Materi Kuliah Intro to LinguisticsJune 22, 2010 at 4:30 pm | Posted in Uncategorized | Leave a comment 

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Linguistics:

I. Phonology

a. Phonetics

b. Phonemics

II. Morphology

a. Morphs/Morpheme –> Morphemics

b. Words (Formation & Construction)

III. Syntax –> Sentence

IV. Semantics –> meaning(s)

V. Applied Linguistics

a. Error Analysis

b. Discourse

c. Constrastive

d. Sociolinguistics

Linguistics is a science which studies about language.

Phonology (sound) is a branch of linguistics which studies about sound.

Phonetics is a branch of phonology which studies about :

– how to produce sound

– how to pronounce sound

Phonemics is a branch of phonology which studies about how to use the sounds.

Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies Morphs/Morphemes and words.

Syntax is a branch of linguistics which studies about sentence.

Semantics is a branch of linguistics which studies about meaning in a language.

Linguistics

1. Definition

a. Linguistics is a science which studies about language

b. language, linguist, native speaker

c. branch of linguistics

d. elements of language

e. characteristics of language

f. language is arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which people in a society can :

– communicate

– co-operate and

– interact (one to each others)

2. Grammar

a. traditional grammar

b. structural grammar of modern grammar

c. transformational grammar

3. Three diagram

4. Ambiguity (ambigius sentence)

5. Syntactic structures

6. Dialects and vernacular

7. Some terms

a. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics

b. immediate constituentis

c. EFL : TEFL

d. ESL : TESL

e. FLA : SLA

Speech sounds are sounds which are produced by the human vocal organs of speech.

Elements of language:

1. sounds –> phonology

2. grammar –> rules patterns –> morphology & syntax

3. meaning –> vocab –> semantics

Characteristics of language:

1. sounds (vocab)

Language is sounds basically

The IL-ilterate people : can speak, can’t write

2. arbitrary

The native speaker of the language agree to accept them (terms/symbols/meaning)

3. conventional/agreement

There is no reason, but agreement.

4. systematic

with limited (finite) rule can produce unlimited (infinite) number of sentences

ex. S + V + O + Adv

I saw him

He has bought a book

5. a system of systems

rule –> sounds

rule –> morphemes/words

rule –> phrases

rule –> clauses

rule –> sentences

rule –> paragraphs

rule –> …. (story)

ex. My twin beautiful sisters Elly and Emy work at the same office in the center of the city.

My beautiful and younger sister studies English in the USA.

6. creative/productive

– can express, everything

– can be used to express many ideas

– can say about future

– can tell something that doesn’t exist yet

– can produce unlimited sentences

7. a social phenomenon

8. meaningful

lexical, structural, cultural (overall)

9. habit/recursion

– daily use

– daily spoken

– trained

– drilled

10. unique

11 social behaviour (social phenomenom)

language is used by society

12. relative (equally complex)

There are no languages which are better than others.

Each language is good for its own society (native speakers)

GRAMMAR

1. Traditional Grammar / school grammar

2. Structural Grammar / modern grammar

3. Transformational Grammar

4. Transformational Generative Grammar

Traditional Grammar : (base of Latin)

It has weakness:

1. not consistent

e.g. the definition of noun (part of speech) is the name of a person, place, thing, animal.

Adjective is a word that modifies a noun (function)

- The pretty girl (adjective)

- I met the pretty walking alone at night (noun)

2. the sentence analysis does not given one any better idea of sentence structure

- subject is the doer of an action

- object is the receiver of an action

ex. Devi sweeps the floor (the doer)

The floor is swept by Devi (the receiver)

3. normative / prescriptive (not descriptive)

- how language must be used

not how language is actually used

shall –> 1st person

will –> 2nd, 3rd person

Structural Grammar

Structural: is a term in linguistics referring to the analysis of language.

Linguistics features can be described in terms of structural and system (rules).

Structure :

– Surface structure –> Performance

– Deep structure –> Competence

Transformational Grammar

1. Surface structure

e.g. Mother went to Surabaya

Mother bought pizza

2. Deep structure

e.g. Pizza was bought by mother

Transformational Generative Grammar

- active passive

- relative pronouns

- clause(s)

I give my mother flowers

My mother is given flowers by me

Flowers are given to my mother by me

AMBIGUOUS SENTENCE

Is a sentence which have more than one meaning.

Ship sails today :

– The ship (N/S) sails (V) today. (statement)

– Ship (V) the sails (N) today. (order)

John likes kissing girls :

– John likes / kissing girls (the doer of kissing is the girls)

– John likes kissing / girls (the doer of kissing is John)

Love blossoms in spring :

– Love (V) the blossoms (N) in spring

– The love (N) blossoms (V) in spring

STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION

has two complements : Head and Modifier

Bus station

(N) (N)

M –> H

M=Modifier

H=Head

Beautiful girl

(Adj) (N)

M —-> H

Walked Quickly

(V) (Adv)

H <— M

STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION

has two complements : Subject and Predicate

I went

(S) (V)

M –> H

STRUCTURE OF COMPLEMENTATION

has two complements : P.V Aux and O/ complement

buy flowers

(V)

STRUCTURE OF COORDINATION

the condition of the element:

balanced –> N-N, V-V, Adj-Adj, Adv-Adv

conjuction –> but, and, or, with

White or black

(N) (N)

Small but strong

(Adj) (Adj)

DIALECT

Is the variety of language spokenby numbers of single homogeneous speech community.

A language is a collection of dialects spoken by the members of different speech

communities.

Vernacular is a language, (specific) language spoken by a ethnic group.

Kinds of Dialects:

1. Regional Dialect is the dialect spoken in speech communities occupying different parts of

general territory of a language.

2. Class (social) Dialect is the dialect spoken by different social groups within the some

region.

3. Prestige Dialect is the dialect admired and emulated by the speakers of others dialect(s).

4. Standart Dialect is the dialect generally admitted by the majority of speakers to be

superior to all the other dialect in its language.

Synchronic linguistics:

a term used in other fields such as anthropology, means “dealing with the state of affairs at

a given points of time”.

Diachronic linguistics:

is used in other sciences, mean “dealing with changes that occur in time”.

TREE DIAGRAM

T. Rules : Transformational Rules

PS. Rules : Phrase Structure Rules

S (Sentence) –> NP + VP

NP –> Det(ermine) + N

VP –> Verb + NP

Aux + Verb

Aux + Adjective

PP –> Preposition Phrase

Adj. P –> Adjective Phrase

Adv. P –> Determiner + NP (Noun Phrase)

Adv. P –> Adv. time

place

manner

The girl will write a letter.

| | | | | |

Det N Aux Main-V Det N

|____| |______| |____|

| | |

| V NP

| |___________|

| |

NP VP

|________________|

|

S

I met a beautiful girl in the campus

| | | | | | | |

| | | Adj N | D N

| | | |_________| | |_________|

| | | | | |

| | D NP Prepo NP

| | |____________| |__________|

| | | |

| | NP PP

| | |________________________|

| | |

N V NP

| |______________________|

| |

NP VP

|________________|

|

S

The house which was old fell down

| | | |

| | The house was old | |

| | | | | | | |

| | D N be Adj | |

| | |______| |_____| | |

| | | | | |

D N NP3 VP | |

|________| |____________| | |

| | | |

NP2 S2 V Adv

|__________________| |_______|

| |

NP1 VP1

|______________________________|

|

S1

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Bahasa Inggris

Introduction to Linguistics

Fakultas Sastra Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris

Universitas Al-Ghifari

Language and Linguistics

Language and Linguistics:

1.      Definition Linguistics is a science which studies about language

Ilmu murni dalam Linguistik:

I.              Phonology

a.              Phonetics

b.             Phonemics

II.           Morphology

a.              Morphs/Morpheme –> Morphemics

b.             Words (Formation & Construction)

III.        Syntax –> Sentence

IV.        Semantics –> meaning(s)

2.      Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication’. Ronald Wardhaugh (1972:3)

Stated that based on the definition the key term in the above definition is  ‘system’.  Each language contains two systems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning.

Beside system, it is also said that language is ‘arbitrary’.   It means that we cannot predict exactly  which  specific   features  we  will  find   in  a  particular   language   if  we  are  unfamiliar  with   that language or with a related language.

The term ‘vocal’ refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are the writing systems.

The term ‘symbol’  refers to the fact that there is no connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which those sounds refer.

Human language is related to the term ‘communication’.   It  means that  language is used for communication. Kiat Boey Lim (1975:1) also agrees that language is used for communication, and it is made up of sounds. He also add another feature of human language: productive or creative: refers to the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of sentences (even though those which they have never heard before) in their mother tongue.

The other way to communicate is using gesture. The role of gesture is less obvious. Among the deaf, of course, it may replace speech as the principle form of communication; but for most people it   is  an  important  supplement to speech.  The term gesture  includes all  human communication that involves waving of the hands, facial signals, grunts, and other vocalizations that do not make up words. The   gesture   is   frequently   called body language. Gesture   could   be   various   manipulations   of   the environment   that   have   communicative   intent   such   as   smoke   signals.   Gesture   was   basic   to   the development of human communication and that it is still much used.

Language appears because of ??????

1.      Social pressure theory (Adam Smith-1900)

2.      Language appears because every items is sounded

3.      Language appears because of heart pressure

4.      Every human has feeling (Marks Muller)

Speech sounds are sounds which are produced by the human vocal organs of speech.

Elements of language:1. sounds –> phonology2. Grammar –> rules patterns –> morphology & syntax3. Meaning –> vocabulary –> semantics

Characteristics of language:1. sounds (vocal)Language is sounds basically

2. arbitraryThe native speaker of the language agree to accept them (terms/symbols/meaning)

3. conventional/agreementThere is no reason, but agreement.

4. systematicwith limited (finite) rule can produce unlimited (infinite) number of sentencesex. S + V + O + AdvI saw himHe has bought a book

5. a system of systemsrule –> soundsrule –> morphemes/wordsrule –> phrasesrule –> clausesrule –> sentencesrule –> paragraphsrule –> …. (story)ex. My twin beautiful sisters Elly and Emy work at the same office in the center of the city.My beautiful and younger sister studies English in the USA.

6. creative/productive– can express, everything– can be used to express many ideas– can say about future– can tell something that doesn’t exist yet– can produce unlimited sentences

7. a social phenomenon

8. meaningfullexical, structural, cultural (overall)

9. habit/recursion– daily use– daily spoken

– trained– drilled

10. Unique

11 social behaviour (social phenomenom)language is used by society

12. relative (equally complex)There are no languages which are better than others.Each language is good for its own society (native speakers)

School of Linguistics

School of linguistics

A.    Tradisional

Words are from Onomatopoetics: Tiruan Bunyi Alam

Word:

1.      Root Creation

Direct sound Symbolism

         Call and Cry: Bahasa berasal dari teriakan

         Cratylus: /r/, /l/, /g/, /a/, /i, /o/, /n/, /m/ (Plato)

2.      Root Modification

         Clipping and Shortening

Philosophy basic is to shortening (menyederhanakan)

a.       Aphesis     : loosing front syllable

Example    : defend           → fend

  brandwine     → wine

  history           → story

  example         → sample

           

b.      Apocope    : loosing front-end syllable, and middle syllable

Example    : magister         → master (mid)

                    market           → tengah (mid)

                    Influenza       → flu (front-end)

c.       Syncope    : loosing end syllable

Example    : Photograph    → Photo

                       

         Blendings/ Blend

Philosophy basic is to two the opposite meaning and creates new meaning (between both)

Example:

1.      Smoke (asap tipis) + Fog (asap tebal) = Smog (asap tidak tebal dan tidak tipis)

2.      Breakfast (sarapan) + Lunch (makan siang) = Brunch (makan diantara sarapan dan makan siang)

         Acronym

Philosophy basic is to menyingkat kata

Example:

1.      movies (movement pictures)

2.      OK (All Correct: pronunciation)

3.      Two Grammatical Process

1.      Combine two words creates one meaning called by compound

2.      Derivational:

Example: geography, geology (geo has not meaning)

B.     Structural

Appears in 19th century by Ferdinand de Saussure (Swiss).

According to Saussure the truth is not always be the truth, it depends on the agreement of each communities

Language is as system of symbol.

Symbol consists of:    

1.      Signified / langue (kata/ucapan)

2.      Signifier / Parole (konsep)

3.      Structural Approach

This   approach   is   closely   related   to   the grammar-focused teaching.   The   Structuralists   believed   that language   is   formed   from   the   smallest   units   of   its   sound   system.   Leonard   Bloomfield   in   his book Language,   published   in   1933,   he   stated   about   structuralism.   This  model   of   grammar   is   still influential and worthy of detailed comment. Structuralists began with the premise that each language was unique and must be described in terms of its own individual patterning. Structuralism was text-based and only interested in language that had actually occurred.

Structuralism focuses on the level of language that examines how words combine into larger units. We shall study only three of these units – the phrase, the clause and the sentence.

There   are   five   commonly   occurring   types   of   phrase   in   English:noun phrases: e.g. the little dog, a young woman, etc.; adjective phrases: e.g.

Extremely  old,  etc.; verb phrases:   e.g.  might  be   closed,   etc.;   adverb  phrases:  e.g.   very  hard,  every morning, etc.; preposition phrases: e.g. on foot, by plane, etc. They also study bigger units of words, clauses and sentences.   In the  implications,  teachers attempt to ask students analyze the combining words.

For example:

C.    Transformation

In   the  1950s   the   school  of   linguistics   thought  known as   transformational-generative  grammar   (TG) received wide acclaim through the works of NoamChomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep  structure,  but   they  differ   from each  other   in   surface  structure  because  of   the  application  of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another  important distinction made  in  transformational-generative grammar  is   the difference between  language competence (the subconscious  control  of  a   linguistic system) and  language performance  (the speaker's  actual  use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic,  later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.

A TG model has four main characteristics:

It   must   attempt   to   make   explicit   and   generate   an   infinite   set   of   sentences.For example, that we have the rules:

S — NP + VP (sentence can be rewritten as noun phrase + verb phrase).

Since the model attempts to describe the ideal speaker-hearer’s linguistic knowledge and intuitions, it must be explicit.

The model  must  have three components:  a  phonological  component,  a  syntactic component  and a semantic component so that it parallels the speaker’s ability to associate noise and meaning.

It must be able to assign a structure to all sentences which would be accepted by a native speaker and ‘reject all sentences which would be rejected by a native speaker.

The example of transformation is as follow.

Other rule of transformation:

         Statement is changed to negative and interrogative, question tag

Example:

1.      I go to school → I don’t go to school

2.      It is hot, isn’t it?

Language in Communication

Language in Communication

A   general   introduction   to   linguistics   and   the   study   of   language,   intended   particularly   for beginning student and readers with no previous knowledge or training in the subject. There is first a general account of the nature of language and of the aims, methods and basic principles of linguistics theory.

Sir John Lyons is a fellow of British academy and an honorary member of linguistics society of America. He then introduces in turn each the main sub fields of linguistics,  the sounds of language, grammar, semantics, language change, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, language and culture. One of his many publications is Language and Linguistics, an Introduction (1995)

Throughout   the  book,  he  emphasizes  particularly   those  aspects  of   the  discipline   that   seem fundamental and most likely to remain important. He stresses throughout the culture at least as much as  biological  context  of  human  language to  communicate  each others,  and show how the  linguists concern connects productively with those of the traditional humanities the social science.

Communication terminologies:

1.      Signal

2.      Sender

3.      Receiver

4.      Transmission

Step of communication:

Phonology → Morphology → Syntax → Semantics

There is communication if there is meaning (semantics)

According to John Lyon

1.      A signal called communicative if the sender wants the receiver aware of what he/she receives.

2.       A signal called informative if the sender doesn’t need the receiver aware of what he/she receives.

Dichotomy in Language

Dichotomy in Language

1.      Fisis Versus Nomos (Naturalis Vs Konversi)

Physis has two principal meanings. It can refer to the cosmic order as a whole,

or to the prime constituent(s) of that order: in these contexts it can often be translated

as 'reality'. It can also refer to the intrinsic characteristics of a thing, especially a

living thing, or to the thing's growth towards these characteristics. This dynamic

aspect of physis can seem to give it a prescriptive as well as a descriptive force: it

is good that things grow towards their mature state and achieving it constitutes their

flourishing.

Nomos (plural: nomoi) can signify both the unwritten customs and the written

laws of a society, and sometimes also an unwritten universal law of divine origin. Even

when it refers to a custom, its force is always prescriptive: it indicates not merely a

practice, but what the majority accepts as the right practice. However, increasing

travel and historical researches heightened awareness of how particularnomoi differ

between cultures and over time, and the consequent sense of their transience

prompted growing speculation about their authority.

2.      Anomaly Versus Analogy (Teratur Vs tidak Teratur)

The debate over the  language of  analogy and anomaly has been ongoing since the days of ancient Greece, and still there are followers. Supporting each opinion is based on the fact the reality of language that are both accurate and with an equally strong argument. This debate seems like a railway line that has no end of the meeting, each based on different poles.

Even if the debate analogy and this anomaly has developed since so long time but in fact the reality of this language is still relevant and current issues with the times. Issues analogy and anomaly is indeed related issues concerning the development of language. While language is still evolving, it issues an analogy and anomaly still always be attached to them.

One form of the development of Indonesian language is the form of absorption into Indonesian words derived from foreign languages influencers. The absorption of foreign words into the Indonesian language gave birth to linguistic problems that can be highlighted from the perspective of analogy and anomaly language.

Terminology Analogy and Anomalies

Analogies   and   anomalies   as   a   terminology  have   been   known   since   the  time  of   Plato   and Aristotle. The emergence of the terminology is because of the popular theory of analogy and anomaly at the time which each has supporters.

Group supporters say that the nature of this analogy has regularity; humans also have regularity, as well as with language. Analogy groups say that language is regular. As evidence in English the plural of boy   to   be   boys,   tables   into   tables,   flower   into   flowers. Regularity of language brings consequences to the formulation of a grammar. The analogy was adopted by   Plato   and   Aristotle.   The   principle   of   this   analogy   is   actually   a   transformation   of   logic   and mathematical   regularity   in   the   language   (Kaelan,   1998:   36).Instead of anomalies argues that  language  is   located in the form of  irregular  (irregular).As evidence them point out the plural of English child to be children, man became men in the daily reality of why there synonymy and homonymy. In this sense that language is intrinsically natural. The opinion of the anomaly is still used as one feature of language that language is essentially orbiter (Porera, 1986:46).

Analogy is the regularity of language, a unit of language can be said if analogical conformity or not   to   deviate   with   the   conventions   that   have   been   enacted. Anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder. A unit can be said anomalies if the unit does not conform or deviate with the conventions in force.

Summary can be prepared in simple language that the analogy is regularity, while the anomaly is the   lack   of   language   disorder   or   distortion   of   language. In  addition to this  definition  in  the dictionary  of   linguistic terminology essay Kridalaksana analogies interpreted  with  different  meanings,   namely:   "The  process  or   result   of   the   formation  of   language because   of   the   influence   of   other   patterns   in   the   languagethe difference this meaning is reasonable, because the dictionary intended meaning is linguistic meaning associated  with   linguistic. Whose   the  meaning   of   analogy   is   earlier   is   related   to   the   philosophical meaning of language.

Therefore,  as a basis   for  further descriptions  is used then the meaning  is  the meaning of a philosophical rather than a linguistic meaning: namely, that analogy is the regularities of language, and the anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder.

3.      Langue Versus Parole (konsep Vs ujaran)

A   term   introduced   in   de   Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale to   distinguish   between language (langue) as an abstract system of signs and rules, and the spoken word (parole) as the concrete realization of language as it is used. Langueis characterized as a static system of symbols with broad (social) value, due to the invariant and functional nature of its elements. Instances of parole are based on this system of langue and vary according to register, age, dialect, among other factors. The goal of structuralist   linguistics   is   to   research   the   systematic   regularities   of langueusing   data from parole (corpus), while parole itself   can   be   researched   in   various   disciplines, like phonetics, psychology, and physiology.

4.      Deep Structure Versus Surface Structure (Konsep dari dalam Vs ucapan)

In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he developed

the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation — a deep

structure and a surface structure. The deep structure represented the core semantic

relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure (which followed

the phonological form of the sentence very closely) viatransformations. Chomsky

believed there are considerable similarities between languages' deep structures, and

that these structures reveal properties, common to all languages that surface

structures conceal. However, this may not have been the central motivation for

introducing deep structure. Transformations had been proposed prior to the

development of deep structure as a means of increasing the mathematical and

descriptive power of context-free grammars. Similarly, deep structure was devised

largely for technical reasons relating to early semantic theory.

Though transformations continue to be important in Chomsky's current theories,

he has now abandoned the original notion of Deep Structure and Surface Structure.

Initially, two additional levels of representation were introduced (LF — Logical Form,

and PF — Phonetic Form), and then in the 1990s Chomsky sketched out a new

program of research known as Minimalism, in which Deep Structure and Surface

Structure no longer featured and PF and LF remained as the only levels of

representation.

To complicate the understanding of the development of Noam Chomsky's

theories, the precise meanings of Deep Structure and Surface Structure have changed

over time — by the 1970s, the two were normally referred to simply as D-Structure and

S-Structure by Chomsky an linguists. In particular, the idea that the meaning of a

sentence was determined by its Deep Structure (taken to its logical conclusions by

the generative semanticists during the same period) was dropped for good by Chomsky

an linguists when LF took over this role (previously, Chomsky and Ray Jack   had begun

to argue that meaning was determined by both Deep and Surface Structure).

5.      Syntagmatic Versus Paradigmatic (Kaitan kesamping Vs Kaitan Kebawah)

Basic linguistic relationships which describe the complex structure of a

language system. Paradigmatic relationships between linguistic elements can be

established by use of the substitution test at the vertical level. Thus the initial

consonants in beer, deer, peer form a paradigmatic class, as well as words such

astoday and tomorrow in the sentence: She will arrive today/tomorrow. Syntagmatic

relationships are defined by the ability of elements to be combined horizontally

(linearly), e.g. the relationship between She will arrive and today. De Saussure (1916)

called paradigmatic relationships ‘associative’ relationships, because they represent

the relationship between individual elements in specific environments with such

elements in the memory which can potentially replace them. Paradigmatic

relationships are based on the criteria of selection and distribution of linguistic

elements, and are, for example, the basis for establishing the phoneme inventory of a

language through the construction of minimal pairs, the replacement of sounds in an

otherwise constant environment that leads to a difference in meaning. Elements which

are related to each other paradigmatically can potentially occur in the same context

but are mutually exclusive in an actual concrete context because they stand

in opposition to one another. The distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic

relationships is relevant to all levels of description;

Example:

Paradigmatic Syntagmatic

J a r i

L a r i

M a r i

S a r i

6.      Synchronic Versus Diachronic

(Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade Vs. Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)

         Synchrony (Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade)

Saussure proposed that language as a system of signs is studied as a complete system at any given point in time. Like chess, the important part of language is how pieces move and the positions of all pieces relative to one another. The shape of each piece is only important in that its potential can be recognized.

A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.

         Diachronic (Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)

Diachronic is the change in the meaning of words over time.

For example in the way that 'magic' meant 'good' in youth culture for a period during the 1980s (and, to a lesser extent, beyond).

It is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words.

A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.

7.      Prescription Versus Description (Tradisonal Vs Modern)

In linguistics, prescription denotes normative practices on such aspects of

language use as spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and syntax. It includes judgments

on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish

a standard language, to teach what is perceived within a particular society to be

correct forms of language, or to advise on effective communication. If usage

preferences are conservative, prescription might (appear to) be resistant tolanguage

change; if the usage preferences are radical, prescription may produceneologisms.

Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with descriptive

linguistics, which observes and records how language is practiced. The basis of

linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field studies; yet descriptionincludes

each researcher’s observations of his and her (own) language usage. Despite apparent

opposition, prescription and description (how language should beused, and how

language is used) exist in a complementary dynamic tension of mutual linguistic

support.

The main aims of linguistic prescription are to define standardized language

forms either generally (what is Standard English?) or for specific purposes

(whatstyle and register is appropriate in, for example, a legal brief?) and to formulate

these in such a way as to make them easily taught or learned. Prescription can apply to

most aspects of language: spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation and register.

Most people would subscribe to the consensus that in all of these areas it is meaningful

to describe some kinds of aberrations as incorrect or at least as inappropriate in

particular contexts. Prescription aims to draw workable guidelines for language users

seeking advice in such matters.

Phonetic and Phonology

Phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned  with   the  physical   properties  of   speech   sounds   (phones):   their   physiological   production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiologic status.

Phonetics is a branch of phonology which studies about: – how to produce sound– how to pronounce sound

Organ of SpeechAn overview of the vocal tract showing structures that is important in speech sound production 

and speech articulation

Robert Mannell

The sounds of English

Vowels

A vowel is a specific type of sound, characterized by a lack of full obstruction to the air

flow. Vowels can be contrasted with consonants, where there is such an obstruction.

As air comes out when you are speaking a consonant, there is a buildup of pressure as

the air flow is constricted. When speaking a vowel, there is no built up pressure, the

sound is simply shaped by the position of the tongue.

Front vowels | Central vowels | Back vowels

English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into

seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is according to

where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them

as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and

lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded

or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the

following arrangement:

Front vowels /i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /ɪ/ - bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /ɛ/ - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /æ/ - cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/ Central vowels 

/ɜ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/. /ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound - it never occurs in a stressed position. /ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.

Back vowels /u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /ʊ/ - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ /ɔ:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/ /ɒ/- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ /ɑ:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)

We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. Here is an example of a simple table: 

   Front Central Back

High ɪ i: ʊ u:

Mid ɛ ə ɜ: ɔ:

Low æ ʌ ɒ ɑ:

Diphthongs

Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a

continuous, gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels.

Mostlanguages have a number of diphthongs, although that number varies widely,

from only one or two to fifteen or more.

Diphthong

centring closing

ending in ǝ ending in i ending in ʊ

sound word phonetic sound word phonetic sound word phonetic

iǝ near /niǝ(r)/ ei page /peidӡ/ ǝʊ home /hǝʊm/

eǝ hair /heǝ(r)/ ai five /faiv/ aʊ now /naʊ/

ʊǝ pure /pjʊǝ(r)/ ͻi join /dӡͻi/

Triphthong

In phonetics, a triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement of the articulator from one vowel quality to another that passes over a third.  While "pure" vowels, or monophthongs,   are   said   to   have   one   target   articulator   position, diphthongs have   two,   and triphthongs three.

No sound word Phonetic

1 eiǝ player /pleiǝ(r)/

2 aiǝ fire /faiǝ(r)/

3 ͻiǝ loyal /lͻiǝ(r)/

4 ǝʊǝ mower /mǝʊǝ(r)/

5 aʊǝ hour / aʊǝ(r)/

Chart of English Consonant Phonemes

Place of Articulation

Manner of Articulation

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palato-

Alveolar

Palatal Velar Glotal

Plosive p b t d k g

Fricative f v  θ ð s z ʃ ӡ h

Affricative tʃ  dӡ

Nasal m n ɳ

Lateral l

Approximant w r j

Note    : voiced (bergetar saat diucapkan: b, d, g, v, ð, z, ӡ, dӡ)

  Voiceless (tidak bergetar saat diucapkan )

Phonology

The other hand, phonology is concerned with abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds.

Definition: Phonology   is   the   study   of   how   sounds   are   organized   and   used   in   natural   languages. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.

            Here is an illustration that shows the place of phonology in an interacting hierarchy of levels in linguistics:

Comparison: Phonology and phonetics

Phonetics … Phonology …

Is the basis for phonological analysis?

Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design?

Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless of language.

Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by

determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and Explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.

Phonemes

Phonemes include all significant differences of sound, including features of voicing, place and manner of articulation, accents, and secondary features of nasalization and labialization. Whereas phonetics refers to the study of the production, perception, and physical nature of speech sounds.

Definition Phonemes

1.      Trask (1996: 264) says: phoneme is the smallest unit which can make a difference in meaning’….

2.      Hayman (1975: 59) defines the phoneme as ‘a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of different meanings. Thus, both /t/ and /d/ are phonemes in English because they are able to make a meaning difference, as in the word ‘ten’ and ‘den’.

3.      Gleason (1955: 261) defines the phoneme as "a class of sounds which: (1) they are phonetically similar and   (2)   show   certain   characteristic   patterns   of   distribution   in   the   language   or   dialect   under consideration”.

An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. We know that there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes which exist in a language.

If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example: /p/ can be characterized as [-voice, +bilabial, +stop] and /k/ as [-voice, +velar, +stop]. Since these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as members of a natural class of sounds.

The prediction would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in some   similar  ways.   A   sound  which   does   not   share   those   features  would   be   expected   to   behave differently. For example, /v/ has the features [+voice, +labiodentals, +fricative] and so cannot be in the same ‘natural class’ as /p/ and /k/.

Although other factors will be involved, this feature-analysis could lead us to suspect that there may be a good phonological reason why words beginning with /pl-/ and /kl-/ are common in English, but words beginning /vl-/ are not.

Suprasegmentals

In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and

the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English

we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of

spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are

described as non-segmental or suprasegmental - or, using the adjective in a plural

nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals.

Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo andrhythm -

which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the

quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called

the timbre - and these are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may

signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and

this can cause confusion to students learning a second language.

Prosodic features         Stress or loudness - increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of 

stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kinds of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives.

         Intonation - you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question.

         Tempo - we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude - so we give a truthful answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation.

         Rhythm -  patterns  of   stress,   tempo and pitch  together  create a   rhythm.  Some kinds  of   formal  and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm - it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns.

Allophone

         An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.

         A predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.

For example, the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt(pronounced as a flap) of batter are allophones of the English phoneme /t/.