master’s thesis bottle and logo design effects on

Running head: BOTTLE AND LOGO DESIGN EFFECTS ON PURCHASING A HEALTHY

PRODUCT 1

Master’s Thesis

Bottle and logo design effects on purchasing a healthy product

Elli-Maria Papalazarou

Student ID: 10602402

Thesis supervisor: Marijn Meijers

Master program in Communication Science

Graduate School of Communication

Date of completion: 29/01/2015

BOTTLE AND LOGO DESIGN EFFECTS ON PURCHASING A HEALTHY PRODUCT 2

Abstract

The present thesis attempted to extent the current literature on visual information processing, by

analyzing the effects visual elements can provide for persuasive communication. By means of an

online experiment the effects of product shape and logo shape were examined on the purchasing

intention towards a healthy product. Specifically round and angular logo and bottle shape

combinations were included in the analysis. Following the latest findings on the theory of

processing fluency a theoretical framework was developed in which it was assumed that both

conceptual and perceptual fluency play a role when people encounter a piece of visual

information. Perceptual fluency was assumed to affect the processing of the visual element itself

whereas conceptual fluency was expected to affect the associations evoked by the product. The

results revealed no significant influence of the chosen design elements on the dependent variable.

Keywords: visual communication, logo design, bottle design, processing fluency


Bottle and logo design effects on purchasing a healthy product

The striving efforts of companies towards creating even more visually interesting-and

therefore attention grabbing- products can be observed everywhere around us. Brighter fruit

colors, perfume bottles shaped as people’s bodies, and slender mobile phone devices are just but

a few examples of this ever growing tendency. There are solid reasons that drive marketers and

business professionals into investing a great amount of their resources into the development of

the visual aspects of their products, such as Pepsi redesigning its logo for one million US dollars

(businessinsider.com). Several studies have indicated that a good product design can be the

differentiating factor for improved market performance (Gemser & Leenders, 2001; Roy, 1994;

Creusen & Schoormans, 2005). Visual elements, such as logos, can also work as a competitive

advantage and lead to the increasing of a company's or brand’s reputation (Baker & Balmer,

1997; Olins, 1989). Therefore, since it is important for companies to distinguish their products

and brands from their competitors’, a good product design accompanied by an effective logo can

help them improve their financial and marketing results.

Designers have to take difficult decisions regarding the characteristics of a product form

(Kellaris & Kent, 1993) and in many cases a product logo is chosen by the marketing manager,

since companies hesitate to leave a decision which requires a deep understanding of the goals

and culture of a firm to the design team (Siegel, 1989). Since the design of consumer products

becomes more elaborate and complicated over time, there is a definite need for analyses of the

various marketing effects for combined product design elements such as logos and product

shapes.

So far, scientific literature has provided no results and solutions on the topic of combined

logo and product shape on consumer preferences, while it focuses more on the analysis of the


effects of various logo types and product packaging shapes separately (Fang & Mowen, 2005;

Wang & Chou, 2011; van Rompay, Pruyn & Tieke, 2009). The present study tries to provide an

insight into the effects of this combination by means of an experiment and by focusing

specifically on the category of healthy products. The combination of the two design elements

will be explored from a congruency point of view, that is, how the two visuals will be perceived

as in fit to each other by consumers. This perception is assumed by the researcher to be

happening in a non-conscious way. It is expected that a congruent combination of the two visual

elements will be received more favorably by consumers and that will lead to an increased

preference for the product.

Considerations over the healthy aspects of products play an ever important role in

comsumers’choice. Therefore it important to discover those product design combinations that

will work the best towards this direction, not only for improving marketing sales figures, but

above all for improving people’s health by helping them to choose for healthier products.

Concluding, the present thesis research question is concerned with how the congruency of the

two design forms of the logo and shape for a healthy product will affect the consumers

purchasing decision for it.

Theoretical Framework

Product design and elements

Throughout history, people have always created smart and elaborate objects, whether

these served for everyday use, decoration, or as a way to improve the functioning of human

relations through their exchange (Gosden & Marshall, 1999). It is interesting to notice how

people creating objects, like designers or carpenters pay attention not only to the functional

aspects of the products they create but to the aesthetic elements these display as well. The


reasons behind this can be tracked down on the literature on aesthetics and consumer research.

Dion et al.(1972 ) have found that individuals associated with socially desirable personality traits

were the ones that were physically also more attractive, or as they summarized in their findings

“what is beautiful is good” (p. 285). Research in experimental aesthetics has found that aesthetic

ratings across subjects are very consistent with one another (Berlyne, 1971), which suggests that

beauty estimation standards are widely shared within the same culture.

The estimation of physical attractiveness and subsequent generation of positive

evaluations for the object has been also explored in the area of consumer research (Bloch, 1995;

Seva, Duh & Helander; 2007). For instance, product form has been suggested to play a major

role in product approach and avoidance behavior in consumers, by driving cognitive and

affective psychological responses, which in turn drive behavioral responses (Bloch, 1995). After

purchasing a product with a pleasing form, consumers display it prominently more often (Belk

1988; Bloch, 1995). For instance, a consumer may position an attractive new food processor

visibly on a kitchen counter (Bloch, 1995). In a marketing communication setting, the emotion

the design of a product evokes can persuade consumers to buy it (Seva et al, 2007). The width of

the body of a phone, for example, significantly affects feelings of consumer contentment (Seva et

al, 2007). Therefore, we can conclude that visual characteristics such as length, height or color

are comparatively evaluated and subsequently some of them can lead to an increased preference

for the objects that carry them.

The above findings suggest also that consumers are not driven simply by economic or

brand awareness factors when choosing for a product, but also the associations aesthetic

elements evoke play a role. Indeed, one important stream of consumer research, namely the

“experiential view”, distinguished consumers from their earlier position as simple “buyers”, and


recognized that “fantasies, feelings and fun” are also important aspects of the purchasing

experience (Holbrook & Hirshmann, 1982). The form (or design) of a product includes a

number of elements which are chosen by the design team to achieve a particular consumer effect.

These elements can be, for example, the shape, scale, color, materials, reflectiveness, texture, or

logo of the product (Kellaris & Kent, 1993). It has been thoroughly established in research that

these elements evoke symbolic associations in the minds of consumers (Bloch, 1995; Childers &

Jass, 2002; Van Rompay, et al., 2005; Zhang, et al. 2006). In order to be able to understand the

underlying mechanics influencing the effects of interaction between the two form elements in

focus here (i.e., logo and shape), it is necessary first to explore the topic of symbolism in

products.

Symbolism in products

Symbolic meanings reflect the product properties recognized by consumers that are not

literary part of the product experience (Blank et al., 1984). This means that some product

properties are functional, like for instance the “teeth” of a knife which can cut on something,

whereas others are symbolic, like a picture on the knifes’ blade showing a shark, depicting

therefore the knife’s increased ability for cutting. From a brand communication perspective,

these meanings reflect symbolic brand or product characteristics that shape a brand's or products’

character or personality (Aaker, 1997). For example, in a study by Bhat and Reddy (1998) Nike

was perceived as being functional, prestigious, and expressive. In brand research specifically it is

generally accepted that a brands relies on its symbolic meanings or connotations as these are

conveyed through advertising symbols (Dungee & Stuart, 1987).

Research recognizes also that one way to identify a brand is through the product’s design

(Schmitt & Simonson, 1997). For instance, many people can recognize immediately the


characteristic puma logo of the sport brand Puma. Nevertheless, product shape and logo are

assumed to go beyond their brand identification role and are expected to infer symbolic brand

and product meanings to consumers according to research in symbolism (Creusen &

Schoormans, 2005, Westerman et al.2012).

Product/logo shape and symbolism. The packaging of a product can manipulate

consumer decision to buy it due to its symbolic or aesthetic qualities (Creusen & Schoormans,

2005).Consider, for instance, the elegant appearance of a Chanel perfume bottle. A consumer

who considers him or herself as elegant or wants to add this characteristic to his or her

personality will probably choose that over a “rough” looking design. Other times, consumers

choose to rely on product packaging due to lack of other relevant product information. For

instance, product packaging can allow consumers to draw inferences about the products’

attributes or even in the case of foods and beverages about its taste (Becker et al., 2011).

Literature has provided many answers on the topic of shape symbolism. Based on the

investigation of fundamental forms like angular or round shapes, it has been found for instance

that circular shapes like sphere or circles are associated with being warm or soft (Liu, 1997)

whereas angular shapes are associated with representing a conflict of the stimulus with its

surroundings (Berlyne, 1976). Specifically, regarding the shapes of consumer’s products

Westerman et al. (2013) have found that consumers show a preference for rounded objects

instead of angular ones. This preference for rounded forms is justified according to the authors

to a natural fear response to angular forms, which in nature they usually represent some form of

threat (Bar & Neta, 2006; 2007) .Many objects in nature that represent some form of danger in

terms of inflicting possible damage to a person are angular, like for instance thorns in a bush or

sharp objects in general. Also in a study by Aronoff, Barclay and Stevenson (1988), on


participants’ responses to abstract facial representations it was found that abstract angular facial

expressions due to the indication of the presence of a threat, according to the previously

mentioned justification, were evaluated less positively as opposed to rounded shapes which

indicated the absence of a threat.

As the present thesis is concerned with the category of healthy products, it is also

important to refer to shapes that reflect the concept of naturalness. Kress and van Leeuwen

(1996) suggest that square and angular shapes are perceived as “elements of the mechanical and

technological order, of the world of human construction” (p. 52). Round shapes instead, like

circles, squares and triangles, are the elements associated with “an organic and natural order,

with the world of organic nature” (p.53). It is therefore expected that an angular shape will be

perceived as an artificial, “man-made” object, whereas a rounded object will be perceived as

expressing naturalness, therefore also healthiness.

Just as a products’ shape conveys a certain meaning, a logo’s shape may similarly suggest

a certain meaning. A logo is defined as the “official representation of a corporate or brand name”

(Schechter, 1993). The advertising logo is typically a graphical element, accompanied by text or

standing alone, that a company uses for its identification or the identification of a particular

brand (Henderson & Cote, 1998). It has been proven that the logo serves as a vehicle for

capturing attention and conveying meaning (Hagtvedt, 2001), and the transfer of evaluations

from a logo to the company and/or brand it represents, is supported (Schechter, 1993). Zhang et

al. (2006) showed that rounded logos are readily perceived as harmonious and gentle, whereas

angular logos trigger associations with conflict and aggressiveness. According to Kress and van

Leeuwen (1996), as described in the previous paragraph, in this case also rounded logos will be

perceived as natural and healthy, whereas angular ones as artificial.

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Congruency and processing fluency

Congruency. In order to further explore the main thesis question of how the interaction

of the design of a logo and product shape will influence the purchasing decision for a healthy

product, it is necessary to refer also to the concept of congruency. Specifically, the concept of

(in)congruency refers to the (mis)matching between the characteristics of two stimuli (e.g.,

product shape and logo). Previous research on stimulus congruence with respect to product

design has found that perceived unity between the different stimuli has a significant positive

effect on aesthetic responses (Bloch, 1995). With regards to symbolic meanings, congruence

among stimuli has been found to positively influence brand and product evaluations. For

example when a bottle, with a shape that elicited natural impressions, was paired with a slogan

that elicited natural impressions, it was perceived more favorably than a bottle which shape and

slogan impressions were incongruent (van Rompay et al, 2009). Symbolic congruence has also

been proven to influence brand perceptions where symbolically congruent stimuli caused

positive differences in brand credibility and judgments of brand aesthetics, compared to

incongruent stimuli (van Rompay & Pruyn, 2011). The question that rises at this point in regard

to this thesis main research topic is how the concept of congruency is processed at the minds of

consumers. In order to explore that, it is necessary to refer to the theory of processing fluency.

Processing fluency. When consumers are presented with a new product they often

evaluate it positively without recognizing the reasons behind this (Berger & Fitzimons, 2008).

This positive evaluation is actually a result of prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli

((Bornstein & D'Agostino, 1992, 1994). According to the processing fluency model previous

exposure to a stimulus makes the stimulus easier to perceive, encode, and process at a later time

(Bornstein & D'Agostino, 1992, 1994). So, for example, according to Klinger and Greenwald


(1994) if a person is in a context where they have to make a choice for a product, and experience

has taught them that easily processed stimuli are more liked, then the person will attribute this

easiness in processing (fluency) the stimulus to a liking for the product. Therefore, stimuli that

are easily processed will evoke positive affect, which transfers to the stimuli carrier (the

product), subsequently resulting in favorable product evaluations (Reber, Schwarz &

Winkielman, 2004). These workings which are attributed to fluency require no conscious

elaboration, thus they happen implicitly (Bornstein & D’Agostino 1992; Jacoby, et al. 1989).

Literature in implicit memory research has provided evidence that fluency may be both

conceptual and perceptual in nature (Tulvig & Schacter, 1990).

Perceptual fluency represents the ease with which consumers can identify a target

stimulus on subsequent encounters and involves the processing of physical features such as

shape (Jacoby & Dallas, 1981). Mandler et al. (1987) suggest that perceptual fluency will

influence any judgment that depends on one’s reaction to the features of a stimulus. For example,

many variables that facilitate perceptual processing of the stimulus will enhance liking of the

target (Reber et al. 2004; Schwarz 2004). Perceptual fluency has been proposed specifically to be

enhanced by presentation variables such as figure-ground contrast, visual clarity, and good form

within a single exposure (Reber et al. 2004). Regarding the amount of visual information a

stimulus exhibits, Garner (1974) found that judgments of figural goodness were higher the less

information people had to extract from a stimulus to perceive it. That means that an object which

contains visual stimuli with a great amount of information to be processed and/or this amount of

information is complicated to process will be less liked. For instance people choose consistently

symmetric shapes instead of asymmetric but otherwise identical shapes, due to the less amount

of information the first exhibit (Garner, 1974).



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http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/321945#rf21


Conceptual fluency is defined similarly to perceptual fluency, only at this case the

fluency reflects the ease of processing the meaning of a stimulus, or the fluency of conceptually

driven processing (Whittlesea, 1993). So the two fluency types differ in that perceptual fluency is

connected to the processing of the physical and visual attributes of the stimulus whereas

conceptual fluency is connected to the processing of the meaning the stimulus characteristics

evoke. Conceptual fluency can be created in various ways, such as presentation of a

semantically-equivalent item (e.g. broad-wide), or a semantically-related item (e.g., sugar-sweet;

Lee and Labroo 2004). To give an example, Lee and Labroo (2004), created two experiments

where in the first one the target appeared in a predictive context (a bottle of beer after pictures

that show a man entering a bar) and in the second the target was primed by a related construct

(an image of a ketchup bottle after a sequence of images showing a woman in the supermarket

and a cornflakes box). They showed that when a target comes to mind more readily and becomes

conceptually fluent, as in these two ways, participants as a result of increased conceptual fluency

will develop more favorable attitudes towards the target and therefore towards the product. On

the other hand, in the low conceptual fluency conditions the sequence of images in the example

referred above with the woman in the supermarket and the cornflakes box was followed by an

image of pills.In the first experiment the images showing the man entering the bar were followed

by a mug. These unrelated constructs and non-predictive to the target stimuli, lead to lower

evaluations towards the target product.

Development of hypotheses

As this thesis paper pays attention to the category of healthy products I assume that the

consumer need in focus will be to purchase a product that is perceived as natural. The product

and logo shape combinations that will be examined are angular and rounded shapes, as these are


expected to infer unnatural and natural associations accordingly, as it was explained earlier. The

effects of the combined logo and product shape variations on consumers’ perceptions, and

subsequently on their purchasing decisions are according to the previous chapters based on two

perspectives. The first perspective is that of perceptual fluency rising from the processing of the

product’s stimuli. As it was previously mentioned, perceptual fluency is proven to be enhanced

by good form within a single exposure (Reber et al. 2004). Also the less difficult the visual

information the consumers are processing, the more the product is going to be evaluated in a

positive way (Garner, 1974). Therefore in the case of having similar logo and product shape

(angular/angular or round/round) perceptual fluency will increase overall. This easiness in the

processing of the stimuli will be translated into an increased likeness for the product according to

the processing fluency model (Reber, Schwarz & Winkielman, 2004). However, it is expected

that the combination of the angular logo and the angular product shape will be less positively

evaluated compared to the rounded one, due to the proven aversion to angular shapes (Bar &

Neta, 2006; 2007). The combinations of angular and rounded logos and product shapes are

expected to be less positively evaluated than the angular/angular combination since they will be

perceived as containing too much and therefore it will be more difficult to process visual

information, decreasing the likelihood of processing fluency.

The second perspective is that of conceptual fluency. On a symbolic level, I expect the

products’ or logos shape to evoke or not the concept of “naturalness”. As it was previously

mentioned on the chapter of product symbolism, angular shapes are perceived as man-made,

therefore as being unnatural. Rounded objects are in contrast perceived as natural or pure. The

combination of the two rounded shapes therefore (rounded logo and product shape) will be

perceived to be congruent and conceptually “natural”. As shown by Lee and Labroo (2004)


likeness for this combination will be enhanced as the creation of a unified semantically-

equivalent item to the target (here naturalness) leads to an increase in conceptual fluency.

Regarding the rounded/angular logo and shape combinations, these will not lead to an increase in

the conceptual processing of the product, since the target consumer need will not be semantically

equivalent or related to the concept the overall product design will evoke. They will therefore not

lead to a preference for the product. Accordingly the angular logo and product combination will

not evoke also the concept of naturalness and therefore will not increase the preference for the

product.

However, consumers seem to differ in their “tolerance for ambiguity”, a phenomenon

described in social psychology as the “personal need for structure” (Neuberg & Newsom, 1993).

People with a high need for structure, enjoy certainty and predictability, whereas they dislike ill-

structured and ambiguous situations. In an experimental study by Van Rompay et al. (2009),

(in)congruence was studied between advertising slogan and product shape, with respect to

consumers’ (in)tolerance for ambiguity. It was found that consumers with low tolerance for

ambiguity showed significant aversion to incongruities. It is expected that personal need for

structure will affect the observed results for the two stimuli interaction, with the incongruent

combinations of round and angular shapes to be less liked, whereas the same shaped

combinations will be more liked.

Combining the above analyses the following hypotheses are developed:

H1. A round/round logo and shape combination, will be conceptually and perceptually

more fluent than a round/angular or angular/angular one for a healthy product. This will lead to

an increased preference and subsequent greater purchasing intention for this combination


compared to the others. This effect will be enhanced for people who score high in personal need

for structure.

H2. An angular/angular logo and shape combination will be perceptually more fluent than

a round/angular one but less than the round/round combination for a healthy product. This will

lead to an increased preference and subsequent higher purchase intention for this combination

compared to the angular/rounded one. This effect will be enhanced for people who score high in

personal need for structure.

Methodological framework

The present study used a 2( Bottle shape : angular/round) x 2(Logo Shape:

angular/round) with personal need for structure as a covariate between subjects design. As it was

explained previously on the theoretical section, the focus of this thesis lays on the category of

natural products. A smoothie is a beverage consisting of a mix of blended fresh fruit and

vegetables, which sometimes might include other ingredients such as ice or yogurt. As the core

concept behind a smoothie is making a juice pulp out of natural ingredients in order to produce

it, and as this naturalness concept is obvious also in all smoothies’ advertising copy, we can

safely say that they indeed represent a natural and therefore healthy product. Smoothies are

mainly placed in bottles when they are prepared for mass production, as it happens with

smoothies that appear on the fridges of supermarkets. Therefore, the choice for the two visual

stimuli of the experiment will be the shape and logo appearing on a smoothie bottle.

In connection to the hypotheses and in order to ensure that the angular/rounded forms do

indeed infer the predicted notions of naturalness/unnaturalness to the participants of the

experiment, four visual stimuli were designed. One rounded shaped bottle with angular logo, one

rounded shaped bottle with rounded logo, one angular shaped bottle with angular logo and one


angular shaped bottle with angular logo(see Appendix A, Figure 1). The four visual stimuli

differed only in the shapes of the logos and bottles between them, otherwise their colors, brand

type font, brand name and closing lid shape were completely the same across all four conditions.

The four visual stimuli were subsequently used in the experiment described as it follows.

Method

Two versions –online and offline- of the same experiment were created. The first online

version was created by using the online survey software tool of Qualtrics. The four visual stimuli

were used for the manipulation of the concept of naturalness or unnaturalness, as well as the

perceived congruency between the two elements. Specifically four experimental groups were

created where in each one a different version of the bottle was assigned. Also, in order to

increase the total amount of participants of the experiment, this was translated in Greek (the

mother tongue of the researcher) and was presented in an offline fashion. Special attention was

paid so that the translation of the experimental instructions and subsequent questions would be as

precise as possible, but at the same time would not provide a meaningless translation in Greek. In

this case of the offline experiment the participants were presented with the instructions, visual

stimuli and survey questions in exactly the same order as in the online one.

Participants

In total the experiment had 160 participants (Mage = 31.9, SD = 9.5 , 63% female)).

Hundred thirty two participants were recruited in the online version whereas in the offline

version the participants reached the number of 27. In the online experiment, participants were

recruited via sending Facebook private messages. A text asking them to participate in a survey

describing the time that the completion of it would approximately take was presented to them

and underneath the link that lead to the experiment. It appeared nowhere in this descriptive text


that an experiment would follow, therefore participants had no indication of the manipulation at

that point. On the offline version participants were simply invited in a room and given a printed

version of the experiment.

Procedure

Initially the following instructions appeared “On the next page you will see a picture of

a smoothie. Imagine the following scenario: you are in the supermarket and you intend to buy

one. You go to the fridge section where you see the smoothie appearing in the picture. You can

look at the smoothie for as long as you want.” The first group was then presented with the

angular logo angular bottle combination, the second group with the angular logo round bottle

shape, the third group with the round logo round bottle shape, and finally the fourth group with

the round logo angular bottle shape combination. The questions that followed regarding the

variables presented further were the same for each of the fourth groups.

Variables

Purchase intention (Dependent variable). The intention of participants to buy the

smoothie version shown to them was measured using a 6 item 7 point scale. Participants had to

state how much they thought they thought it was likely for them to buy the smoothie shown, if

they were in the supermarket the same day. Participants could choose one of the seven points to

state how much they thought that was unlikely/likely, improbable/probable, impossible/possible

to happen. A principal component analysis (PCA) shows that the 3 items formed a single uni-

dimensional scale: only one component had an eigenvalue above 1 (EV=2.58, R2=.86). All items

correlated positively with the first component, the variable "If I was in the supermarket today it

would be very unlikely/likely to buy the product shown before" which had the strongest

association (factor loading is .95). Reliability of the scale was very good, a = .92, M= 3.88, SD=


1.56. Therefore, it appears that the scale indeed measured increased possibility to buy the

product.

Personal need for structure (PNS) (Covariate). Personal need for structure (PNS) of

the participants was measured using a 12 item 5 point scale. This scale was originally developed

by Neuberg & Newsom (1993). Participants had to state how much the agreed or disagreed with

statements which indicated their need for structure such as “I enjoy having a clear and structured

mode of life”, “I hate to change my plans at the last minute”, or “I become uncomfortable when

the rules in a situation are not clear”. Participants could choose one of the five points to state

how much they disagreed or agreed with the statement. A principal component analysis (PCA)

shows that the 3 items formed a single uni-dimensional scale: only one component had an

eigenvalue above 1 (EV=3.86, R2 =.32). All items correlated positively with the first component,

the variable "It upsets me to go into a situation without knowing what I can expect from it” which

had the strongest association (factor loading is .72). Reliability of the scale was very good, a =

.79, M= 3.11, SD= .52. Therefore, it appears that the scale indeed measured increased personal

need for structure.

Participants’ comments

Participants were faced with the question at the end of the survey “What do you think this

survey was about?” Many of them commented that they were aware that the survey had

something to do with the visual appearance of the product. However, they weren’t able to depict

what exactly the manipulation was, or that there was a manipulation at all. Their comments

showed that they had a more general idea about the actual purpose of the study, and this although

it was connected to the image of the product, was not however specifically thought upon during


the completion of the survey. The rest of the comments were irrelevant to the actual purpose of

the study.

Results

Control variables results

Age. The control variable of age was found to have no association with the dependent

variable of purchase intention, r = -.02, p = .715. Also there was no significant difference among

the four groups regarding this control variable, F(3, 157) = 0.36, p= .783. These results show

that age did not play a role in the purchasing intentions of the participants for the smoothie or its

distribution would not be responsible for any observed results. Therefore the variable of age was

not taken into account further into the analysis of the results.

Gender. The control variable of gender was found to have a weak association with the

dependent variable of purchase intention, r =.11, p=.146. There was no significant difference

among the four groups regarding this control variable, F(3, 157) = 0.95, p = .418. These results

show that the variable of sex did not affect the variable of purchasing intention, and also its

distribution among the four groups would not be responsible for any observed effects. Therefore

the variable of sex was not taken into account for the analysis of the hypotheses.

Environment. There was a significant difference in the purchasing intentions of people

who participated in the experiment in the online version (M = 3.16, SD = 5.44) and those in the

offline version (M = 3.86, SD = 1.54), t(27)= 30.741, p < .001. The environment in which the

experiment took place appeared to possibly play a role on the dependent variable of purchasing

intention, therefore it was included into the further analyses.

Main analysis results


Purchase intention. Using the method of ANCOVA it was revealed that no significant

main effects were present on the relationship between logo and bottle design and purchase

intention, F(1,157) =0.11, p =.92. Logo shape did not have any significant effect separately on

purchase intention F(1,157)=1.87, p =.173. Also, bottle shape did not induce any significant

effects on the purchase intentions of participants, F(1, 157) = 1.25, p = .265. Having participated

on the experiment either on the offline or online version, did not also play a role on purchase

intentions, F(1,157) = .01, p= 964. Finally, personal need for structure (PNS) did not play a role

on the purchasing intentions of participants either, F(1,157) = .17, p = .675. Therefore, it was

concluded that hypotheses H1. and H2. are completely rejected.

Table 1Mean and standard errors of bottle and logo combinations

Bottle shape Logo shape Mean Standard Error

Round Round 3.566 .253

Round Square 3.889 .258

Square Round 3.828 .251

Square Square 4.203 .254

Discussion

According to the results found, increased purchase intention for the brand based on a

specific logo and product shape cannot be proven. Logo shape and bottle shape either separately

or their interaction are not responsible for an increased or decreased intention to purchase the

smoothie. Also, personal need for structure did not appear to contribute to the variation for the

results in purchase intention. These results are in contrast to previous similar research such as


this by van Rompay, Pruyn and Tieke (2011), who found that congruity between a natural

product shape and a text that evoked natural associations led to better product evaluations.

The online experiment created by the researcher had some strong points which will be

discussed here. The first point is the resemblance of the image of the smoothie bottle to an actual

purchasing item. As it would happen in a real life consuming situation, a real bottle picture was

presented. A realistic stimulus material is important because participants can judge it in a similar

way as they would do for a real product in a similar purchasing moment. The second point in

which the online experiment was strong it was the sufficient allocated time participants had to

process the smoothie bottle. This is also in accordance to a real life situation, as people who go to

buy a smoothie in a supermarket have enough time to look at it and later decide whether they

will purchase it or not.

The reasons that did not lead to the confirmation of the hypotheses of the present research

paper can be attributed to various factors. According to the researcher, these mainly rest to the

development of the stimuli material and the conditions under which the experiment took place.

First of all, although the smoothie picture was as realistic as possible, still missed some of the

elements that a real life smoothie product would have as informational text or more elaborate

graphic elements. Of course, since the purpose of the experiment was to test only the logo and

shape of the product, no more graphics could be added. This could have though possibly played a

role in participants’ reactions to the image, since most products are characteristically complex in

appearance. Regarding the appearance of the smoothies another important aspect which, might

have played a role on participants ‘responses, is the perceived “angularity”or “roundness”of the

smoothie bottle and logo. It was assumed that since the appearance of the smoothies on a screen

would be two-dimensional the angular and round appearance of the shapes would be


exaggerated, making therefore the shapes be perceived as it was intended for the purposes of the

research. However this might not have been the case. For instance the angular logo could still

possibly be perceived as having “rounded edges” or the square bottle could be perceived as being

still “rounded” since bottles are usually cylindrical and participants might have assumed from

previous experience that this was actually the shape. Another weak point of this research was

the inconsistent environmental conditions in which the experiment took place. Although, the

instructions to focus on the smoothie picture were clear, it was indicated by the time some

participants took to finish the survey, that they were possibly focused on other activities at the

same time. Although one might argue that this is indeed the case also in a purchasing condition

situation, as in a store, still, the influence of other activities the participants were might be having

at the same time (such as watching a music video), might have played a role. The inconsistency

of the experimental procedure was revealed also by the significant difference on the purchasing

intentions of those that took part online or offline on the experiment. Therefore, the inability to

strictly control the conditions under which the experiment was displayed has been possibly an

influencing to the results factor. Finally, and maybe most importantly, the realization by the

majority of the participants that the survey was about the evaluation of the visual presentation of

a product, might have played a significant role in the consideration for the product and their

responses to the dependent and independent variables.

Based on the above remarks about the strong and weak points of this research, some

suggestions for future researchers interested on the topic can be made. First, the topic should be

better approached by adding into the analyses also other design elements’ potential influence, so

that the stimuli material will resemble more products encountered in real life. Also the

environment into which the experiment or survey will take place would be preferable to be as


similar to a realistic purchase environment, and also as consistent as possible Additionally it

would important for participants in future experiments to be less aware about the general purpose

of the study. Finally, even though healthy drinks represent an increasingly interesting product

category for both professionals and consumers, it would be important to generalize the research

on the influence of visual elements on consumer decisions to other product categories as well,

like for instance unhealthy products, or children’s toys.

The interest and complexity visual information presents but also the beauty it has is a

topic of utter significance that affects our lives in numerous ways. It is of great importance for

future research to provide more concrete answers that will lead to a better development of

persuasion materials for health, safety, marketing and cultural purposes. The present research

tried to provide an elaborate theoretical framework and methodological approach that will

potentially assist on the academic and professional endeavors of those interested in the topic.


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Appendix A

Figure 1

Bottle and logo shapes

Round bottle-Angular logo Round bottle-Round logo

Angular logo-round logo Angular bottle-Angular logo

master’s thesis bottle and logo design effects on

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