matarial cycles and physical condition
TRANSCRIPT
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 1/22
MATARIAL CYCLES AND PHYSICAL CONDITION
OF EXISTENCES
PAPER Arranged in partial fulfillment Basic Ecology
that guided by Prof. Dr. Hj. Mimien Henie Irawati, M.S.
and Dr. Fatchur Rohman, M.Si.
By:
1. Ndzani Latifatur Rofi¶ah (100341400702)
2. HikmahMaulidiah (100341400688)3. HamimTohariMahfudhillah (100341400686)
The Learning University
UNIVERSITY OF MALANG
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
JANUARY 2012
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 2/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |2
A. Background
The human daily activity such as using detergent, using fossil fuel, using
some fertilizer, using air conditioned (AC), and so on. Without exception the use
of natural resources is accompanied by the production of unwanted waste and it
can influent to the major biogeochemical cycle, such as carbon cycle, nitrogen,
sulfur, and phosphorus. The uncontrolled usage can also disturb and damage the
ecosystem, for example the overuse of fossil fuel can increase the atmospheric
carbon dioxide that may cause warming of global climate, use of phosphorus
fertilizer may result nutrient pollution of river, lake, and sea.
In order to analyze the long-term impact we must understood the cycle of
biogeochemical cycle. Only after this has been done we can determine the best
way to reduce the effect or modifies these cycle.
a. Problems Formula
1. How are the processes of hydrological cycle in the world and what
it¶s importance?
2. How are the processes of nitrogen cycle in the world?
3. How are the processes of phosphorus cycle in the world?
4. How are the processes of sulfur cycle in the world?
5. What is ozone? And what are the functions?
6. How are the processes of global carbon cycle?
7. How is the nutrient cycling in nutrient-poor soils?
8. How are the processes of recycling pathways?
9. How are the processes of sediment cycle?
b. Objectives
1. To know the processes of hydrological cycle in the world and it¶s
importance.
2. To know the processes of nitrogen cycle in the world.
3. To know the processes of phosphorus cycle in the world.
4. To know the processes of sulfur cycle in the world.
5. To know the ozone and the functions.
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 3/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |3
6. To know the processes of global carbon cycle.
7. To know the nutrient cycling in nutrient-poor soils.
8. To know the processes of recycling pathways.
9. To know the processes of sediment cycle.
B. The Hydrological Cycle
There are two phase of hydrological cycle, the uphill or upstream and
downstream phase. The upstream phase is driven by solar energy that makes water
in the sea (the largest), land, pond, plant, and organism evaporate. The water
vapor that accumulated in the atmosphere made up clouds and return as rainfall
(Odum, E.P., 1989:109)
Figure 1. Hydrological cycle (Source: Campbell, 2008:1232)
The rainfall is very important for the land ecosystem and biomes, for
example: tropical forest, desert, savanna, and may be for the farmer in the
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 4/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |4
mountain. From the rainfall human can also use it as hydropower. One estimate is
that 20% of annual rainfall on the land runs off to the sea, and 80% recharges the
surface and groundwater reservoirs. The groundwater is being used by humans for
irrigation, industry, and drinking water. But nowdays, most of human increase
runoff and decrease infiltration into the soil by paving, ditching, draining swaps,
compacting soil, and cutting down forest. If human continuously do this, the water
will be gone.
C. The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitogen is an essential constituent of living biomass, primarily as protein and
amino acid, and change in carbon cycling. Nitrogen compound in the atmosphere
originate from natural biological activity for example, denitrification by bacteria,volcanoes, lighting, combustion of fossil fuels, and waste products of domestic
animal (Soutwick, 1985:74).
Figure 2. Diagram of Nitrogen Cycle (Source: Solomon, 2008:1174)
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 5/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |5
Figure 3. Nitrogen cycle in land ecosystem (Source: Starr, 2011:718)
The amount of both nitrogen oxides and ammonia in the atmosphere are
significantly influence combustion of fossil fuels and by waste from domestic
animal feed. Nitrogen oxides react in the atmosphere to form acidic compound
that contribute to acidic wet and dry deposition (Soutwick, 1985:74).
The amount of nitrogen (as nitrogen oxides and nitrate) formed by the
burning of coal and petroleum, and also by fertilizer is equal to about one half of
that produced naturally by the biosphere.
D. The Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus exist in the atmosphere as aerosol (does not have gaseous phase).
It can originate from crustal weathering, the oceans, and human activities such as
usage of detergent, sewage processing, and phosphorus fertilizer on agricultural
land. Phosphorus is eventually removed via air or water transport to the ocean,
then it is taken up by organisms and eventually incorporated into bottom
sediments. After million years, phosphorus in plant and fish remain is converted
into phosphate minerals (Soutwick, 1985:75).
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 6/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |6
Figure 4. Diagram of Phosphate Cycle (Source: Campbell,2008:1233)
E. The Sulfur Cycle
The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and
from minerals (including the waterways) and living systems. Such
biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many
minerals. Biogeochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an
essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors (Anonym1,
2011).
Steps of the sulfur cycle are:
y Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
y Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate
(SO42±
).
y Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 7/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |7
y Incorporation sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives). (Anonym1, 2011)
Atmospheric sulfur is derived from a number of sources, including
volcanoes, the combustion of fossil fuels, and microorganism activity in
tidal flats and the water-logged soils of swamps and bogs. Sulfur is emitted
into the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic (manmade)
sources, but many of the effects of emissions are identical.
In the atmosphere, sulfur gases that have been converted to sulfuric acid
are conveyed to the Earth's surface by precipitation or dry deposition. The
rapid removal of this el ement from the at mosphere restricts the transport of
anthropogenic emissions to short distances. Unlike fossil-fuel-produced
CO2, which has a global distribution, sulfur originating from coal and petroleum only disperses to a maximum of a few thousand kilometers
(Southwick, 1985).
Figure 5. Diagram of Sulfur Cycle
The sulfur (S) cycle, illustrates many of the main features of material cycling
1. A large reservoir in sediments a nd a smaller reservoir in the
atmosphere;
2. The key role in the rapidly fluctuating pool (the center "wheel") is
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 8/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |8
played by specialized microorganisms that function like a relay team, each
carrying out a particular chemical transformation;
3. The upward movement of a gaseous phase, hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
which result in a microbial recovery of sulfur otherwise "lost" in the deep
sediments;
4. The interaction of geochemical, meteorological and biological processes,
and the interdependence of air, water, and soil in maintaining the cycle at the
global level; and
5. When iron sulfides are formed in the sediments, phosphorus is converted
from insoluble to soluble form, as shown by the "phosphorus release"
arrow, and thus enters the pool available to living organisms. Recovery of
phosphorus as a part of the sulfur cycle is most pronounced in theanaerobic (without oxygen) sediments of wetlands, which are also
important sites for the recycling of nitrogen and carbon (Odum, 1989).
F. Ozone, a ³Chemical Weed´
A weed is sometimes defined as a plant in the wrong place, that is ,a
generally useful or harmless plant that insists on growing where we don¶t want it
(such as in the garden). Resources which are essential in cycles can cause trouble
when their amounts are increased or when they turn up in the wrong place as
a result of human activities. Ozone (O3) is a prime example of something
which we cannot live without, yet when in the wrong place is costly and
dangerous "chemical weed." (Odum, 1989).
Ozon is formed naturally in the stratosphere as incoming solar radiation
interacts with oxygen. The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere shields us from
deadly ultraviolet radiation, and its formation early in the earth's history enabled
terrestrial life to evolve to its present advanced state. Certain air pollutants,
notably chlorofluorocarbons (Cohn 1987) from aerosol cans and emissions from
high-flying jet aircraft, can break down this life-sustaining shield. Such a prospect
is so frightening that limits on chlorofluorocarbon production were set in
1970, resulting in a 17 percent reduction in the production of these gases. Some
industries are voluntarily suspending manufacture. However, these limited
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 9/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |9
reductions in the United States are not enough to halt the threat to the global
shield, which now shows signs of Chinning, especially in the Antarctic (Bowman
1988).
At the same time that we strive to maintain it in its proper place, ozone in the
lower atmosphere is becoming a major photochemical oxidant pollutant at
ground level. A recent experimental study showed that ozone, in the
concentrations of 0.02-0.14 ppm (parts per million) that now exist in areas
far removed from large cities, reduced photosynthesis in all species of crops
and trees tested (Reich and Amundson 1985), suggesting that ground-level ozone
may be a greater threat to us and our life-support system than acid rain. Or, as
we might expect, there could be a synergism between the two. Kneese
(1984), in a study of the economic benefits of clean air and water, calculatedthat even a very small reduction of 0.01 ppm in ground-level ozone
concentrat ion would result in a million fewer cases of chronic respiratory
disease in the work force, yielding a benefit to business of greater than a billion
dollars a year (Odum, 1989).
G. The Global Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is
exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the Earth. It is one of the most important cycles of the earth and
allows for carbon to be recycled and reused throughout the biosphere and all of its
organisms (Anonym2, 2012).
The global carbon cycle can be divided into two categories: the
geological, which operates over large time scales (millions of years), and the
biological - physical, which operates at shorter time scales (days to thousands of
years) and as humans we meddle with both categories (Anonym3, 2011).
The global carbon cycle refers to the movements of carbon, as it exchanges
between reservoirs (sinks), and occurs because of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool
of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but the deep ocean part of this pool does
not rapidly exchange with the atmosphere. Below in the diagram, you can get
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 10/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |10
some idea where and how carbon is stored in the whole Earth system. The global
carbon cycle is usually thought to have four major carbon sinks interconnected by
pathways of exchange. These sinks are:
y the atmosphere,
y the terrestrial biosphere (which usually includes freshwater systems and
non-living organic material, such as soil carbon),
y the oceans (which includes dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-
living marine biota),
y and the sediments (which includes fossil fuels ).
Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide
(CO2). Although it is a very small part of the atmosphere overall (approximately
0.04% and rising fast), it plays an important role in supporting life. Other gasescontaining carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons (the
latter is one we introduced and are still adding to). These are all greenhouse gases
whose concentration in the atmosphere are increasing, and contributing to the ri
sing average global surface temperature (Anonym3, 2011).
The annual movements of carbon, the carbon exchanges between reservoirs,
occur because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes.
The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth,
but the deep ocean part of this pool does not rapidly exchange with the
atmosphere in the absence of an external influence, such as a black smoker or an
uncontrolled deep-water oil well leak.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses)
of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g.,
atmosphere biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon
budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or
reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide (Anonym2, 2012).
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 11/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |11
Figure 6. Diagram of Carbon Cycle
Global Carbon Cycle - Sinks and Storage
Carbon is taken up from Earth's system in several ways:
1. When the sun is shining, plants perform photosynthesis to convert carbon
dioxide into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the process. Deforestation
and land clearing pose serious problems to the carbon cycle, and obliterating
this sink means more carbon is forced into the atmosphere.
2. At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and
CO2 is more soluble. Cold ocean temperatures favour the uptake of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere whereas warm temperatures can cause the ocean
surface to release carbon dioxide. With seas warming this means CO2 is not
so easily absorbed, and remains in the atmosphere. This is coupled to the
ocean's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the
ocean's interior. During times when photosynthesis exceeded respiration,
organic matter slowly built up over millions of years to form coal and oil
deposits. All of these biologically mediated processes represent a removal of
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 12/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |12
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storage of carbon in geologic
sediments.
3. In upper ocean areas of high productivity, organisms form tissue containing
carbon, and some also form carbonate shells or other hard body parts. Apart
from trees in forests, phytoplankton in the Earth's oceans are very important
organisms that soak up carbon. The seas contain around 36000 gigatonnes of
carbon, and again and in warmer seas, organisms cannot produce carbonate
shells at the same rate, and increasingly acidic seas dissolve shells, or make it
difficult to create shelly material. This means of course that carbon dioxide is
not being taken up as quickly through this process and more carbon remains
in the atmosphere, propelling global warming.
4. As shelled organisms die, bits and pieces of the shells fall to the bottom of theoceans and accumulate as sediments. Only small amounts of residual carbon
from plankton settle out to the ocean bottom but over long periods of time
these represent a significant removal of carbon from the atmosphere
(Anonym3, 2011).
Global Carbon Cycle - Sources
Carbon can be released back into the system in many different ways:
1. Through the respiration performed by plants and animals.
2. Through the decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down
the carbon compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to
carbon dioxide if oxygen is present, or methane if not. The melting
permafrost is releasing large amounts of methane, which contributes to global
warming at a rate 21 more times than carbon dioxide.
3. Through combustion of biomass which oxidizes the carbon it contains,
producing carbon dioxide (as well as other things, like smoke). Burning fossil
fuels such as coal, petroleum products, and natural gas releases millions of
tonnes of carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for millions of years.
Fires also consume biomass and organic matter to produce carbon dioxide
(along with methane, carbon monoxide, smoke), and the vegetation that is
killed but not consumed by the fire decomposes over time adding further
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 13/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |13
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Wildfires and forest fires are likely to
increase as land masses dry out with higher rates of evaporation.
4. Production of cement. A component, lime, is produced by heating limestone,
which produces a substantial amount of carbon dioxide, and impacting upon
the global carbon cycle.
5. At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved
carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.
6. Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism are part of the global carbon cycle and
release gases into the atmosphere. These gases include water vapour, carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide (Anonym3, 2011).
H. Nutrient Cycling in Nutrient-poor SoilsOne of the myths about the tropic is that the soils there are fertile and
capable of feeding if we would just remove the forests and plant crops. There are,
of course, areas of ferule soil in the warmer climates, but soils in huge arm, such
as the tropical rain forests of the Amazon basin, are quite poor compared with
areas such as the prairie soils of Iowa. Luxuriant forests ate able to persist in the
Amazon because of efficient biotic recycling mechanisms that keep vital nutrients
such as phosphorus and nitrogen circulating within the biomass. In such forests,
less than half of the available pool of nutrients is in the soil, as compared with
more than 90 percent in European or eastern North American forests. When
vegetation is removed from temperate forests or prairies for agricultural purposes,
the sods retain their nutrients and structure. They can be conventionally farmed
for many years, which involves plowing one or more times a year, planting short-
season annual, plants, and applying large amounts of quick-release inorganic
fertilizers. During the winter, freezing temperatures help hold in nutrients and
combat pests and diseases. In the tropics, on the other hand, forest removal takes
away the land's ability to hold and recycle nutrients (as well as to combat pests) in
the face of high year-round temperatures and periods of-leaching rainfall. The thin
tropical soils lack organic and biotic holding,, mechanisms, so any nutrients left in
them are quickly drained away. Crop production declines rapidly (maybe after
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 14/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |14
only 2 to 3 years), and the land is abandoned, creating the pattern of shifting
agriculture so common in the tropics (Odum, 1989).
y Essential Plant Nutrients
There are at least 16 essential chemical elements for plant growth. Carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen, obtained in large amounts from air and water, make up the
bulk of plant dry matter in the products of photosynthesis, but usually are not
included as ³nutrient´ elements. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn),
copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), and chlorine (Cl) are obtained from
the soil and required by all plants. Sodium, silicon, and nickel are essential
elements for some plant species and, although not required, have positive or
beneficial effects on the growth of other species. Cobalt is essential for nitrogen
fixation by legumes. Additional elements, such as selenium and iodine, are not
required by plants, but can be important in plant nutrition because they are
essential nutrients for humans and other animals that consume plants.
All essential nutrients are equally important for healthy plant growth, but
there are large differences in the amounts required. N, P, and K are primary
macronutrients with crop requirements generally in the range of 50 to 150
lbs/acre. Ca, Mg, and S are secondary macronutrients, required in amounts of
about 10 to 50 lbs/acre. Micronutrient requirements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, and
Cl) are generally less than 1 lb/acre (Peter M. Bierman, 2011).
y Sources of Plant Nutrients in the Soil
Plants obtain mineral nutrients through root uptake from the soil solution.
Sources of these soluble nutrients in soil include:
1. Decomposition of plant residues, animal remains, and soil microorganisms
2. Weathering of soil minerals
3. Fertilizer applications
4. Manures, composts, biosolids (sewage sludge), kelp (seaweed), and other
organic amendments such as food processing by products
5. N-fixation by legumes
6. Ground rock products including lime, rock phosphate, and greensand
7. Inorganic industrial byproducts such as wood ash or coal ash
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 15/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |15
8. Atmospheric deposition, such as N and S from acid rain or N-fixation by
lightning discharges
9. Deposition of nutrient-rich sediment from erosion and flooding
Among biotic devices that aid in keeping nutrients recycling within the
living biomass in tropical forests are the following:
1. Root mats consisting of many fine feeders penetrating the surface little
quickly recover nutrients from fallen leaves before they can be leached
away. Root mats apparently also inhibit the activities of denitrifying
bacteria, thus blocking the loss of nitrogen to the air. Solve tropical trees
even have "upwardly mobile roots" that grow upward on the tree trunks
(instead of downward into the soil as do normal roots) and are thus able to
absorb nutrients from rainwater flowing down the stern (Sanford 1987)2. Mycorrhizal fungi, symbiotic microorganisms associated with root
systems, act as nutrient traps, greatly facilitating the recovery of nu-trients
and their retention within the biomass. (This symbiosis between higher
plant and microorganism for mutual benefit is widespread on poor soils in
the temperate zone as well.
3. Evergreen leaves with thick, waxy cuticles and thick bark retard loss of
water and nutrients and also resist herbivores and parasites.
4. Algae and lichens that cover the surfaces of many leaves scavenge
nutrients from rainfall and fix nitrogen from the air.
(For more on nutrient cycling in tropical forests, sec Jordan 1982, 1985.)
This brief account, of course, oversimplifies complex situations, but it
shows why sites in the tropics that support luxurious forests yield so poorly under
northern-style crop management. It is evident that a different type of agriculture
needs to be designed for the tropics one involving reduced soil disturbance (less
plowing), more perennial plants that use C4 photosynthesis and perhaps
mycorrhizae, more multiple cropping, and more use of legumes and other
nitrogen-fixers (Odum, 1989).
y Soil Composition
Over two-thirds of the world's rainforests, and three-fourths of the
Amazonian rainforest can be considered "wet-deserts" in that they grow on red
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 16/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |16
and yellow clay-like laterite soils which are acidic and low in nutrients. Many
tropical forest soils are very old and impoverished, especially in regions²like the
Amazon basin, where there has been no recent volcanic activity to bring up new
nutrients. Amazonian soils are so weathered that they are largely devoid of
minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which come from
"rock" sources, but are rich with aluminum oxide and iron oxide, which give
tropical soils their distinctive reddish or yellowish coloration and are toxic in high
amounts. Under such conditions, one wonders how these poor soils can appear to
support such vigorous growth.
Rainforests are tremendously vegetated. Early European settlers in the
tropics were convinced (and even assured by scientists at the time) that the
lushness of the "jungle" was due to the rich soils, so they cut down large patchesof forest to create croplands. The cleared land supported vigorous agricultural
growth, but only for one to four years, when mysteriously, plant growth declined
to a point where copious amounts of fertilizer were required for any growth.
Settlers wondered why their crops perished and how such poor soil could support
the luxuriant growth of tropical rainforest. The answer lies in the rapid nutrient
cycling in the rainforest (Rhett A. Butler, 2011).
y Nutrient Cycling
The colonial settlers did not realize that they were dealing with an entirely
different ecosystem from their temperate forests where most of the nutrients exist
in the soil. In the rainforest, most of the carbon and essential nutrients are locked
up in the living vegetation, dead wood, and decaying leaves. As organic material
decays, it is recycled so quickly that few nutrients ever reach the soil, leaving it
nearly sterile.
Decaying matter (dead wood and leaf litter) is processed so efficiently
because of the abundance of decomposers including bacteria, fungi, and termites.
These organisms take up nutrients, which are released as wastes when organisms
die. Virtually all organic matter is rapidly processed, even fecal matter and
perspiration. It is only a matter of minutes, in many rainforests, before dung is
discovered and utilized by various insects. Excrement can be covered with
brightly colored butterflies, beetles, and flies, while dung beetles feverishly roll
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 17/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |17
portions of the waste into balls for use later as larval food. Insects are not only
attracted to dung for the energy value, but often for the presence of nutrients like
calcium salts. Human sweat is a treasure for several species of butterflies, which
gather on the necks and hats of tourists, and for annoying sweat bees, which can
cover seemingly every inch of exposed skin in some forests (Rhett A. Butler,
2011).
As vegetation dies, the nutrients are rapidly broken down and almost
immediately returned to the system as they are taken up by living plants. Uptake
of nutrients by plant roots is facilitated by a unique relationship between the roots
and a fungi, mycorrhizae. The mycorrhizae attach to plant roots and are
specialized to increase the efficiency of nutrient uptake nutrient from the soil. In
return, plants provide the fungi with sugars and shelter among their roots. Studieshave also shown that mycorrhizae can help a tree resist drought and disease (Rhett
A. Butler, 2011).
Goals of effective nutrient management are to provide adequate plant
nutrients for optimum growth and high-quality harvested products, while at the
same time restricting nutrient movement out of the plant-root zone and into the
off-farm environment. Biological processes control nutrient cycling and influence
many other aspects of soil fertility. Knowledge of these processes helps farmers
make informed management decisions about their crop and livestock systems.
How these decisions affect soil biology, especially microbial activity, root growth,
and organic matter, are key factors in efficient nutrient management. Managing
soil organic matter and biological nutrient flows is complex, because crop
residues, manures, composts, and other organic nutrient sources are variable in
composition, release nutrients in different ways, and their nutrient cycling is
strongly affected by environmental conditions.
Chemical and physical processes in soil largely control mineral solubility,
cation exchange, solution pH, and binding to soil particle surfaces . Knowledge of
soil chemistry makes it possible to formulate fertilizers that supply readily
available plant nutrients. Management of inorganic nutrient sources is simpler
than organic nutrient sources, because of their known and uniform composition
and the predictability of their chemical reactions, but they are also more easily lost
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 18/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |18
from farm fields. Chemical and biological processes and their effects on plant
nutrients cannot be clearly separated, because inorganic nutrients are quickly
incorporated into biological cycles and biological processes release nutrients from
organic matter in plant-available, inorganic forms.
Use chemical fertilizers only after accounting for all organic nutrient
sources to avoid overloading the system and losing soluble nutrients . For many
farming systems,inorganic fertilizer will still be the largest nutrient input, but even
then it is useful to think of chemical fertilizers as supplementary nutrients. When
used to supplement biological nutrient sources, inorganic fertilizers can help make
more efficient use of other available plant-growth resources, such as water and
sunlight, by eliminating nutrient supply as the limiting factor in crop growth and
yield. Chemical processes should be managed so they work together with biological processes for a productive agriculture and healthy environment (Peter
M. Bierman, 2011).
I. Recycling Pathways
Since we are concerned more and more with recycling prob1ems, both in
nature and in commerce, it is instructive to review the subject of biogeochemistry
in terms of recycling pathways. As already indicated, recycling of many vital
nutrients involves microorganisms and energy derived from the decomposition of
organic matter.
Where small plants such as grass or phytoplankton are heavily grazed,
recycling by way of animal excretion may be important. In nutrient-poor
situations, a direct return is accomplished by symbiotic microorganisms that
become a part of autotrophs (plants), such as the mycorrhizal fungi mentioned in
the preceding section. Many substances arc recycled by physical means involving
solar energy. Finally, fuel energy is used by humans to recycle water, fertilizers,
metals, and paper. Note again that recycling requires energy dissipation from
some source, such as organic matter, solar energy , or fuel (Odum, 1989).
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 19/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |19
J. The Sediment Cycle
We learned earlier that sediment is material, in either particulate or dissolved
form, that is produced by weathering of rocks on the continents and then
transported, by some agent (water is by far the most important, in general, but
wind and moving glacier ice are important as well, at certain times and places) to
come to rest as a sediment deposit. A whole field of Earth science, sedimentary
geology, is devoted to the study of sediments, as well as the sedimentary rocks
thatare formed when sediment is buried and becomes lithified.
In a sense, the sediment cycle is simpler than the water cycle, because after
sediment is formed it inevitably moves downhill toward places of rest. From the
perspective of the Earth¶s surface, sedimentary processes are basically a matter of
source, transport, and sink. (Scientists like to use the term sink for a kind of placeto which matter moves and accumulates, or a kind of place to which energy flows
and is there stored or dissipated).
To have a full appreciation of the sediment cycle, we need to think beyond
the Earth¶s surface and the processes and kinds of environments of reservoirs
associated with it. Although sediment can be stored in lakes and in river valleys
for geologically long periods of time, and become buried deeply enough to be
converted to sedimentary rocks, most sediments end up in the world¶s oceans. The
oceans don¶t fill up, though: plate tectonics operates, in ways that are beyond the
scope of this course, to recycle the sediments and sedimentary rocks back to the
continents, there to be exposed once again to weathering and transport, to
complete the cycle.
K . References
Anonym1.2011. Sulfur Cycl e (online)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_cycle,
acessed on 22 January 2012)
Anonym2. 2012. Carbon Cycl e,(online).(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_
cycle, acessed on 22 January 2012.
Anonym3.2011. The Gl obal Carbon Cycl e, (online)(http://www.global-
greenhouse warming.com/global-carbon-cycle.html, acessed on 22
January 2012.
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 20/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |20
Bierman M. Peter, et al. 2011. N utrient Cycl ing & Maintaining S oil Fertil ity in
Fr uit and Vegetabl e Crop S ystems, (online)
(http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/M1193.html,
acessed on 22 January 2012.
Butler A. Rhett. 2011. S oil s and N utrient Cycl ing in the Rain f orest , (online)
(http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0502.htm, accessed on 24 Januari 2012)
Campbell, Neil A. and Reece, Jane B. 2009. Biol ogy 8th Edition. San Fransisco :
Pearson Education.
Odum, E.P., 1989. Ecol ogy and Our Endangered Li f e-Su pport S ystem. USA:
Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publisher.
Odum, E.P.,1996. Dasar-dasar Ekol ogi (terjemahan Samingan, T.). Jogja: Gajah
Mada University PressSolomon, Eldra P., Berg, Linda R., and Martin, Diana W. 2008. Biol ogy, Eighth
Edition. USA: Thomson Brooks/Cole
Southwick, C.H. 1985. Gl obal Ecol ogy. Colorado: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Publisher.
Starr, Cecie., Evers, Christine A., Starr, Lisa. 2011. Biol ogy: Concepts and
Appl ications, Eighth Edition. USA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 21/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |21
STATEMENT ABOUT MATERIAL CYCLE
AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OF EXISTENCE
1. Ekosistem merupakan kumpulan komunitas yang melakukan interaksi dengan
factor abiotik.
Faktor abiotic meliputi: air, udara, cahaya, angina, batu, suhu, dll
2. Denitrifikasi merupakan proses pembentukan nitrogen oleh mikroorganisme
(bakteri, misalnya) pengurai dari sisa-sisa organisme yang telah mati.
Contoh bakteri denitrifikasi antara lain : N itrosomonas, N itrosococcu s,dan
N itrosobacter.
3. Biosfer merupakan keselurhan bioma yang ada dibumi
Contoh bioma yang ada di bumi: bioma hutan hujan tropis, bioma gurun, bioma tundra, bioma hutan jarum, savanna, dll.
4. Air tanah merupakan air yang terdapat dalam lapisan tanah atau bebatuan
dibawah permukaan tanah, contoh: sungai bawah tanah, sumur bor (artesis).
Air tanah merupakan salah satu sumber daya air yang keberadaannya terbatas
dan kerusakannya dapat mengakibatkan dampak yang luas serta
pemulihannya sulit dilakukan.
5. Akuifer merupakan suatu lapisan bebatuan (batu kapur atau batu pasir) yang
mernyerap air dari sebuah aliran air. Lapisan ini terletah diantara bebatuan
yang kedap air.
6. Ozon adalah salah satu gas yang membentuk atmosfer.
Ozon terdiri tiga molekul oksigen .Ozon adalah gas beracun sehingga bila
berada dekat permukaan tanah akan berbahaya bila terhisap dan dapat
merusak paru-paru. Sebaliknya, lapisan ozon di atmosfer melindungi
kehidupan di Bumi karena melindungi dari radiasi sinar ultraviolet yang dapat
menyebabkan kanker.
7. Greenhouse (rumah kaca) adalah sebuah bangunan di mana tanaman
dibudidayakan.
Rumah kaca sering kali digunakan untuk mengembangkan bunga, buah dan
tanaman. Rumah kaca melindungi tanaman dari panas dan dingin yang
berlebihan, melindungi tanaman dari debu dan mencegah hama.
5/13/2018 Matarial Cycles and Physical Condition - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/matarial-cycles-and-physical-condition 22/22
Material Cycle and Physical Condition of Existence |22
8. Terrestrial adalah sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan daratan atau planet
bumi.
Daratan adalah bagian permukaan bumi yang tidak tertutupi oleh air laut.
Daratan merupakan tempat hidup bagi kebanyakan tumbuhan dan bagi
banyak hewan.
9. Belerang atau sulfur adalah unsur kimia yang memiliki lambang S dan nomor
atom 16.
Sulfur mempunyai banyak kegunaan industri. Belerang sangat penting untuk
kehidupan. Belerang adalah penyusun lemak, cairan tubuh dan mineral
tulang, dalam kadar yang sedikit. Di alam, belerang dapat ditemukan sebagai
unsur murni atau sebagai mineral- mineral sulfide dan sulfate
10. Samudra adalah laut yang sangat luas yang dibatasi oleh benua ataupunkepulauan yang besar. Samudra meliputi 71% permukaan bumi. Ada 4
samudra yaitu Samudra Antarktika / Lautan Selatan, Samudra Arktik,
Samudra Atlantik dan Samudra Hindia
11. Daur ulang: proses untuk menjadikan suatu bahan menjadi bahan baru dengan
tujuan menjadikan sesuatu lebih berguna.
12. Daur: suatu proses yang kembali ke keadaan awal dan mengulangnya dengan
urutan yang sama.
13. Esensial: sesuatu yang penting dibutuhkan dan dituntut untuk terpenuhi.
14. Nutrisi: substansi organik yang dibutuhkan organisme untuk fungsi normal
dalam tubuhnya.
15. Sedimen: bahan alami yang dipecah oleh proses pelapukan dan erosi yang
kemudian diangkat oleh angina, air/es, maupun gaya gravitasi yang bekerja
pada partikel itu sendiri