrent company, he would move on to another company. 17. 10 principales of empowermentThe Credo of an Empowering ManagerLooking for real management advice about people? Your goal is to create a work environment inwhich people are empowered, productive, contributing, and happy. Dont hobble them bylimiting their tools or information. Trust them to do the right thing. Get out of their way andwatch them catch fire.These are the ten most important principles for managing people in a way that reinforcesemployee empowerment, accomplishment, and contribution. These management actions enableboth the people who work with you and the people who report to you to soar.1. Demonstrate That You Value PeoplePando Hall / Getty ImagesYour regard for people shines through in all of your actions and words. Your facial expression,your body language, and your words express what you are thinking about the people who reportto you. Your goal is to demonstrate your appreciation for each persons unique value. No matterhow an employee is performing on his or her current task, your value for the employee as ahuman being should never falter and always be visible.More about communication and value:Listen With Your Eyes: Tips for Understanding NonverbalCommunicationInterpersonal Communication DynamicsYou Can Make Their Day: Ten Tips for the Leader 18. 2. Share Leadership VisionCopyright Digital Vision / Getty ImagesHelp people feel that they are part of something bigger than themselves and their individual job.Do this by making sure they know and have access to the organizations overall mission, vision,and strategic plans.More about vision:Build a Strategic Framework: Mission Statement, Vision, Values ...Leadership Vision3. Share Goals and DirectionJacob WackerhausenShare the most important goals and direction for your group. Where possible, either makeprogress on goals measurable and observable, or ascertain that you have shared your picture of apositive outcome with the people responsible for accomplishing the results. If you share a pictureand share meaning, you have agreed upon what constitutes a successful and acceptabledeliverable. Empowered employees can then chart their course without close supervision.More about goals and direction:Beyond Traditional Smart GoalsThe Darker Side of Goal Setting: Why Goal Setting Fails ... 19. 4. Trust PeoplePinnacle Pictures / Getty ImagesTrust the intentions of people to do the right thing, make the right decision, and make choicesthat, while maybe not exactly what you would decide, still work. When employees receive clearexpectations from their manager, they relax and trust you. They focus their energy onaccomplishing, not on wondering, worrying, and second-guessing.More about trust:Trust Rules: The Most Important Secret About TrustTop Five Ways to Destroy TrustTop 10 Ways to Build TrustInspirational Quotes: Trust and Trustworthiness5. Provide Information for Decision MakingDean SandersonMake certain that you have given people, or made sure that they have access to, all of theinformation they need to make thoughtful decisions.More about decision making: 20. Preventing Predictable Decision Making ErrorsHow to Involve Employees in Decision Making6. Delegate Authority and Impact Opportunities, Not Just More WorkImage Coypright Jacob WackerhausenDont just delegate the drudge work; delegate some of the fun stuff, too. You know, delegate theimportant meetings, the committee memberships that influence product development anddecision making, and the projects that people and customers notice. The employee will grow anddevelop new skills. Your plate will be less full so you can concentrate on contribution. Yourreporting staff will gratefully shine - and so will you.More about delegation:How and When to Empower PeopleTips for Effective DelegationWhy Employees Dont Do What You Want Them to DoPlay Well With Others: Develop Effective Work Relationships7. Provide Frequent FeedbackDigital Vision / Getty ImagesProvide frequent feedback so that people know how they are doing. Sometimes, the purpose offeedback is reward and recognition as well as improvement coaching. People deserve yourconstructive feedback, too, so they can continue to develop their knowledge and skills.More about feedback: 21. How To Provide Feedback That Has an ImpactPerformance Management: You Get What You Request and RewardCoaching for Improved Performance8. Solve Problems: Dont Pinpoint Problem PeopleMichael Blann / Getty ImagesWhen a problem occurs, ask what is wrong with the work system that caused the people to fail,not what is wrong with the people. Worst case response to problems? Seek to identify and punishthe guilty. (Thank you, Dr. Deming.)More about problem solving:Why Employees Dont Do What You Want Them to DoFight for Whats Right: Ten Tips to Encourage Meaningful Conflict.9. Listen to Learn and Ask Questions to Provide GuidanceSteve ColeProvide a space in which people will communicate by listening to them and asking themquestions. Guide by asking questions, not by telling grown up people what to do. Peoplegenerally know the right answers if they have the opportunity to produce them. When anemployee brings you a problem to solve, ask, "what do you think you should do to solve thisproblem?" Or, ask, "what action steps do you recommend?" Employees can demonstrate whatthey know and grow in the process. Eventually, you will feel comfortable telling the employeethat he or she need not ask you about similar situations. You trust their judgment.More about listening and asking questions: 22. Communication Success Tips: Listen to UnderstandCommunication Success Tips: Listen With Full Attention10. Help Employees Feel Rewarded and Recognized for Empowered BehaviorCopyright Lisa GagneWhen employees feel under-compensated, under-titled for the responsibilities they take on,under-noticed, under-praised, and under-appreciated, dont expect results from employeeempowerment. The basic needs of employees must feel met for employees to give you theirdiscretionary energy, that extra effort that people voluntarily invest in work. For successfulemployee empowerment, recognition plays a significant role.More about employee reward and recognition for empowerment:The Power of Positive Employee RecognitionWhat Employees Want From Work: Employee MotivationEmployee Recognition RocksGoal of employee empowerment 23. primary goal of employee empowerment is to give workers a greater voice in decisions aboutwork-related matters. Their decision-making authority can range from offering suggestions toexercising veto power over management decisions. Although the range of decisions thatemployees may be involved in depends on the organization, possible areas include: how jobs areto be performed, working conditions, company policies, work hours, peer review, and howsupervisors are evaluated.Many experts believe that organizations can improve productivity through employeeempowerment. This occurs in one of two main ways. First, empowerment can strengthenmotivation by providing employees with the opportunity to attain intrinsic rewards from theirwork, such as a greater sense of accomplishment and a feeling of importance. In some cases,intrinsic rewards such as job satisfaction and a sense of purposeful work can be more powerfulthan extrinsic rewards such as higher wages or bonuses. Motivated employees clearly tend to putforth more effort than those who are less motivated. The second means by which employeeempowerment can increase productivity is through better decisions. Especially when decisionsrequire task-specific knowledge, those on the front line can often better identify problems.Empowering employees to identify problemscombined with higher-level managementinvolvement in coordinating solutions across departmental boundaries within the firmcanenhance the overall decision-making process and increase organizational learning. For example,Toyota Motor Company empowers some of its employees to identify and help remedy problemsoccurring during product assembly. An automobile coming off Toyotas assembly line with apaint defect is seen as an opportunity to delve into the root cause of the defect, as opposed tomerely fixing the defect and passing it on to distributors for resale. Solutions resulting fromemployee involvement tend to have more employee buy-in when it comes to implementation.Because such solutions are generated from the front lines, this further enhances the potential forproductivity improvements by reducing the attitude that solutions are "passed down from above."A number of different human resource management programs are available that grant employeeempowerment to some extent. 24. INFORMAL PARTICIPATIVEDECISION-MAKING PROGRAMSInformal participative decision-making programs involve managers and subordinates makingjoint decisions on a daily basis. Employees do not enjoy blanket authority to make all work-related decisions; managers decide just how much decision-making authority employees shouldhave in each instance. The amount of authority varies depending on such situational factors asdecision complexity and the importance of employee acceptance of the decision. While it mayseem obvious, one key to empowerment is choosing under what conditions to empoweremployees. Employees should be empowered in situations where they can make decisions thatare as good as, or better than, those made by their managers.One possible problem is that the interests of workers may not align with those of theorganization. For example, at one university a department head delegated the task of determiningjob performance standards to the faculty. Because the faculty believed that it was not in theirown best interest to develop challenging standards, the standards they eventually developed wereeasily attainable. The success of empowerment also often hinges on whether employees want toparticipate in decision making. Some employees, for instance, have no desire to make work-related decisions. Suggestions for increasing employee participation levels include worksituations where:1. All possible solutions are equally effective. For example, consider employee vacationschedules. If one solution is as good as another, employee groups can be empowered towork out the scheduling.2. Managers do not possess sufficient information or expertise to make a quality decisionwithout employee input. Managers should at least consult their employees before adecision is reached to prevent overlooking solutions that may appear obvious to front-lineemployees, but which may be more evasive for higher-level managers who are unfamiliarwith front-line practices. 25. 3. Managers do not know exactly what information is needed or how to find it. Again,managers should at least consult their employees before a decision is reached todetermine whether employees have the information required to make an effectivedecision.4. The groups acceptance of or commitment to effective implementation is crucial and thegroup is unlikely to accept a managers unilateral decision. If employees acceptance iscrucial, participative decision-making should be used. As alluded to previously,employees tend to accept decisions more willingly if they have had a voice in thedecision-making process. One caveat is that the participation should be genuine;managers should not ask for employee input simply to give the appearance ofparticipation. Employees can usually recognize this ploy and, if they do, feelings ofdistrust will likely develop.5. Employees goals are aligned with those of management. If employees do not sharemanagements goals, participative decision-making would be inappropriate, because thetwo parties would be at odds.Several studies have examined the effects of informal participative decision-making programs.While the results have been mixed and thus cannot be considered definitive, most studies havefound that informal participative decision-making programs do, in fact, have a positive impact onproductivity. 26. JOB ENRICHMENTSometimes, employees are not motivated because of the way their jobs are designed. Forexample, consider the job of an assembly-line worker who does nothing but place a screw in ahole as the product passes by on the production line. Such a job provides little opportunity forworkers to gain intrinsic rewards. Job enrichment aims to redesign jobs to be more intrinsicallyrewarding. Certain job characteristics help managers to build enrichment into jobs. Thesecharacteristics (summarized in Exhibit 1) include:Skill varietyThe various skills needed to perform a given task, where increased skillrequirements are associated with increased motivationTask identityThe degree to which employees perceive how their job impacts theoverall production of a product or serviceTask significanceWhether the task is meaningful beyond the task itselfAutonomyEmployee discretion over how to perform a taskFeedbackInput from peers and supervisors regarding the quality of an employees work 27. Job Characteristics That Enhance Intrinsic Motivation1. Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities to carryout the work. A job has high skill variety if it requires a number of different skills andtalents.2. Task Identity: The degree to which a job requires completion of the whole andidentifiable piece of work. A job has high task identity, if the worker does the job fromthe beginning to end with a visible outcome.3. Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives ofother people, whether these people are in the immediate organization or in the world atlarge. A job has a task significance if people benefit greatly from results of the job.4. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides the workers with autonomy. A job hashigh autonomy if workers are given substantial freedom, independence, and discretion inscheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 28. 5. Job Feedback: The degree to which the job provides the worker with knowledge ofresults. A job has high job feedback if carrying out the work activities required by the jobprovides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his orher performance.When these characteristics are present in a job, employees tend to be more motivated than whenthese characteristics are not present. However, there is not a "silver bullet" for motivatingemployees through empowerment; there is considerable variation in the degree to which each ofthese empowerment factors motivates individuals. On the other hand, it is a mistake to think thatbecause certain individuals do not respond equally to such job designs, overall productivity willnot increase as a result of empowerment through proper job design and enrichment. In general,productivity tends to increase despite the inherent variation of specific effects. 29. Once a job has been identified as needing enrichment, the organization must redesign it toincorporate these characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, andfeedback. Some specific job enrichment techniques include:Combining tasks. This involves assigning tasks performed by different workers to asingle individual. For example, in a furniture factory, rather than working on just one partof the production process, each person could assemble, sand, and stain an entire table orchair. This change would increase skill variety, as well as task identity, as each workerwould be responsible for the job from start to finish.Establish client relationships. Client relationships could be established by putting theworker in touch with customers. For example, an auto dealership service departmentcould allow its mechanics to discuss service problems directly with customers, ratherthan going through the service manager. By establishing client relationships, skill varietyis increased because workers have a chance to develop interpersonal skills. It alsoprovides them with a chance to do a larger part of the job (task identity), to see how theirwork impacts customers (task significance), and to have more decision-making authority(autonomy).Reduce direct supervision. Workers gain autonomy when they are given responsibility fordoing things previously done by supervisors. For instance, clerks could be allowed tocheck for their own errors or be allowed to order supplies directly. 30. Many organizations have successfully enriched otherwise dull jobs, thereby empoweringemployees to have greater control over their work and the decisions affecting them. In additionto increased productivity, empowerment also may lead to improvements in product or servicequality, reduced absenteeism rates, and increased employee retention. In situations whereenriched jobs become less automated, however, production may become less efficient. Jobenrichment would thus be ill-advised in situations where the loss in efficiency cannot be offsetby productivity gains stemming from increased motivation. Moreover, employees preferringhighly automated, easy jobs are likely to oppose job enrichment efforts. 31. CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENTCompanies adopting continuous improvement attempt to build quality into all phases of productor service design, production, and delivery. Often referred to as total quality management, theseprograms empower workers to trace product or service problems to their root causes andredesign production processes to eliminate them using various problem-solving and statisticaltechniques. In these situations, empowerment arises from the need to involve employees atnearly all organizational levels in continuous improvement efforts. The use of continuousimprovement programs have grown rapidly, built on the successful experiences of numerouscompanies. Xerox, for example, was able to decrease the number of customer complaints itreceived by 38 percent after implementing continuous improvement methods, and Motorolareduced the number of defects in its products by 80 percent. Proponents of self-managed workteams claim they succeed because they are customer-focused and promote sound managementpractices like team-work, continuous learning, and continuous improvement. 32. SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMSSelf-managed work teams have the authority to manage themselves. Rather than havingmanagers control their work, self-managed work teams incorporate group norms to regulateactivities. They plan, organize, coordinate, and take corrective actions. Some can hire, fire, anddiscipline team members with little intervention from higher levels of management. In short,self-managed work teams are given responsibilities usually held by managers, but control comesfrom the concertive influence of the team rather than from more formal means. Not surprisingly,managers jobs are minimized and group norms are maximized when self-managed work teamsare used. Self-managed work teams are not for all organizations; characteristic needed forsuccess include:Technical skills. Cross-training, which allows team members to move from job to jobwithin the team, is essential. Thus, team members should receive training in the specificskills that will broaden their personal contributions to the overall effort.Interpersonal skills. Team members must communicate effectively, both one-on-one andin groups. Cooperative decision-making within and among teams demands the skills ofgroup problem solving, influencing others, and resolving conflicts. Team members mustlearn problem-solving skills that assist in zeroing in on problem areas, gathering facts,analyzing causes, generating alternatives, selecting solutions, and other related facets.Administrative skills. Self-managed work teams must perform tasks formerly handled bysupervisors. The team must learn how to keep records, report procedures, budget,schedule, monitor, and appraise the performance of team members. 33. Research findings concerning self-managing teams have been largely positive. Proponents claimthat self-managed work teams are effective because they empower employees to make decisionsthat affect their day-to-day business lives. Thus, these teams radically change the way thatemployees value and think about their jobs. Other benefits associated with self-managed teamsinclude greater flexibility to respond to market changes and competitive pressures.However, there are a number of drawbacks. As noted previously, self-managed teams are not forevery organization. Some may be better served by other ways of empowerment, rather than thedramatic empowerment seen with self-managed teams. Drawbacks can include:Rivalry within and across teamsA shortage of time and skills on the team to deal with conventional management concernslike hiring, training, and resolving interpersonal disputesDifficulty appraising employees in the absence of a traditional management figureIn addition to these concerns, one of the most difficult issues companies face with self-directedwork teams is deciding how to effectively implement them. A number of obstacles must beovercome. Sometimes, managers are reluctant to relinquish control and employees are reluctantto accept new responsibilities. To prepare team members for self-management, the organizationmust provide a considerable amount of training. Without proper training, teams are likely tobecome bogged down permanently in mid-process. 34. As the previous discussion suggests, empowerment is not a single event or process, but rathertakes a variety of forms. The degree of empowerment ranges from asking employees for input toallowing total discretion. Informal participative decision-making programs, job enrichment,continuous improvement, and self-managed work teams are some of the ways that organizationsempower employees, giving them more control, but at the same time increasing overallorganizational productivityEmployee Empowerment, is it a tool for organizational development or it is just a generalmotivational factor, in this economy.Employee empowerment has over the years been regarded as a general motivational toll,however with the dawning of the global economy some organizations have taken the subect totheir advantage by embracing a holistic approach to empowerment and ensure the relatedinitiatives like;worker participation, training, information sharring , wellness mangement andemployee share empowerment schemes, would ensure organizational competitiveness ismantained and that an organization would be flexible , considering the changing economy world-wide 35. Why Employee Empowerment?People are your firms most underutilized resource. In the new knowledge economy,independent entrepreneurship and initiative is needed throughout the ranks of yourorganization. Involvement in an organization is no longer a one-way street. In todayscorporate environment a manager must work towards engaging organization forcefully enoughto achieve its objectives. Newknowledge-based enterprises are characterized by flathierarchical structures and multi-skilled workforce. Managers assumemore leadership and coaching tasks and work hard to provide employees with resources andworking conditions they need to accomplish the goals theyve agreed to. In brief, managerswork for their staff, and not the reverse.Empowerment is the oil that lubricates the exercise of learning. Talented and empoweredhuman capital is becoming the prime ingredient of organizational success. A critical feature ofsuccessful teams, especially in knowledge-based enterprises, is that they are invested with asignificant degree of empowerment, or decision-making authority.Equally important, employee empowerment changes the managers mind-set and leaves themwith more time to engage in broad-based thinking, visioning, and nurturing. This intelligentand productive division of duties between visionary leaders, focusing onemerging opportunities, and empowered employees, running the business unit day to day (withoversight on the leaders part) provides for a well-managed enterprise with strong growthpotential. 36. Benefits of EmpowermentThat employee empowerment benefits the organizations which implement it effectively iswidely noted in the literature. The popular press accepts the belief of benefit almost withoutquestion. Thomas Petzinger, in his column "The Front Lines" in the Wall Street Journal, is a bigadvocate for empowerment. He writes, "As a society we know the best way to organize peopleis freeing them to organize themselves. Why should it be any different in business?" (Petzinger,1997a, p. B1). Also in the Wall Street Journal, Aeppel asks the rhetorical question, " What betterway to tap into workers brains as well as their brawn than to encourage them to think on the job,to bring to it a greater sense of professionalism and self-motivation and to feel committed to thecompanys success?" (Aeppel, 1997, p. 1). Freeman (1998) writing in Inc. about applyingMarine Corps values in the growing corporate workplace advocates a form of empowermentwhere training is key and, within clear missions, risk-taking is rewarded.However, a bunch of business writers jumping on a bandwagon was not sufficient for me tobelieve that empowerment is beneficial. I wanted evidence and I found it. A number of writerscited Kanter (1979) as the source of information about the efficacy of employeeempowerment. Kanter writing about positional power indicates, "Organizational power cangrow, in part, by being shared. . . .By empowering others, a leader does not decrease his power;instead he may increase it--especially if the whole organization performs better." (Kanter, 1979,p. 73). Kanter then uses the logic that, "The productive capacity of nations, like organizations,grows if the skill base is upgraded. People with the tools, information and support to make moreinformed decisions and act more quickly can often accomplish more." (Kanter, 1979, p. 73).Many authors cite, "anecdotal and case evidenceto show that empowerment does producemore satisfied customers and employees." (Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p.75). However Bowen andLawler go beyond this and provide additional evidence, "considerable research on practices suchas gain sharing, communication programs, work teams, job enrichment, skill-based pay, and soon has shown the results of these practices are consistent and positive." (p.75). They go on tocite survey research conducted by, 37. The Center for Effective Organizations at the University of Southern Californiato determinethe degree to which firms are adopting practices that redistribute power, information, knowledge,and rewards, and the effects. . . . The datasuggest that empowerment may have a positiveimpact on a number of performance indicators. Respondents report that empowerment improvesworker satisfaction and quality of work life. Quality, service, and productivity are reportedlyimproved as a result of employee involvement efforts in about two-thirds of thecompanies. Approximately one-half of the companies also report that profitability andcompetitiveness have improved; this is supported by the finding of a relationship betweenempowerment and the firms financial performance. (Bowen & Lawler, 1995, p. 75)This is the hard evidence most skeptics are seeking.For those of us seeking softer evidence, Bowen and Lawler (1992) indicate empoweredemployees provide, "quicker on-line response to customer needs during service delivery;. . . .quicker on-line responses to dissatisfied customers during service recovery;. . . . employees feelbetter about their jobs and themselves;. . . . employees will interact with customers with morewarmth and enthusiasm. . . . when employees felt that management was looking after their needs,they took better care of the customer;. . . . great word-of-mouth advertising and customerretention" (pp. 33-34). Randolph (1995) indicates, "A more subtle, yet very powerful benefit" ofemployee empowerment was increased "trust in the organization" (p. 22). When employees trustthat the company is not out to suck their blood and is providing a competitive produce or servicethey will respond positively, "people who have information about current performance levelswill set challenging goals--and when they achieve those goals they will reset the goals at a higherlevel." (Randolph, 1995, p. 23). 38. A number of authors also indicate that the increasing competitiveness of the globalmarketplace calls for better service and the benefit of drawing upon the entire pool of employeesfor creative ideas (Bowen & Lawler, 1992; Gandz, 1990). An example of this would be aconsumer products company looking to expand into less developed countries using custodialstaff who immigrated from those countries for marketing ideas and possible distributioncontacts. One never knows if someone has an uncle or aunt in his or her home country whoowns a chain of grocery stores, unless one asks. An empowered organization would think to ask,or would at least encourage the employees to make helpful suggestions. 39. A Culture of EmpowermentAn organizations culture is a complex thing, not easily described. Yet it is upon thisfoundation that empowerment is built. The organizations which successfully implementemployee empowerment will have certain values at their core from which the process ofempowerment can flow. Among these values are respect and appreciation for individuals andthe value they bring to the organization. Values alone do not make up an organizations culture,and respect for individuals is only one of the outward signs of an empowered culture.Edgar Schein defines organizational culture as,a pattern of basic assumptionsinvented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learnsto cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integrationthat has worked wellenough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way toperceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (Schein, 1985, p. 9)However coherent this definition seems, the concept is much more complex. Schein uses thebulk of his book Organizational Culture and Leadership to provide a more completeunderstanding of what culture really is. Such in depth study of this single concept is beyond thescope of this paper and I would refer the reader to Scheins book for a deeper understanding.Nonetheless, the culture of the organization must support the thrust of empowerment if thereis any chance for success. I am resolved to discuss the "artifacts and values that are themanifestations or surface levels of the culture" (Schein, 1985, p. 6-7) since that is within thescope of this thesis. Other authors try to get at this essence that is organizational culture whichmust be supportive for empowerment to succeed. By Scheins definition, they tend to focus onthe surface manifestations, though several try to imply the greater depth.For example, Quinn and Spreitzer (1997) indicate, "empowerment must be defined in termsof fundamental beliefs and personal orientations" (p. 40), which is an apt description oforganizational culture. Yet they go on to note the manifestations, "Empowered people have asense of self-determination. . . .Empowered people have a sense of meaning. . . .Empoweredpeople have a sense of competence. . . . Empowered people have a sense of impact." (Quinn &Spreitzer, 1997, p. 40). Other manifestations these authors note in an earlier article include,"actual barriers to change present and the social support available to the manager from his/her 40. boss and peers." (Spreitzer & Quinn, 1996, p. 239), these barriers are aspects of culture. Anotherexample is provided by Gandz (1990), "A set of shared values is needed. . . .beliefs about theway things should be done, the standards of behavior that are appropriate, the ethics oforganizational actions. . . .Such values compel and propel behavior" (p. 75)significant culturalartifacts which will lead to empowerment.Ford and Fottler (1995) provide a model of how empowered an individual is on two scales,job content and job context. The aspects of job context are manifestations of culture; theyindicate, "Job context is much broader. It is the reason the organization needs that job done andincludes both how it fits into the overall organizational mission, goals, and objectives and theorganizational setting within which that job is done. Organizational structure, rewards systems,mission, goals, objectives and so forth make up the rich tapestry of job context." (p. 22-23). Organizational structure and reward systems are often put into place with the unknowingand unquestioned basic assumptions which are part of the culture of the organization. Sheinsposition supports this view thusly, "If culture has developed in this sense, it will affect most ofthe aspects of an organizationits strategy, its structure, its processes, its reward and controlsystems, and its daily routines." (Schein, 1985, p. 244)An organization seeking to implement empowerment is likely to examine its structure andreward systems, however if the culture is not also examined by the change agents, replacementstructures and systems are likely to reflect the old assumptions. One such assumption is whetherindividuals or groups (teams) should be rewarded for their efforts. Many organizations in theUnited States hold that countrys value of individualism. If, on the one hand, teams are beingpromoted as a tool of empowerment, and on the other hand, individuals are being rewarded forthe work of the team, then employees will unconsciously (or consciously) pick-up on the culturalnorm and will be reluctant to dedicate themselves to the teaming concept where their work maynot be recognized and rewarded. In other words, empowered organizations put their moneywhere their mouth is.Mallak and Kurstedt (1996), perhaps more articulately, express this sentiment when theywrite, "Managers who understand how empowerment integrates with organizational culture aremotivated to lead employeesand help them internalize the values and traditions [ofempowerment]. These managers help create a work environment where employees take actionfor intrinsic reasons more so than for extrinsic reasons." (p. 8). Mallak and Kurstedt provide a 41. four stage model for cultural integration, because they understand how important theorganizations culture is to the successful implementation of empowerment.Shipper and Manz (1992), in their description of W. L. Gore and Associates, demonstratehow committed to empowerment that company is by describing the culturalmanifestations. Some examples include: there are no position titles, all employees are calledAssociates; every associate has one or more sponsors who provide training, act as coach ormentor, and advocate with the compensation committee for the employees pay increases; allassociates are encouraged to apply their creativity, even to the extent of finding their own jobwithin the organization after being hired. While these tactics far surpass what anotherorganization interested in empowering its employees is likely to do, they do reflect what hasbeen successful for Gore. The cultural values which brought about this unique organizationalculture are the result of the personal values of Gores founder. Schein notes, "Founders usuallyhave a major impact on how the group defines and solves its external adaptation and internalintegration problems." (Schein, 1985, p. 210), these are essential components of the developmentof culture.Other authors provide less articulate, though no less powerful, demonstrations of theimportance of organizational culture to employee empowerment. Witness: Blanchard andBowles (1998), "Its the understanding, not the work. Its how the work helps others, not unitsdealt with." (p. 170); Block (1987), "Creating a vision of greatness [is] the first step towardempowerment" (p. 99); Ginnodo (1997) "Empowerment serves a purpose. Its not a feel-goodprogram. Its about accomplishing business objectives. Its a means to an end, not an end initself. Empowerment helps employees help the organization and themselves." (p.12).By now, it should be clear that the organizations culture is important to employeeempowerment. If an organizations culture does not already support empowerment it must bechanged, However, as Schein points out, "we may be suggesting something very drastic whenwe say, Lets change the culture" (Schein, 1985, p. 5). And you may be asking yourself, "Howwould we go about changing the culture, should we decide we need to do so?". A very goodquestion indeed. Fortunately, Schein provides some insight into this. He notes, "Leaders createculture, but cultures, in turn, create their next generation of leaders." (Schein, 1985, p. 313). Ifthe leader is acting in a growing organization, he or she needs, "both vision and the ability toarticulate it and enforce it." (Schein, 1985, p. 317). If, however, the organizational culture is 42. mature, "If it is to change its culture, it must be led by someone who can, in effect, break thetyranny of the old culture." (Schein, 1985, p. 321). This is accomplished through replacement ofassumptions. "If an assumption is to be given up, it must be replaced or redefined in anotherform, and it is the burden of leadership to make that happen." (Schein, 1985, p. 324) Scheinmakes a distinction between leaders and managers. I make that distinction as well in the sectionon the managers role below. Schein also provides a useful table of organizational, "GrowthStages, Functions of Culture, and Mechanisms of Change" (Schein, 1985, p. 271-272). 43. Management RoleIn an empowered organization the managers and supervisors take on a different role than theyusually would in most organizations. The literature is unanimous on this point. It may beobvious that one aspect of this role change is the sharing of power and authority. Yet, manymanagers and supervisors already do this, either actively or passively, through delegation orabdication, neither of which is empowering people.Empowerment implies a great deal more. There is an active role for managers andsupervisors rather than the passive one of abdication. There are stages an employee must gothrough before he or she should have authority delegated to him or her. There should also be arecognition that while the employee may be ready to have one aspect of the job delegated to heror him, she or he may not be ready for delegation in other functional aspects of the job(Blanchard, Zigarmi & Zigarmi,1985). Managers and supervisors must reframe their perceptionof their roles because, "The primary task of supervision is to help people." (Block, 1987, p.63). Block (1987) also tells us, "As managers we become more powerful as we nurture thepower of those below us." (p. 64).So what are these new, active roles for managers? First we must understand that, "Managersand supervisors need to be empowered, too" (Ginnodo, 1997, p. 12). One use of managers newfound empowerment should be to allow them to remove barriers to employeeempowerment. Conger and Kanungo (1988) describe this as, "providing autonomy frombureaucratic constraint" (p.478). Harari (1997) asks us to, "imagine that your job is to create anenvironment where your people take on the responsibility to work productively in self-managed,self-starting teams that identify and solve complex problems on their own." Ginnodo (1997) tellsus this, "involves articulating a vision, values, strategies and goals; aligning policies, practicesand business plans; improving processes; organizing, communicating and walking the talk oftotal quality. . . .and removing barriers that prevent outstanding performance"[italics are mine](p. 8). Gandz (1990) indicates, "Managers need to be willing and capable of changing their rolesfrom supervisors and work directors to visionaries and coaches." (p. 77)This new role of coach is also nearly universal in the literature. Coaching is defined as,"teaching and practice focused on taking action, with celebration when things go well and 44. supportive redirection when things go wrong, while all the time creating excitement andchallenge for those being coached" ( Blanchard & Bowles, 1998, p.159). Ward (1996) indicatesof coaching, "The objective is to keep giving employees responsibilities which move them alongthe capability continuum, eventually reaching fully capable of the task. Naturally, the managermust be careful to keep adjusting his or her leadership style as the employee becomes morecapable." (p. 22) "Managers also have to learn how to nurture and reward good ideas." (Caudron,1995, p. 30)Conger and Kanungo (1988) discuss the importance of the employees sense of their ownabilities as a factor in their empowerment. These coaching, or, "empowerment strategies[are]aimed not only at removing some of the external conditions responsible for powerlessness, butalso (and more important) at providing subordinates with self-efficacy information" (p.478). Among the coaching strategies noted are, "(a) expressing confidence in subordinatesaccompanied by high performance expectations, (b) fostering opportunities for subordinates toparticipate in decision making, (c) providing autonomy from bureaucratic constraint, and (d)setting inspirational and/or meaningful goals."(p. 478). Thomas and Velthouse (1990) indicateevents such as, "inputs from supervisors, staff peers, and subordinates, for example, performanceevaluations, charismatic appeals, training sessions, mentoring advice, and general discussions ofongoing projectsprovides data on which to base task assessments." (p. 671). Task assessmentsare those perceptions by the employee of his or her ability to perform, or interest in, thetask. That is, management can change the environment to make completion of the tasksrewarding intrinsically (for example, through praise and recognition or increased opportunities),or management can work as a mentor to help the employee perceive his or her contribution asvaluable.Mallak and Kurstedt (1996) echo this mentoring approach for employees, "and help theminternalize the values and traditions [of the organization]. These managers help create a workenvironment where employees take action for intrinsic reasons more so than for extrinsicreasons." (p. 10). Another aspect of mentoring is role modeling. Block (1987) indicates, "Oneway we nurture those below us is by becoming a role model for how we want them to function."(p. 64). Other authors use a sports analogy to get this same point across. "By setting the keygoals and values, you define the playing field and the rules of the game. You decide who playswhat position. Then you have to get off the field and let the players move the ball." ( Blanchard 45. & Bowles, 1998, p.79)If a manager does not perceive her or his role is to help those she or he supervises to grow, thenany empowerment implementation effort will not be successful. A change in role perception iscalled for in this instance when implementing employee empowerment. The supervisor must seepotential in the employee and work to bring that potential out. The process is best described asmentoring or coaching and it entails:determining the skill level of the employeesharing information about the goal to be achieved and why it is important to theorganization as a wholeproviding for employee training as neededdepending upon the employees skill level, providing appropriate supervisory supporta directing style for those tasks for which the employee has a low skill levelcoaching for those tasks with which the employee has some skills but is lackingexperience or motivationa supporting style for those tasks where the employee knows what to do but is stilllacking confidence in their abilitiesa delegating style for those tasks where the employee is motivated and fully capable.(Blanchard, Zigarmi & Zigarmi,1985)ensuring that the employee is consistently growing in skill by providing newresponsibilities for which a higher level of supervision is neededmentoring the employee such that they absorb both the organizational culture and thevalue of empowermentremoving barriers to empowerment present in the organizational structureensuring that appropriate resources are available for the employee, or ensuring that theemployee has the appropriate skills to obtain needed resourcesproviding support for the continued empowerment of the employeeand sharing information about the employees and the organizations effectiveness. 46. conclusionThis thesis examines the topic of employee empowerment and seeks to provide amodel for its implementation which addresses needs identified in the literature butinsufficiently addressed previously. Empowerment is defined as a processwhereby: a culture of empowerment is developed, information is shared, competencyis developed, and resources and support are provided. Each of the components ofempowermentculture, information sharing, competency development, resourceprovision, and supportis examined in detail as addressed in the literature. Thebenefits of employee empowerment are noted, and objections to it areaddressed. Theoretical foundations of employee empowerment are examined in anextensive literature review.A model for understanding and implementing employee empowerment is providedbased upon the precepts of apprenticeship. The apprenticeship model suggests thatemployees be viewed first as apprentices while their skills and knowledge within agiven task set are developing, then as journeypersons through continued development,and finally as masters of their craft. An assessment of organizational empowerment isprovided and training responses based upon this assessment are suggested. 47. 1.Can a consensus be reached by any group of organizational members as to thedefinition of empowerment?YES NO DONT KNOW2. What perquisites become available as climbs up in the organizational hierarchy?NONE FEW MANY DONT KNOW3. Who are your mentors within the organization?MANY FEW NONE4. In the course of a week, how may times does a low-level, front-line employee need to seekapproval for an action she or he believes is the correct one?NONE FEW MANY5. Can any given employee accurately answer the question, "How is the organization doing"?YES NO DONT KNOW6. What is the vision of the organization?EASILY ANSWERED DONT KNOW7. In what aspects of your job have you reached master status?SEVERAL FEW NONENEW TO ORG. NONENO EFFORT8. Are you providing training to anyone within the organization? 48. YES NO9. In what aspects of your job do you continue to grow?SEVERAL FEW NONE10. When was the last time a project or work effort was delayed due to lack of resources?LONG TIME AGO RECENTLY ALL THE TIME11. If your supervisor was away and a customer or another department asked you to completea project for which you knew there was capacity to complete, would you be able to agree tocomplete the project and access the needed resources?YES YES, AFTER SEEKING APPROVAL NO12. If the above request slightly exceeded the known capacity to complete, what would beyour supervisors bosss response if you decided to accept the project anyway?PRAISE DONT KNOW ANGER13. How would such a decision affect the organization?POSITIVELY NEGATIVELY DONT KNOW14. What would you do if another member of your department disagreed with you about thedecision to accept the project?DISCUSS TO RESOLUTION GO OVER HIS/HER HEAD15. Who are your friends in the organization?MANY FEW NONE DONT KNOW