ED 220 235

AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION

SPONS AGENCY

PUB DATENOTE

AVAILABLE FROM

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RC 013 536

Mathers, Sherry; And OthersOur Mother Corn.United Indians of All Tribes Foundation, Seattle,Wash.Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (ED),Washington, DC. Ethnic Heritage Studies Program.;Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (ED),Washington, DC. Indian Education Programs.81144p.; For related document, see RC 013 537. Papercopy not available due to publisher's choice.Daybreak Star Press, United Indians of All TribesFoundation, P.O. Box 99253, Seattle, WA 98199 ($7.00per copy).

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Agricultural Production; *American Indian Culture;

American Indian Education; *American IndianLiterature; Elementary Secondary Education;*Enrichment Activities; Farmers; Field Crops; FolkCulture; Games; Geographic Location; Grains (Food);Housing; *Instructional Materials; *Legends; LifeStyle; Maps; Social Studies; Tribes

IDENTIFIERS *Corn Culture; Hopi (Tribe); Pawnee (Tribe); Recipes(Food); Seneca (Tribe); Songs; United States(Northwest); United States (Plains States); UnitedStates (Southwest)

ABSTRACTDeveloped to provide an understanding of the

magnitude of the role of corn, referred to as Mother Corn in thecultures of the Seneca, Pawnee, and Hopi tribes, the student textprovides information on the tribes' basic lifestyles and the way theygrew and used corn in three different parts of the United States. Thesection on the origin of corn provides an historical background oncorn, including where it comes from, the mystery of its origin, howit grows, what it needs to grow, and where to get Native corn seed.Each tribe's section includes: (1) a description of theirenvironment, home, livelihood, and lifestyle; (2) various methodsused to prepare their fields, plant, harvest, and store their corn;and (3) short stories about the life of that tribe before Europeancontact. Additionally, the text provides a U.S. map showing tribesthat use corn, traditional legends, games, songs, chants, and cornrecipes from the Pawnee, Hopi, Seneca, and other tribes. A glossaryof terms and a bibliography conclude the guide. (AR)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EARS are the best ;hat can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLYHAS BEEN GRANTED BY

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Our Mother CornDeveloped by Sherry MathersIllustration and design by Roger FernandesEdited by Bill Brescia

©Copyright 1981 Daybreak Star Press

Published by UNITED INDIANS OF ALL TRIBES FOUNDATION, a publicnon-profit corporation.Funded by U.S. Department of Education, Ethnic Heritage Studies ProgramAdditional funding from U.S. Department of Education, Title IV Part B,Indian Education Act.

4

This book was developed by the Curriculum Development Staff ofUNITED INDIANS OF ALL TRIBES FOUNDATION.

Chairperson of the Board of DirectorsLee Piper

Executive DirectorBernie Whitebear

Community Educational Services DirectorBill Brescia

Curriculum Development StaffColleen NealGail StevensSandy MerrivalDebbie SnyderAndrea JermanSharon PatacsilJoy KetahDebbie BarusuLisa DunstanBi Tra

Curriculum CommitteeAnna HaalaAnn NelsonBarbara GutierrezMatt CharwoodKarleen WolfeLinda Skinner-BrewerJuanita BrownElaine StreitbergerFreida KirkMorrie MillerRickie Belmont

TABLE OF CONTENTS

7

PageIntroduction 4

United States Map Showing Tribes That Use Corn 5

The Roots Of It All (The Origin of Corn) 6

Kernels of Wisdom 7

Stalking the Answer (Companion Planting 8

and Crop Rotation)Where To aGet Native Corn Seed 9

Farming Niotes 10

HOPILifestyle 13Hopi Tribe's address and phone number 14Cultivation and Preparation 14Hopi-Corn Grinding Songs 18"Music of the Mano and the Metate" 19How the Hopi Became the People of the Short Blue Corn 22

PAWNEELifestyle . 25Pawnee Tribe's address and phone number 26Cultivation and Preparation 27"The Pawnee Circle" 32The Grain of Corn Bundle 36

SENECALifestyle 43Seneca Tribe's address and phone number 44Cultivation and Preparation 45"Planting Corn With Swaying Flower" 48Story of the Corn Husk Doll 53Why Corn Husk Dolls Have No Faces 54

Ceremonies 55

Conclusion 59

Recipes 61

Glossary 75

Bibliography 77

8

WOMMINNI1

INTRODUCTION

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The Pawnee and Hopi tribes call the tall, life giving plant "Mother Corn."The Seneca tribe say that corn and woman are one - the mother - for bothgive life and care for the people. Many other Native American cultures alsobelieve corn is a most important plant, for they owe their lives to it. Longago it was their main food or staple. Without successful corn crops familiesand villages could go hungry. Many people would then grow weak fromhunger and starve.

Corn was a central focus of life for thr tribes that depended on it. Specialprayers, chants, songs, dances and cerehionies honored and gave thanks forcorn.

Farmers in all countries and in all times have prayed for their crops andsung songs about them the same way they pray for their children, forwithout good crops there is no life.

Today many old-time farmers still sing as they work. The Navajo's FarmSongs are poems and prayers. They celebrate the beauty of planting

and bring good thoughts to the farmer.

I wish to plant.In the middle of the wide fieldI wish to plant.White corn, I wish to plant.With soft goods and hard goods,I wish to plant.The good and everlasting cornI wish to plant.My corn is arisi(V.My corn is continually arising.In the middle of the wide fieldMy corn is arising.White Corn Boy he is arising.With soft goods my corn is arising.Good and everlasting ones they are arising.

My corn loves me.In the middle of the wide fieldMy corn loves me.White Corn Boy he loves me.With soft goods my corn loves me.With hard goods my corn loves me.Good and everlasting ones they love me.

-

Yakima

OTHER TRIBESTHAT USE CORN

Navajo

ago

Pima

ZuniAcoma

Hidatsa

Mandan

Ankara

Dakota

Winnebago

Sac & Fox

Omaha Iowa

Apache

WitchitaOtoe Chickasaw

Cheyenne

Potowatomie

Shawnee Choctaw

Natchez

"NV

tototitri001Erie

Algonquin

Huron

Delaware

Susquehanok

Cherokee

Creek

Powhatan

eminoles

Today the Hopi, Papago, Seneca, Navajo and many other Native AmericanPeoples grow corn and depend on it to feed their families. Many raise anduse corn in the same way their ancestors did.

Mother Corn and the Pawnee, Hopi, and Seneca tribes-- that is what thisbook is all about. We're going to discover how these three tribn, each froma different part of the United States, lived with corn long ago end how theylive with it today.

To understand something about the role of corn in the cultures of theSeneca, Pawnee and Hopi we'll consider their basic lifestyles and the waysthey grew and used corn. We will reed about the tribes separately. Eachtribe's section will start out with a brief description of their environment,home, livelihood and lifestyle. Then we will learn about the various methodsused to prepare their fields, plant, harvest, and store their corn.Each section will end with a short story which givesla glimpse of the dailylife of that tribe before European contact. The rest of the book containstraditional legends, games, songs, chants and corn recipes from thePawnee, Hopi, Seneca and other tribes.

But first we need to know more about corn. Where did corn come from?Has anyone solved the mystery of its origin? How does it grow? What doesit need to grow well? You owl look for answers to these and other questionsas you turn to the ROOTS OF IT ALL.

13

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THE ROOTS OF IT ALL(The Origin of Corn)Thousands of years ago, most likely

in a tropical area in Mexico, a wildgrass related to corn was planted and

..red for by Indian people. Thosepeople probably selected seeds fromthe largest and highest quality plantsto cultivate, and gradually over timecorn or Zea Mays was developed. Thecultivated corn lost the covering overeach seed that its wild relative had. Italso lost its ability to reproducewithout the help of people or otheranimals. This means that the cornseeds, or kernels, cannot simply fall tothe ground and sprout new plants. Theseeds have to be taken off the ear andcovered with soil.

Because corn was easy to grow andcould be stored for a long time, itbecame a very important source offood. It also became a valuable tradeitem and quick;y passed to many tribesover the United States. Mandan,Choctaw and other Indian tribesdeveloped a wide varieties of corn .Some corn is eaten fresh from the coblike the sweet corn that is available atthe market. This corn is in its milky orearly stage. It is not ripe yet. Othercorn that is fully hard and mature isground into meal or flour. Popcorn

W1111101MMONSINIIINIIINININIII

was being grown and popped byPueblo, Zuni and other Indian peoplethousands of years before the firstmovie theaters tempted audienceswith it.

When we picture corn in our mindswe think of yellow or maybe whitecorn. But tribes like the Mandans andHurons grew many other solid-coloredcorn. Corn colors range from orangeto maroon to purple and even to black.Also grown are speckled corn and cornthat has several colors on one cob.This colorful corn is called calico corn.

The exact origin of corn remains amystery. But there can be no doubtthat it played a central role in thedevelopment of the Americas. Cornis not only considered "She WhoSustains Us," "Our Mother" and "OurLife" by various Native Americantribes, but also it was responsible forsaving the lives of many earlyEuropean settlers who mightotherwise have starved. From itsbeginnings in some warm, wet regionof the New World, corn has spread tothe deserts of the Southwest, the coldnortheastern United States and tomany other places around the world.

16

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KERNELS OF WISDOM(The story ecorn pollination and fertilization .)

Each corn plant has both male and female flowers. The male flowersproduce pollen and grow on the tassel at the top of the plant. The femaleflowers grow sower on the plant on structures which later become ears ofcorn covered by husks. Parts of the female flowers appear as slenderthreads known as corn silk and stay on the ear of corn even after the cornhas ripened.

When the flowers are mature, pollen from the tassel is blown by the windto the corn silk, where it sticks. This process is called pollination.Sometimes pollen from one plant lands on its own silk and this is known asself-pollination. When pollen lands on the silk of another corn plant, cross-pollination occurs.

When conditions are right, a tube grows from the pollen grain along the s...-0......., corn silk, and fertilization takes place with the joining of the male and

female reproductive cells. This begins the growth of a kernel of corn.Because the kernels are surrounded by a husk, they cannot drop to the

v ground and sprout new plants. In order for the corn seeds to reach theground, the husk must be removed by humans or other animals and the seedor kernels scattered over the soil.

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STALKING THE ANSWER(What does corn require to grow?)

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Most types of corn need lots of water, rich soil and hot sun. Corn plantstake a great deal from the soil including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassiumand other nutrients. Fields that have been growing corn for years becomeexhausted and can no longer grow successful crops.

Many Indian tribes allowed their fields to lie fallow, or unused, for severalyears while they planted their crops in other fields. This is called fieldrotation. During this time wild plants would grow back in the old unfarmedfields. Usually the first plants to grow in the abandoned fields were nitrogenfixing plants or plants that are able to add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogenenriches the soil so that many other types of plants can grow there. Sooninsects and small mammals would be attracted to the fields because the wildplants would provide food and hiding places. Larger animals would come tohunt for mice, rabbits and other small animals in these old corn fields. Thefields became natural habitats for a whole chain of plants and animals. Theseasons passed with the life and death cycles of this chain. Through naturalloss and decay of plant and animal bodies, nutrients were returned to thesoil. After a few years the fields would again be ready for the tribe's cornseed.

Here's a TASSEL HASSLE!!! Why did Indian farmers use companionplanting and crop rotation?

Clue one: Many tribes plant beans and corn together in the same fields.This is called companion planting.Clue two: Some tribes rotate their crops to different fields each year. ACherokee farmer, for example, may have three fields. Corn, beans, andsquash are planted in one field, tobacco and sunflowers in another field, andsmall plants like tomatoes and peppers in the last field. The following yearthe same fields are used but the crops are rotated or switched. This iscalled crop rotation.Clue three: LOOK UP beans, crop rotation and companion planting in anorganic gardening book or encyclopedia to find out . ...WHY INDIAN FARMERS USED COMPANION PLANTING AND CROP

ROTATION!!!

.2 Le 20

Do you want to grow some native corn? Where could you get the corn seed?LOOK HERB

You can contact the tub Pawnee and Seneca tribes:Hopi Agency Pawnee Agency Special Liason Rep.Keams Canyon, Pawnee, Oklahoma For the Seneca NationArizona 86043 74058 P.O. Box 500

Salamanca, NY 14779These three Hopi women raise and sell blue, red and white corn.

Marian Tewa Ada Fredricks Elsie NahshonhoyaNew Oraibi, Arizona New Oraibi, Ariiona Polacca, Arizona

86039 86039 86042

Calvin Lay, a Seneca man raises and sells Seneca white corn. His address is:Box 517, Gowanda, New York 14070. He sells 1 quart for $2.00.

Be sure to explain, in your letters to these people, that you want corn seed toplant because they also sell processed corn to eat.

The following organizations also have native corn seed available:

Abundant Life Seed FoundationP.O. Box 772Port Townsend, WA 98368phone (206) 385-5660.

These folks have: Hopi BlueBlack AztecMandan Bride

Other types of native corn from all over the United States areavailable for return of seed ears from expected harvests. Theseseeds will be used to increase the foundation's seed bank.

Southwest Tradition Conservancey Garden and Seed Bankao Meals for MillionsAttn. Gary Nabham715 North ParkTucson, Arizona 85719

21

Corn grows this far north

Corn grows here in drydesert

Wild corn grew here 7,000years ago

Corn grows here in rainyjungles

Corn grows here on veryhigh mountains

Corn grows this far south

The tallest corn grows inMexico. Farmers ride horsesto harves ears two feetlong. The smallest ears ofpopcorn are only the sizeof a man's thumb.

FARMING NOTESSeedsNavajo and Hopi farmers have seedthat can be planted much deeper thanmost corn. They have this special seedbecause of the way Indian farmers forthousands of years have chosen whichseeds to plant.

They have always saved the seeds fromplants that grow best in their ownfields. They choose from plants thatgrow the most ears, the best ears, andwhich are strongest against bugs anddisease. Mountain farmers have savedseeds from the plants that growquickest in the short summers. Desertfarmers have saved seed that growsbest from deep planting. From year toyear the corn has slowly changed. Inthis way more than 300 different kindsof corn have been made. Each kindgrows best in its own place.

Five Main Kinds of CornDent Corn: The Indians in the South-eastern states grow dent corn. It iscalled "dent" corn because the dryseeds have dents in them. Most of thecorn in livestock feed today is a kind ofdent corn that is also part flint corn.

Flint Corn: Flint corn was the maincrop of Indians in the Northeasternstates. Their corn usually has eightrows of seeds on each ear. The seedsare very hard. The name "flint" comesfrom a hard rock called flint.Flour Corn: It is called "flour" cornbecause it is easy to grind.

Sweet Corn: The corn you buy in thesupermarket is sweet corn. /ndians inmany parts of the country have growndifferent kinds of sweet corn since longago.

Pop Corn: The oldest corn everfound in the United States waspopcorn that was buried in a cave inNew Mexico nearly 4,000 years ago. Itcould still be popped! Many kinds ofpopcorn grow in North and SouthAmerica.

dapted from Navajo Farming by Samand Janet Bingham, Rock Point Com-munity School, 1979.

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HOPI LIFESTYLEThe Hopi lived, and in many areas

still live, in apartment-like stonehouses called pueblos, built alongcliffs. They live among arid mountains,rugged canyons and deserts wheremuch of the year no rain falls. When itfinally comes, it often floods. Some-times scorching hot days are followedby chilling nights. In spite of such aharsh environment the Hopi tribe haslived here for over one thousand years.

By 1540, when the first Europeans,the Spanish, came to the Southwest toexplore, the Hopi were well establishedin their villages with a population ofover 10,000. Their society was ascomplex as that of the Spanish. Itincluded religion, the practice ofmedicine, multiple housing, arts andhandicrafts, domesticated animals andagriculture.

The Hopi reservation is locatedbetween the Lukachukai Mountainsand the San Francisco Peaks. It

spreads out over the First Mesa,Second Mesa and Third Mesa in north-eastern Arizona. A few isolatedranchers live out on the plateaus butmost Hopis live on the mesas invillages. A typical older pueblo homehas walls made of stone and mud. Itsfloor is packed clay, sprinkled withwater and polished with stones. It hasthree main rooms living room,sleeping areao and kitchen. Thewomen own and rule these houses,while the men own the "kivas"special dwellings used for men's socialactivities and religious ceremonies.

Among the Hopi, people are relatedto each other through their mothers.Boys and girls belong to their mother'sclan, and men move into their wives'homes when they marry. When homesget too crowded, more rooms areadded or another house is builtnearby.

27 13

The Hopi have always been afarming people, growing large quanti-ties of vegetables. They also gatheredmore than two hundred species ofplants, which are still used for medi-cine, industry and food. Hunting wasconsidered sacred. Certain ritualswere required before animals could bekilled. Though meat was eaten, it wasnot as important as corn and othervegetables in the overall diet.

The men hunted and cultivated thefield crops. They spun cotton, otherplant materials and wool. These Wereused to weave clothing, rugs, andwhatever else was needed. Men alsomade and carved kachina figures.Women cultivated small gardens. Theyground corn daily and did all the cook-ing for the large families. Dyeing thethread woven by the men was one ofthe women's tasks. They made dyesfrom native plants and other naturalthings in the area. Beautiful potteryand basketry were the handicrafts ofthe women and each mesa had its ownspecialty. The elders were the highlyrespected historians of the tribe. Theyalso had a very important role inrearing young children and helpingout in many other ways.

Hopi children were loved and caredfor but they were not spoiled. Thechildren had ample time to play butthey learned their adult roles at anearly age. Fathers would take theirsons on long trips down the cliffsidesto learn farming and hunting. Younggirls learned the work of women by

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watching and copying their mothersand grandmothers.

Though life has changed for today'sHopi, many of the old ways are stillpracticed. The Hopi, whose namemeans "peaceful, good and happy,"still center their lives on theircenturies-old religion. This includesmorning and evening prayers andparticipation in many seasonal cere-monies. Doing these things will help aperson stay in balance with nature avery important goal to Hopi people."To live a balanced life a good Hopi is:

1. Strong (physically and morally)2. Poised (free of anxiety, tranquil,

concentrated on "good thoughts")

3. Law abiding (responsible, cooper-ative, unselfish, kind)

4. Peaceful (not quarrelsome oraggressive, modest)

5. Protective (respectful of a// life,preserving and promoting people,plants and animals)

6. Healthy (free from illness)" *

Adapted from a manuscript by LauraThompson, anthropologist and co-author of The Hopi Way.

You can write to the Hopi Tribeby sending a letter to:

Hopi Tribal CouncilOraibi, Arizona

86039phone (602) 734-2441

HOPI CULTIVATIONAND PREPARATION

Each Hopi farmer has several smallfields in different locations. Some cornis planted along dry creek bottoms butthis corn may be destroyed by floodingfrom heavy rains. Other fields areplanted at the bottom of cliffs wherewater seeps down from above. But themost common are fields planted in thesand dunes.

The fields are usually prepared inFebruary. The Hopi clear the brush andweeds with rakes made from juniperbranches. These sturdy rakes havethree forks, which are sharpened andtied to a crosspiece to make themstronger. Another ground clearingtool, called a wikya, is used to breakand stir the soil. When the plots havebeen cleared and the ground brokenup, the fields are ready for planting.

Planting is usually done in April orMay. The main planting tool is adigging stick made from ironwood oroak. One end is rounded and the otheris pointed or wedge-shaped for pokingholes into the soil. Holes are made

29

every five feet. Hopi corn is an ancientand unusual strain of corn that growswell in a desert environment. To growsuccessfully, 4 to 8 seeds must beplanted deeply enough to reach waterand germinate. Sometimes this will beas deep as 9-18 inches! Then theseedlings must produce shoots strongenough to reach the sunlight and growDeep planting also helps the cornplants grow a strong root system.These roots help the plant to withstandthe wind and get moisture from the soilbelow the hot sand.

The planting is usually done by themen, older boys and children. Oftenthe families work together. Each daythe planters work in a different family'sfield. While they are preparing the soiland planting, the women and oldergirls are cooking a big feast to beenjoyed when the work is done. Theplanters will go from family to familyuntil all the fields are planted.

Other vegetables like squash,several types of beans, melons, pump-kins and gourds are often planted inseparate fields. Small orchards of apri-cot trees are also grown. The crops areprotected from shifting sand and windby windbreaks made of brush held inplace with rocks. Even so, the wind canstill destroy many plants, and fieldmice and cutworms may destroy stillothers. Perhaps only half of the plantsmight be expected to survive untilharvest season. During the summer theHopi men and boys care for the corn inthe faraway fields, sometimes travelling

30

miles in the scorching summer heat.The fields nearer the village arewatched by the women who can waterthem when needed. The Hopi use hoesto i eep their fields weeded. The hoeblaoes were once made from stone andwood until metal became availablefrom the Spaniards and Mexicans.

The tallest Hopi corn grows up toabout four feet tall. Many of the vari-eties have ears of different colorsincluding white, blue, red, yellow, andspeckled. Some ears are harvested androasted while they are still green. Thiscorn is often baked in jug-shaped pitovens right out in the fields. The ears ofcorn which are not eaten are strung upto dry in the sun on rooftops andaround the pueblos. While the corn isdrying it must be turned often. Thewomen trim off the husks, and bundleand tie them with yucca or husk stripsto be used for cooking containers later.The husked ears are sorted by colorand stacked like firewood in colorfulrows in the yards while the storage binsare readied. All the old corn is removedso that the bins can be cleaned andplastered. The old corn is not thrownout but placed in the bins last so that itwill be used first. A one- or two-yearsupply of corn is kept in storage in caseof crop failure.

Much of the dried corn is ground intocornmeal. Since Hopi women preparemore than thirty different corn dishesthat often use cornmeal, it is importantto have cornmeal on hand at all times.Most kitchens have grinding areas

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where the corn is prepared. The tradi-tional method of grinding uses a stonecalled a "mano" to mash the kernelsagainst a rough slab of stone called a"metate." There are usually at leastthree metates - side by side - one forvery coarse meal, another for mediu m-ground meal and a third for fine mealor flour.

Hopi girls begin learning the art ofgrinding corn at a young age fromgrandmothers and mothers. Corngrinding is often a social occasion; agroup of women and girls gather towork together as their old uncles orgrandfathers sing grinding songs tothem. The first woman "breaks up" orcracks the corn. The cracked corn ishanded over to the person at the nextmetate. There she grinds it down onher rough metate. Then she hands thecornmeal over to the next woman to beground down finer. Together theywork like this for three or four hoursstraight,grinding to the rhythms of themen's songs, until there are large pilesof cornmeal and corn flour.

Above the grinding areas were builtspecial shelves for storing thecornmeal. Everyone could see howmuch was stored. A young girl's workwas judged by how much cornmealwas in her home. Some Hopi womenuse stones to grind corn today whichhave been handed down for manygenerations.

Other utensils in the Hopi kitchenmight include: stone mortars andpestles, sturdy greasewood stirring

sticks, baskets for winnowing and sift-ing, and corn husks for food wrappersor cooking containers. There isanother special cooking area set asidefor making "piki" bread. This placemay be in the kitchen or in a small pikihouse.

Piki is a delicious, paper-thin corn-bread that was once the Hopi's staple.It can be eaten alone or dipped intosoups. Piki is made on a greased slabor sandstone called a "duma." Theduma or "piki stones" are hard to get.They must be a certain size and shape,are very smooth and take a long timeto prepare. Most piki stones are passeddown from one generation to the next.

HOPI CORNGRINDING SONGS

Paul Enciso, a Taos Pueblo andApache man, is a well known artist andcraftsman. In Marcia Keegan's book,Pueblo and Navajo Cookery, Paul talksabout the importance of corn and thegrinding songs, which Hopi men singto the women while they grind corn.

"The grinding song may tell you firstof all that what you're handling is verysacred, and that you've got to put your-self in tune with that spirit of whatyou're doing, so it doesn't become achore to you, but it becomes part ofyou. You're creating something, you'redoing something. And what you mustdo is master it, so that as you begin,

and the rhythm begins to flow throughyou, you just begin that feeling, andafter you're through with grinding,then the feeling goes on to the personat the next stone, who grinds the corrdown a little bit more, and a little bitmore. And a lot of times stories are toldthat remind you of life itself, how youmust go through life, how you mustwalk, just like the corn has come upfrom the stalk, and also be thankful, notonly to Mother Earth and to Father Sky,and also to the sun for what it provides,but also to the Creator of All forcreating these things. He has preparedthe corn for us to one stage, and nowwe prepare it in different stages for ourown use. And this is why we must bethankful. Because eventually whatcomes from the ground goes back tothe ground, and we just keep exchang-ing, and so it shows our gratefulnessfor all this, the cycle. The cycle is neverbroken. It's an eternal thing, and thegrinding song makes us a part of it."

(From PUEBLO AND NAVAJOCOOKERY by Marcia Keegan. © 1977by Marcia Keegan. Reprinted by per-mission of Morgan & Morgan, Publish-ers, Dobbs Ferry, New York.

The following is a short story about aHopi woman grinding corn.

7

MUSIC OF THE MANO AND METATE

Taiyomana lifted the mano stone and mashed a handful of cornagainst the rough stone metate. The mano seemed so muchlighter now than when she had first lifted it as a little girl. Thestone was worn smooth. It had ground more corn than couldever be stored in her pueblo home, for it had first belonged to hergrandmother's grandmother and had been passed down throughfive generations. Taiyomana looked at her fingers as they curvedaround the smooth stone. She thought of all the other hands thathad held it through the years. Soon her own daughter's handswould be strong enough to lift the mano. Then she too wouldlearn the grinding art as Taiyomana had in this same pueblo.

Taiyomano began to mash the corn with a practiced balanceand rhythm. A warm shaft of sunlight spilled into the pueblofrom the window next to her grinding area. This was the windowthrough which she had noticed the smiling face of Cheupa, herhusband, so many years before. On that day she had beengrinding corn with several other girls. Outside, their old unclesat, singing corn grinding songs to them. Together they workedand talked happily, rocking back and forth to the rhythm of theiruncle's songs.

Boys had come to the window before to talk and joke with thegirls as they worked. More than once Taiyomana had thrownsmall handfuls of cornmeal through the window at them as asignal that she was not interested. But Cheupa was different - ormaybe it was that Taiyomana had changed her thinking. She didnot throw cornmeal at him but returned a smile instead. Theyspoke and laughed with one another through the window, asTaiyomana continued to grind corn. She was proud of her workand the large amounts of corn she could grind for her family.Perhaps Cheupa had seen how much cornmeal was stored on theshelf and was impressed even then by her good work.

20 4 0

4 ; 4.

Now Taiyomana paused in her work and glanced at the storageshelf. It held even more cornmeal than it had on that firstday when Cheupa had come to the window. But now, just as inthe past, this cornmeal would provide a basic necessity for herfamily and Taiyomana would use it in many dishes throughoutthe year.

Taiyomana continued her grinding and listened to the rhythmof the mano on the rough metate. The rhythm matched a songthat her old uncle had sung so often as she and her sisters hadground corn together.

44

"From the corn we gather the pollen.The pollen that is like gold,reminds us of the color of anointment of the ancient ones.Grinding the corn it reminds us of heavenand it reminds us of earth.It reminds us that Father Sky and Mother Earth will unite forever.

From the corn we learn to live,we learn the life that is ours,by grinding the corn we learn the footsteps of life.We go through a purification,until we are like dust.The corn came from the dust,from Mother Earth,and it gives life,life from Father Sky.

We are like the kernel that comes from the corn.With it we bring life,like the seed of the corn.Corn is the fruit of the gods,it was brought to us by the Creator,that we may remember him.Our lives,we must remember that they are holy.The corn is sacred.We are sacred.We hold the seeds of the gods to the future."

There were happy memories in the pueblo, in her grindingstones and in the corn. Her work today would help to insurestrength and happiness for her family tomorrow and the days tocome. Taiyomana felt peaceful and well as she rocked andswayed, forward and backward to the music of the mano and thematete.

'

-

(The corn grinding song is fromPUEBLO & NAVAJO COOKERYby Marcia Keegan. Copyright ©1977by Marcia Keegan. Reprinted by per-mission of Morgan & Morgan,Publishers, Dobbs Ferry, New York.)

("Music of the Mono and Metato"written by John Biorlein)

21

22

HOW THE HOPI BECAMETHE PEOPLE OFTHE SHORT BLUE CORN(A Hopi Creation Story)

(Reprinted from BIG FALLINGSNOW by Albert Yava. Editedand annotated by Harold Cour lender.c 1978 by Harold Courlander. Used bypermission of Crown Publishers, Inc.)

4 I

Long ago humans emerged into this land from a world beneaththe earth. When the people came out, the mockingbird arrangedthem according to tribes. He said to one group, "Sit over there.You will be Comanches." To another, "Sit over here. You will beHopis." Another, "Sit by that rock. You will be Bahanas, or whitepeople."

Then he set out the corn. He put out different kinds of corn, allthe varieties of corn that we know. They were of many colors.One ear was yellow, one was white, one was red, one was gray,some were speckled, some had many colors in one ear, and onewas a short, stubby ear with blue kernels. The mockingbird said,"Each of these ears brings with it a way of life for whoeverchooses it. Now, this yellow corn will bring prosperity andenjoyment, but life will be short for whoever chooses it." Andwhen he came to the short blue ear he said, "This one, the bluecorn, means a life of hardship and hard work, but the people whochoose it will have peaceful times and live into the days of theirgreat-grandchildren." He described all the different ears, and theleaders of the tribes sat looking at the corn trying to make uptheir minds.

Everyone considered which ears were the best, but no onepicked any ears of corn. Finally one big tall fellow, a Navajo,said, "All right. You people can't decide." So he reached out andtook the long yellow corn that meant a short life but muchenjoyment. Then the Sioux reached out and took the white corn.The Supias took the yellow speckled corn. The Comanches tookthe red corn. The Utes took the flint corn. Every tribe got itscorn, but the leader of the Hopis sat there without takinganything until only one ear was left, the short blue corn. Hepicked up the short blue ear and said, "Well this ear is mine. Itmeans we will have to work hard to live. But our life will be fulland long-lasting. Other tribes may perish, but we the Hopi shallsurvive all things." Thus, the Hopi became the People of theShort Blue Corn.

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47

PAWNEE LIFESTYLEA1=1.

Most Pawnee villages were locatedalong the Platte River in Nebraskawhere the Pawnee built large, dome-shaped earth lodges. The lodges weremade of logs covered by layers of dirtand grass. Flat land for farming linedthe river and its tributaries. Groves ofcottonwoods, willows and other treesgrew in bands along some stretches ofthe riverbank. These trees wereimportant sources of firewood andbuilding materials. Most of the areasurrounding tl,9 Pawnee was a vastgrassy plain where herds of buffalograzed.

The Pawnee lifestyle followed thecycles of buffalo and corn, the mostimportant elements of the tribe's liveli-hood. These cycles in turn wereinfluenced by the dramatic differencesi n seasons.

18

With spring came the planting ofcorn and other crops. Planting areasmight be many miles from the villages.These areas were usually about anacre and could produce enough cornfor a family of four (an acre is roughlythe size of a football field). After abouta month the corn was large and toughenough to survive on its own. This wasthe time to leave the village of earthlodges for the first of two annualbuffalo hunts.

Everyone in the village left for thehunt. Scouts scanned miles aheadwhile great throngs of people traveledbehind with thousands of horses, dogsand mules moving in flowing linesacross the plains. In their path was lefta wide trail of trampled grass anddropped articles. Food supplies some-times ran low with only dried corn from

the year before left to eat. To add totheir diet along the way, they oftenkilled small game and dug for edibleroots. When the buffalo herd waslocated, the hunt began.

There were often so many buffalothat the Pawnee could pick the animalsthey wanted. Sometimes the hunterswould wait quietly near a river or water-hole while several buffalo would cometo drink. Then they would take downthe young bulls and yearlings but leavethe cows. The cows' meat would betough and their coats worn, and manywere still caring for their newborncalves.

Late during the summer hunt scoutswould ride back to the earth lodgevillages. There they would check theripeness of the corn. Then they wouldreturn to their people on the prairie.

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Mole-in-the-Forehead, Band Chief of thePawnee (from George Catlin painting)

Fall was the time of plenty. Buffalo,elk and antelope meat was abundant aswell as the harvest of corn, beans,pumpkin and squash from thegardens. There was much work at thistime: tanning skins, making leggings,tipi covers, blankets and shirts, andharvesting the garden. But there wasalso time for relaxation and games.Soon after this harvest and preparationperiod, the Pawnee left again for theautumn and winter buffalo hunt. Theywould not return to their villages againuntil March.

The winter hunt included tradingbuffalo robes. Summer robes were oflittle value because they were so thin,but the winter robes were thick and inhigh demand. Hunting techniquesdiffered from those used during thesummer hunt. For example, in summerthe buffalo were scattered all over theplains. In winter they gatheredtogether in herds to migrate to thesouth. Then the buffalo would bestampeded over cliffs so that manymight be killed at one time.

Because of the buffalo hunt, thePawnee were often away from theirvillages for as many as eight monthsout of the year. Yet the village was stillhome, and provided shelter andstorage during the equally importantplanting and harvest seasons.

26

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Sometimes it was not possible tosend a scout or runner back to checkthe corn crops. But the Pawnee hadanother way to tell how mature theircorr was without actually seeing it, asyou will discover when you read theshort story, "The Pawnee Circle."

50

You can write to the PawneeTribe by sending a letter to:

Pawnee AgencyPawnee, Oklahoma 74058phone (918) 762-3624

Though the Pawnee spent a greatdeal of time away from their villages,the village was an important center forcultural and family unity. Each villagehad its own set of chiefs and priests,who were important religious leaders,as well as medicine people, who curedthe sick and made predictions aboutthe future. Certain men and women inthe village had high status becausethey were admired or well liked.Others held leadership positionsbecause of their courage or perfor-mance during war.

A Pawnee leader was traditionallymale. He often owed his status to thepossession of a medicine bundlepassed on from father to son. Thesebundles could sometimes be pur-chased and were usually buffalo skinscontaining items with special powers,such as a pipe, pigments, tobacco andcorn. The powers came from a star

51.1

under whose directions the bundle wasput together. The stars play an impor-tant role in Pawnee religion and thepower of these gifts from the heavensis highly. respected. Also highlyrespected, but in a different way, arecorn and the buffalo, for they w6re thebasis of survival for the Pawnee.

Pawnee buckskin dress

5244. LI*

PAWNEE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OF CORN

During the four months of the yearwhen the Pawnee stayed in theirvillages, much time was spent inplanting, caring for and harvestingcorn. Pawnee women carefully selec-ted seed from the corn plants thatproduced many ears of good quality.They kept a two-year supply of theseseed ears on hand at all times. ThePawnee knew that different types ofcorn could cross-pollinate, so seedears were only taken from pure varie-ties. Ten varieties were plantedseparately, often by different membersof the family in separate gardens. Twovarieties were generally planted 60 to100 yards apart to prevent cross-pollination. Sometimes they were evenplanted at opposite ends of the samegarden with other crops in between.

The fields were mainly cared for bywomen and children, but the men alsohelped. Clearing the fields and plant-ing was hard work, and good toolswere needed. Strong hoes were madefrom the buffalo's shoulder bladeattached to a strong stick. Ligaments,taken from the back of a buffalo's neck,were wound around the shoulder bladeand the end of the stick. This formedthe hoe blade. Then the blade wasdipped into hot water so that the liga-ment shrank and bound the bonefirmly to the stick. Rakes were madefrom willow or antler, and specialsticks were used for digging. All threeof these tools were used in the fields.

Preparation for planting began inApril, the field clearing moon. By thistime the ground had thawed andtender grass shoots were pokingupwards across the prairies. Somegarden patches were located alongsmall streams near the villages.Pawnee women left the village in earlymorning with their children and dogsto work on their fields together. Youngmen would come with them to protectthem against raiders from other tribes.

Their first choice for farming groundwas a place where the sod was not toothick and a little soil showed throughthe grass. They worked the groundwith digging sticks, antler rakes andhoes to loosen the weeds and roots,and rakedthem into piles for burning.The next day the loose soil was shapedinto hills about two feet in diameter andtwo or three feet apart. Before theseeds were planted, they were soakedovernight in water or special medicine.The recipe for this medicine waspassed on from generation to genera-tion to help the family's crops growwell. The kernels were kept moist whilethey were carried to the field. Four tosix kernels of corn were planted about2 inches deep around the sides of eachhill, with one kernel planted on top.Then the seeds were covered and thehills shaped into smooth mounds.

Beans were often planted on thesame hills as the corn, so the vines

5327

28

would grow up the corn stalks. Some-times willow sticks were put in thegrou Ad to give the vines more support.The different typeS of corn wereseparated from each other by patchesof pumpkins, squashes and melons.

In order to protect-their- crops, thePawnee surrounded their gardens witha simple fence of shrub and treebranches. Platforms were also builtwhere people could watch over thecrop and frighten away crows or black-birds. As the young corn shoots pokedthrough the mound, the Pawneebecame even more alert for weeds,crows, rabbits and gophers. Beforethey left the village at the end of June,the corn would be about knee high.The last thing that was done was to pileup the earth in hills around the youngplants, which made them look like littleearth lodges with smoke coming fromtheir smokeholes.

When the Pawnee returned from thesummer hunt with fresh supplies ofdried buffalo meat, the corn plantswere often ten feet high. Sometimestwo or more families could worktogether in the fields to pick largequantities of corn. They would set uptheir tipis nearby and then build smallshelters of willow next to their crops.Inside these shelters the womenprepared long roasting pits, whichwould be used in the first of twoharvests.

The early corn which is not fully ripeand"inthe milk"was harvested first.The

54

men helped by gathering firewood andpicking the corn. A fire was built in thepit and the ears were set against a logor a small bank of soil next to the pit. Iftwo women were working togetherthey could roast ears along both sidesof the narrow roasting pa. The earswere roasted until the husks turnedblack. The women had to constantlyturn the ears so that the kernels werenot burned. When the ears wereroasted completely, they were putaside with the husks still on to preservethe flavor. After the ears cooled, thehusks were removed. Then the Pawneewomen cut the kernels off the earusinga freshwater clam shell. Later thekernels were packed to the tipis wherethey were spread out to dry on skins inthe sun. Each night they were gatheredup and each morning they were spreadout in the sun again. The kernels wereconsidered to be dry when they made acrackling noise as they werepoured out.

Some of the corn was treateddifferently. Several dozen of the bestears from several fields were left whole.Only the burned parts of the husk wereremoved; and what remained waspeeled back and braided together withthe husks from about a dozen otherears. These corn braids were hung upto dry and were kept this way throughmost of the winter. Sweet corn was thevariety usually selected for this type ofstorage. When it was cooked, it tastedalmost like fresh corn on the cob.

The second corn harvested was the

corn that was left on the stalk to fullyripen and dry. Most of this corn waspicked and the kernels pried from thecobs with a pointed stick. The smallestears, called "nubbin ears," were fed tothe horses to make them fat for winter.Finally, the sticky swaet corn that hadbeen left on the stalk the longest waspicked. The husks were peeled back,braided and hung to dry.

The dried corn was often boiled inwater and wood ashes to remove thehulls, restore its moisture and make itsofter. Other times the dried kernelswere ground up in wooden mortarsmade from tree stumps. To pound thecorn, a four foot long, wooden pestlewas used. One end of the pestle fit intoa wooden, carved-out mortar whichheld the dried corn. The top end of.thepestle was larger to give it more weighton the downstroke. The result of thispounding was cornmeal which wasmade into cakes. These cakes werebaked in ashes on hot stones. Thewomen or men who harvested theirfields alone often used small stonemortars and pestles. These stoneswere carried to the fields along with asmall kattle to cook in.The mortar andpestle would be used. to grind smallamounts of corn for daily meals duringtheir harvest work.

The Pawnee also used fresh corn,though they did not eat very much of itunless other food was in low supply.When fresh corn was used, it was oftenstill a little green and would be mixed

55

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Parfleche

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with unripe beans and boiled with bearor buffalo meat. During the harvestseason, children were given pieces ofcorn stalk to chew on. When they bitinto a stalk between the joints and thentwisted it, a sweet juice would comeout. But it was the dried kernels of cornthat were most important as a foodsource.

Dried corn stored well and was veryimportant during the winter andthrough the spring. The last of thiscorn would be taken on the summerhunt; often there wasn't much left by

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this time. Even so, it was the Pawnee'smain food until they found buffalo. Itwas important that the storage areasbe well protected from the weather andfrom animals which would try to eat thecorn.

The Pawnee stored their crops inleather sacks made from buffalo hides,called parfleches. The parflechesvaried in sizes from sacks like our fifty-pound flour sacks to huge parflechessix feet high and three feet in diameterwhen full. These parfleches werestored in a round pit much like a root

cellar. The pit was ten feet across andten feet deep. At the top was a muchsmaller opening. The walls were linedwith grass and held in place by sticks.The sticks kept the storage parflechesup off the ground so they would staydry. These sticks were covered withgrass, which was replaced after eachharvest.

The following is a short story about aPawnee teenage boy named YellowCalf. It is written to give you a feeling ofPawnee life before contact withEuropeans.

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31

THE PAWNEE CIRCLE

32132

It was September. Young Yellow Calf rested his hands on hisleggings and glanced at the other young men advancing onponies across the plains. Yellow Calf's moccasins dangled at hispony's sides, moving in rhythm with its hoofbeats. He could seethe little clouds of dust kicked up with each step.

This would be the final day of the buffalo hunt. During the lastthree months, the Pawnee had taken many animals. Greatamounts of meat had been dried and hundreds of hides had beentanned. Now the seedpods of the milkweed were getting fat.The corn near the village would be green and ready for harvestsoon. So it was time to return to the earth lodge village.

As his pony plodded along, Yellow Calf's thoughts turnedtoward home. He remembered that spring when he was giventhe responsibility of guarding the women and children while theyplanted and weeded the crops. Many had lost their lives toraiders from enemy tribes while caring for the new plants. Hewas there to protect the farmers until the plants were largeenough to be left alone.

Four thousand people - men, women and children - along withthousands of horses, mules, and half-wild dogs had joinedtogether in a sea of life in search of the buffalo. Yellow Calfremembered how difficult the first weeks had been. The tribe hadleft the village with only a little corn to sustain them. He and theother hunters had kept the tribe alive by killing small mammalsand birds, while the women had dug roots. If Tirawa, theCreator, did not favor the tribe, the hunt would not be successfuland the Pawnee might even face starvation. But the time for thisfear was past. The hunt had been a success. Great packages, orparfleches, of dried meat and buffalo robes now were lashed tothe inclined poles, the travois, that dragged behind the olderponies. The raiding parties had returned from the south, bringingmany more ponies. Someday he, Yellow Calf, would ride on raidsand bring back many ponies.

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But Yellow Calf did 9 t have any more time to think aboutthe raiding parties. As Azte.),9,nycame up over a rise, he caughtsight of a small herd of b faftfazi;a9 jn a ravine just a hundredyards off. In a rush of exqt tnent, hel oed his grip on thestrip of rawhide tied aroun`d\hiippny's lower c."-vitzatacturged thanimal to run.

N'NYellow Calf could feel the body tit his pony floating underwhisking him over the blurred grassas,,leafairlg ditches anddodging bushes. The horse's nostrils flared, strsiOng up deepbreaths oi needed air, as it raced, eager forthe, chase. YellowCalf singled out a large buffalo and swerved leff'over the.ravineas it broke from the herd. His pony raced on, churning upcloud of dust. As he came alongside the buffalo, Yellow Calf,could see the muscles rippling along its shoulders and flanks.weighed four times as much as his pony. Huge hooves poundedbeneath it. He could feel the beast's power and desperation, ashe drew up toward the head, seeing the panic in the animal'seyes.

There were two places he could aim for, the neck and the side.If he struck the neck well, the arrow would sever the jugular veinand the great beast would quickly bleed to death. If he struck theribs the arrow might bounce off. Only if he were lucky would hisarrow go between the wide ribs. Which should his target be? Hefelt a strange mix of fear and boldness as he slipped an arrowinto his bowstring. Suddenly the buffalo veered towards theright. Now only his left side was exposed. He released the arrowand it disappeared into the buffalo's rib cage.

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tYellow Calf saw the cloud of dust when the buffalo fell and

struggled against death. He pulled hard on the rawhide rein. Buthis pony ran far beyond the carcass before it could stop, thenturned and trotted back. He rode up to the gigantic animal. Amoment ago it had been thundering over the prairie in frenzy andfear. Now it lay lifeless and still on the ground. Yellow Calf kneltat the buffalo's head and looked at the great curved horns andthe long beard. For a moment, he was filled with wonder, wonderat the power of the buffalo and wonder at what he had done. Hethanked Tirawa for the gift of the buffalo for the buffalo gavefood, clothing, housing and many other things that made lifepossible for the Pawnee.

As he butchered the buffalo, Yellow Calf continued to thankTirawa for his success. Now within a few days, the tribe wouldreturn to the village. Then would come days of joy-filledcelebration. The crops would be harvested and added to theriches gathered on the plains. Soon Yellow Calf would againtaste the steaming bowls of sweet corn and the succotash withboiled buffalo meat. At the end of each harvest day there wouldbe dancing and sacred rituals of thanksgiving. Then would comethe medicine men of the tribe to conjure up ferocious beastsand cure fatal wounds and illnesses while the tribe watched.Perhaps the "most p ,werful one" would once more plant a kernelof corn in his tipi, making it sprout and produce new ears of cornbefore their very eyes!

, A67

Yellow Calf's knife worked quickly, slicing and sectioning thehuge animal. The village might be home, he thought, but thetribe would not stay there long. As soon as the corn was braidedand hung to dry or stored in great pits for the winter, they wouldagain leave to follow the buffalo.And so the circle continues for that is the

Pawnee Way . ..

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Corn and buffalo, he thought: corn for comfort and home,buffalo for adventure and movement. Together, with the help ofTirawa, they would sustain the tribe. Under the heavens hewould gladly play his own part. Yellow Calf knew that this washow it should be, and his heart was full.

("The Pawnee Circle," written by Brandt Morgan, adapted by Sherry Mathers)

68 69 35

36

THE GRAIN-OF-CORN BUNDLE(Pawnee legend, told by Pretty Crow, a young Skidi medicine man who it isbelieved obtained the story from his present wife, the widow of an old Skidiby the name of Wonderful-Sun, who was both priest and medicine man.The tale relates to the origin of one of the bundles. It was told to emphasizethe importance of economy in corn, and also to instill a reverential feelingtoward corn.)

A man was roaming over the prairie. He came to a place wherepeople had camped and there he heard a woman crying. Theman went to the place where the crying came from, but there wasno one there, and he did not know what to think. When he wenthome he lay down, and in the night he had_a dream. He dreamedthat he saw a woman. The woman spoke to him and said: "I staywhere the crying came from and I was glad that you hunted meand tried to find me. I am going to help you find me, and also letyou see me. As soon as the sun goes down and it becomes alittle dark, I want you to go to the place where you heard thecrying. I will be there, and there you shall see me and I will tellyou some things that you do not know."

When the man awoke, he thought of the woman he was to seethat evening, and so he watched and looked over the countryuntil the sun went down. He watched the women passingthrough the village, and as soon as the sun disappeared and itbecame a little dark he went to the place where he had heard thecry. As soon as he arrived at the place, instead of hearing thecrying he saw a woman. The woman spoke to the man and said,"Look, look at me, for I am the one who was crying at this place."The man looked at the woman and he saw that she was a finelooking woman. She said again: "Young man, when the peoplepassed over this place while hunting buffalo, they dropped me. I

have been crying ever since, for you know that the people do notlet a kerneWrop from an ear of corn." Then the woman said,

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"Look upon the ground where my feet rest." The man lookedand there he picked up a kernel of corn. This kernel of corn wasspeckled. "Now," said the woman, "pick me up and always keepme with you. My spirit is of Mother Evening Star, who gives usthe milk that is in the corn. The people eat of us and have life.The women give the same milk from their breast when they havechildren and their children grow up to be men and women. Youmust carry me wherever you go. Keep me in your quiver and myspirit will always be with you." The man took the kernel up andthe woman disappeared. The man went home and kept thekernel close to him all the time.

One day he went upon the warpath and tied the kernel to thequiver. When he had journeyed for many days, the womanappeared to him in a dream and said: "The enemy is close byyou. You are about to reach their village." The next day the manwent out and before sunset he came in sight of a village. He satdown to rest and wait for sunset. As night came on he wentdown towards the village. Before he reached the village, he cameupon a spotted pony. He got upon its back and rounded upseveral other ponies and drove them to where the people were.When they saw him coming alone with his ponies, they weresurprised. That night as he slept the corn-woman spoke to himand said: "Young man, take me. Spread some buffalo skins overme and cover me with a calf hide." The man did as he was toldand the kernel of corn was put into a bundle and the bundlebecame a sacred bundle. The man told his mother to watch overthe bundle and to care for it.

One day he went to the gambling grounds, and while there themother opened the bundle and saw the kernel of corn. Thewoman picked it up and began to pray to it, and promised to carefor, and also asked that she might have many children. Then shewrapped the bundle up and laid it away. When the young mancame home, he did not feel well and so he went to bed early. Inhis dream he saw the woman again, this woman said: "I am CornWoman. Your mother saw me and asked many things. All thethings that she asked of me will come true."

14,9 0,73 37

The young man became a good warrior. He brought homemany ponies. He said, "In the tribe is a nice-looking girl whom Ilike." The Corn Woman spoke to him in a dream and said: "I donot want you to marry for two seasons. When you have receivedmy spirit and understand me, then you shall marry. You must tellyour mother to place me in a large hill of earth. When a stalkgrows from the hill and you find corn upon the stalk, do not eatit, but lay it away. Then the next spring tell your mother to plantsome more corn and the next fall there will be a good crop andyou will see how the corn has multiplied." The young man did ashe was told. As the spring came the mother placed the kernel ina big hill of earth. In the fall she gathered five ears of corn.These she laid away until the next spring; then she planted muchmore corn.

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About that time the young man married. The young man andhis wife had many children, and their children had children, andthus they multiplied as did the corn. The man said to his mother,"Mother, you must never drop a kernel upon the ground, nor intothe fireplace, for the corn has life." The young man's first childwas a girl. Corn Woman appeared to the man in a dream andsaid: "I shall name the girl. Call her 'Woman Carry the LeadingCorn,' because her father carried Mother Corn upon his backwhen on the warpath." When Corn Woman disappeared she toldthe man to tell his people, when they were ready to plant corn,pray first to Mother Corn and then to Mother Earth. "When youhave placed the corn in the earth, then stand to the West andpray to Mother Evening Star to send rain upon the earth so thatthe corn will grow. Pray also to Mother Moon, who helps give lifeto people, and she will listen to what people say. Never drop akernel upon the ground, for Mother Corn will curse you and yourlife will be shortened." Corn Woman also told the young manthat when the corn fields were high, all the people were to taketheir children into the fields and to pass their hands over thestalks and then over the children. Thus the children would growand bad diseases would go away from them. Corn Woman alsosaid: "When the tassels are out, then wdtch. There will be singingin the fields. Remember where the singing comes from.Remember that this is the sacred ear of corn. Take it from thestalk and take it to the old man, who will place it in the sacredbundle so that people will know that Mother Corn did sing to herpeople." The Pawnee worship Mother Corn, because sherepresents Mother Evening Star.

(Used wiTh permission. "The Grain-of-Corn Bundle," inTHE PAWNEE MYTHOLOGY (PART l), by George A. Dorsey,Carnegie Institution of Washington publication 59,Washington, D.C., 1906)

79

SENECA LIFESTYLEa /.1/1MINE=NINEM=1/11.Z.1

Clan flags (Tree represents the Iroquois Confederacy)

80

The Seneca tribe belongs to theIroquois Confederacy, a powerfulsisterhood of tribes famous for theirsuccessful political system. TheSenecas were also known for theirskills in warfare and their commitmentto protect the Confederacy and itstribal lands. Their woodland surround-ings included an almost unlimitedsupply of firewood, rich soil, sparklingsprings, clear streams, lakes andrivers. The villages were usuallylocated between the forks of twostreams and protected from raiders byhigh, sturdy fences.

All Seneca lived in longhousesmade of elm wood poles and elm barkshingles. They were rectangular inshape, from 18-25 feet wide and aslong as 150 feet , depending on thenumber of families living inside. Asmany as a dozen related families livedtogether in a single longhouse. All ofthese families belonged to the sameclan. Many tribes are divided intoclans. A clan is a social group thatworks together and protects its mem-bers from outsiders. Each clan takes itsname from a plant or animal that is veryimportant to the clan's history. Paintedabove the door of each longhouse wasthe crest of the clan it belonged to. TheSeneca have 8 clans: the Wolf, theBear, the Turtle, the Deer, the Hawk,the Snipe, the Beaver and the Heron.

Each clan is made up of severalsisters, their husbands and children, aswell as the husbands and children of

their daughters. When a young manmarried, he would have to leave thelonghouse in which he grew up. Hewould move into his wife's longhouseand their children would belong to herclan, not his. This system of relations iscalled matrilineal descent, whichmeans the Seneca people are relatedto each other through their mother'srelatives, rather than their father's.

If you were a young Seneca womanand you were noing to get marriedwhere would you plan to live? Whatclan would your children belong to?Would your husband's clan change?

The oldest woman of the clan wasthe Clan Mother. She was the head ofthe household and made the decisionsfor the members of her clan. When shedied, the next oldest woman took herplace.

Clan Mothers held much politicalpower and were often the "Faith-keepers" of the longhouse society,since the men were gone much of thetime hunting, trading, or fighting toprotect their lands. The old ones, orelders, in the tribe were also respectedas wise and experienced people. Thewomen were responsible for lookingafter the old, caring for the young andtending the crops.

Each year the Seneca womenplanted, weeded and harvestedthousands of bushels of corn, beans,and squash (which are always canedthe Three Sisters) as well as sunflower

8143

seeds and other crops. They alsogathered wild-nuts, berries, roots andmaple syrup. What the Seneca did noteat fresh they stored underground.When the men returned home, theybrought deer, elk, beaver, muskrat,raccoon and other game. Then therewould be great feasts at the long-houses, which might include venisonstew with vegetables, hot corn dump-lings, hulled corn soup, boiled cornbread, hominy, mushrooms, ash bakedapples, nuts and berries. There wouldbe plenty for everyone.

Seneca babies were born in theprivacy of pine-scented forests, wherethey were washed in fresh spring wateror snow, wrapped in furs, and carriedback to the waiting long.house family.Because the father was gone so muchof the time, the mother and otherwomen were the main sources ofwisdom and comfort for the young.

Children were given much love anddiscipline. They were taught not toovereat and given regular cold bathsand scrubbed with dried corncobs.When about eight years old, theybegan to learn the skills and dutiesthey would need for their adult lives.Girls accompanied their mothers,aunts and grandmothers to the fields.The boys wandered for days at a timein the woods, often with groups offriends, learning to hunt and live offberries, nuts and roots. When a boykilled his first deer without help fromanyone, he could join the men'shunting parties.

44 82

Seneca life depended upon thesuccessful learning of many importantskills and upon the special roles of allthe clan members. It was also depen-dent on the resources of the naturalenvironment. Farming year after yearwore out the land and nearby treeswere used up for firewood. So at leastevery 20 years the villages were moved.The old longhouses were left and newvillages were built on nearby hilltopsusually not far from a river or streambank. The rivers and streams wereused for transportation and fishing andusually had good soil for farmingnearby.

So the Seneca way of life continuedto move along these rivers and streamsleaving a well used network of trails,fields and village sites,many of whichexist today in western New York andeastern Ohio.

Modern times have brought manychanges to the Seneca people. But theSeneca culture has not been swal-

lowed up by non-lndian civilizatibn.The Senecz 3o liety continues to bematrilineal and based on the clansystem. The culture- is still rich in itsheritage of music, dance, art, cooking,oral tradition and occupations.

You can write to the SenecaTribe by sending a letter to:

Special Liason Representativefor the Seneca NationP.O. Box 500Salamanca, New York 14779phone (716) 945-1790

orSeneca Iroquois National

MuseumAllegheny Reservation

P.O. Box 442Broad StreetSalamanca, New York 14779

phone (716) 945-1738

Seneca longhouse

83""'

Seneca -- Cultivationand Preparation of Corn

Since the Seneca's environment wasmostly wooded, some of the forestshad to be cleared for farmland. Treeswere killed by a process calledgirdling. Girdling involved removing aring of bark and inner bark fromaround the trunk of the tree. Foodproduced in the leaves could not get tothe roots and the roots died, slowlykilling the whole tree. The dead treeswere left standing in place, sincewithout their leaves they would notcast much shade on the corn to beplanted later. The underbrush wasburned and the smaller trees werepulled out of the ground. Eventually,the larger standing trees would rot andfall over, leaving a totally cleared patchfor farming.

The women were primarily responsi-ble for land clearing though mensometimes helped if they thought noone would see them, for it wasconsidered embarrassirg for a Senecaman to be seen working in the fields.Men were supposed to hunt, bringback food and always be ready todefend their people and tribal lands.

In preparing the soil, the womenused hoes. The hoe's blade was madefrom either a large flat bone, a piece offlat wood, a flattened antler or achipped stone. Some of the hoes hadlong handles, while others were short,

84

so that they could be used from asitting position. The clearing andhoeing were done in parties and thewomen looked forward t-) this work. Itwas a happy time to talk with friends.Children helped, and the work couldusually be finished in a few hours. Theweeds, remaining shrubs and oldcornstalks were removed and left todry for a couple of days. Then theywere scraped into piles and burned.

While the soil was being prepared,the seed corn was soaked in warmwater or in medicine. The medicineincluded the juices of poisonousplants, which kept crows and otheranimals from eating all the seed after itwas planted. A bird eating the seedsoaked in this medicine would flutterdizzily across the field and oftenfrighten away the other birds.

Planting began in April and thewomen chose a leader to direct orsupervise the work. She inspected theindividual fields or got reports on them.Then she decided where to begin work.Her work group was made up of theowners of several fields, and theyworked together to plant and weed thefields of the clan. The women carriedthe seed corn in special baskets whichthey tied to their waists. They beganplanting at the corner of one field andwhen they finished they went to thecorner of another field. Holes were dugabout a ywd apart, and four or fiveseeds were drooped in about fourinches deep and then buried. The soli

was scraped into little mounds wherethe corn seeds were planted. And inevery seventh mound theThreeSisters-corn, beans and squash,were plantedas well. The fields were weeded as thecorn grew and other fields wereplanted through the spring. Most of theplanting was done during May. Cornplanted in April was harvested inAugust; corn planted in May washarvested in September; and cornplanted in June was harvested inOctober.

The cornfields sometimes stretchedfor miles on both sides of a stream.They were not always owned by theclan but might be individually owned. Ifan individual wanted to work in herown field, she would have to do hershare of work in the tribal fields as well.The individually owned field wasmarked by a post with the symbol ofthe clan painted on it, along with theindividual name sign.

When the corn was about ten incheshigh, the work group would go into thefieid to hoe and weed. -1-;.e groupleader would begin the work with anequal number of workers on either sideof her and slightly behind her. At hersignal they would begin working andmoving down the field at the pace sheset. The owner of the field provided afeast at the end of the hoeing. Butbefore eating, the women went to thenearest stream or pond to bathe. Theirwork was accompanied by singing,laugting and joking and all this was

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topped off with splashing in the waterto refresh them before the feast.

In the fall when the crop was ripemen and women went to the fields togather the ears of corn. They strappedlarge harvest baskets to their heads orchests andcarriedthe baskets on theirbacks. They skillfully tossed the ears ofcorn over their shoulders and the cornlanded in the baskets. The harvestersmoved together through the fields oftall corn stalks until their baskets werenearly full. Then corn was dumped intopiles and carried to the longhouse.Sometimes whole cornstalks werepulled up by their roots and carriedback and piled crosswise in layers forfuture husking.

The husking was another gatheringtime,and it was sometimes held undermoonlight around an outdoor fire. Thehusked ears were arranged forroasting or placed in a corncrib, awooden storage cage. Many of thehusks were left attached to the ears butsimply bent backwards, so that theycould be braided later. These ears wereleaned in rows against a wall or logwith the husks on the floor or ground.Husking pins were used to make thejob of husking easier. They were wl-shaped pins made of bone or antlerwith a finger strap, and were used totear away the husk.

The Seneca often braided the cornhusks together with the ears stillattached. Then they hung these braidson poles and cross beams in the long-

SS

house or in another protected building.Some of the corn, which had beendried by the sun or a fire, was removedfrom the cob and buried in baskets orbarklined barrels with holes poked intheir sides. More corn was harvestedthan could be eaten and this wasstored to be used for trading or foremergencies. The storage of corn wasvery important. In addition to barrelsand baskets, special underground pitswere dug and then lined with bark andgrass. These pits were also filled withcorn, and watertight roofing made ofbark was put over them. Then theroofing was buried with soil.

The Seneca cracked or groundmuch of their corn for use in soups,hominy, puddings and bread. Thiswork was done with different types ofmortars (hard bowls), and pestles(pounding implements). Woodenmortars were made from log sectionswhich were carved down to abouttwenty-two inches high and twentyinches wide. A hollow was carved to adepth of about twelve inches. Incontrast, stone mortars were flat andoften small enough to be carried in abasket. For use with the woodenmortar, a pestle was made from hardmaple wood, and it was usually about48 inches tall. It is shaped the same atboth ends so that either may be usedfor pounding. The two ends are largerand therefore heavier than the moreslender middle section and help addpower to the pounding stroke. Thestone pestle was a flattened stone and

used only with the stone mortar.

Some of the corn was made intohominy, and a special basket was usedto remove the hulls or outer coveringsof the corn 'kernels that- had beencooked in ash and water. Anotherbasket with a tightly woven base wasused to sift the cracked corn. Thebottoms of these sifting baskets werelike sieves and only pieces of corn acertain size or smaller could fallthrough the holes. The larger pieceswere put back into the mortar to berepounded and resifted until all weresmall enough to be used.

Other Seneca uses for corn

In addition to food uses, the cornplant was useful to the Seneca in manyother ways. They hollowed out cornstalks for medicine containers andsealed them with removable plugs.These tubes were from 2 to 8 incheslong. Boiling green corn stalks gavethem syrup and the central column orpith of the corn stalk gave them a metalpolish. A lotion kir treating burns wasmade from the stalk and corn roots,and sections of the dried stalks wereused for fish line floats. Countingstraws were made from tassel stemsand used for keeping score in somechildren's games.

The Seneca wrapped certain ioodsin corn husks and even braided thehusks into fine ropes. They sNved the

, 47S;)

48

husks into masks, shredded and usedthem to stuff pillows and mattressesand even used them for making huskdolls. Single husks were foldedtogether and used as small torches ortorn for kindling. Husks were woven tomake such things as mats, babyhammocks, moccasins, sandals,bottles for storing salt and ash, traysand baskets.

Even corn silk was useful. With somecreativity and skill it became the hairon corn husk dolls. Dried silk wassometimes powdered and then addedto certain medicines. Corncobs wereused for scrubbing, for stoppers inhusk salt bottles and gourd rattles, forpipe bowls, and for combs to cleanpumpkin and squash seeds. Theymade good back scratchers and wereburned to smoke meat and hides. Evencorn kernels had interesting uses apartfrom food. They were used as beadsand decorations and were traded foroil. They were also put into gourds tomake rattles.

There were many other uses of corntoo numerous to mention. Perhaps it ismost important to realize that corn waspart of nearly every aspect of theSeneca lifestyle.

The following is a short story writtenabout a Seneca teenage girl livingbefore European contact.

90

PLANTING CORN WITH SWAYING FLOWER

Swaying Flower used her antler hoe to turn and stir the rich,black soil. She knelt down and kneaded the earth between herfingers, remembering how the Seneca elders had said it would betime to plant the corn when the juneberry tree is in blossom.Today it was time. Swaying Flower reached into the little baskettied around her waist by a strip of cloth and pulled out a handfulof corn kernels. This corn seed had soaked for 3 days in strongmedicine to keep away the crows. When grown it would makegood soup, bread and mush. "You will grow well in this ground,my sister," she thought.

Bending down to make a hole in the soil with her hoe, SwayingFlower dropped in 4 kernels of corn. She made sure the seedsdid not touch each other and then she gathered the earth into asmall mound over them. Soon this corn would sprout, shethought, and before long it would be growing straight and tall,with long, fat cobs and silvery tassels. There are many kinds ofcorn, but the sacred white corn is the most important. Next shetook out several bean and squash seeds and planted them also.She imagined what this mound would look like in two monthswith the beans winding their tendrils up the corn stalks and thelarge leaves of the squash shading out the weeds below. Corn,beans and squash -the Three Sisters- would sustain the tribe forthe coming year.

As she bent over again, the seed basket around her waisttwisted. She straightened the basket and looked around her.The fields beyond the longhouses were filled with women -women digging, hoeing, preparing the ground, planting just likeherself. They would plant other vegetables besides the ThreeSisters, crops like cucumbers, pumpkins, tomatoes and melons.Many of the women and girls were singing songs and chatting asthey worked. They all followed the exampie of the clan mother -Swaying Flower's grandmother.

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Swaying Flower was in her twelfth year. She had been plantingand harvesting the crops now for as long as she could remember.Every year she had smelled the smoke from burning bushes

being cleared by the men. Every year she had eagerly followedher mother's example, glad to be invited to participate in thesejoyful planting sessions, glad to be growing up a woman amongthe great Nodowa'ge:ono--the "People of the Hill."

The Seneca woman was powerful, this Swaying Flower knew.Even her own power would be passed on to the rest of the tribethrough the corn. Eventually the kernels she planted wouldnourish all the tribal members as they gathered around the bigcontainers of hulled corn soup and ladled the steaming liquid intotheir elm bark bowls. She would pound the corn into meal withthe huge wooden mortar and pestle. She would sift it throughfine sieve baskets into bark trays and mix it into corn bread,puddings and parched cornmeal for the others, sometimesmixing it with berries, nuts and sunflower oil. She would packthe cornmeal into bearskin bags with maple sugar to give energyand power to the hunters and warriors. And that power wouldcome back to the tribe again, multiplied in the form of deer, bear,and fish. The power of the corn would also be stored in bins andbaskets in corners of the longhouse and in pits dug in theearthen floors, where it wolild be charred and packed in husks tokeep for months. In planting these seeds, Swaying Flower knewshe was assuring the continuation of the People of the Hill.

Even at twelve, Swaying Flower knew that women and cornwere one in many ways. Both sustained the tribe, both cared forthe young. Several years ago, just days after Swaying Flower'smother had returned from the wooas with a new baby brother,she had cut away the dried umbilical cord and soothed the stingwith a soft compress of white corn powder. Her little brother wasfond of cornmeal cakes with maple syrup, and often her motherwould laugh and warn him that eating too many would bring on

9349

the boogeyman Longnose. Now at five years, her brother wasalready practicing to become a hunter and fighting other boyswith war clubs made of corn stalks presented to them by theirmothers.

Every mother did these things, and perhaps some day shewould, too. Perhaps one day, Swaying Flower thought, shewould go to the longhouse of the man her mother chose for herand offer him a loaf of corn bread. Perhaps he would then cometo her longhouse and return the gift, giving a bead necklace as atoken of his affection. There might even come a day whenSwaying Flower would scrub her own children with dried corncobs when they got covered with dust and sweat and beargrease. Maybe she would put corn cob rings on their fingers toward off nosebleeds, and feed them a purifying lye of corn ashesto rid them of worms.

Yes, her work was difficult, but a woman was rewarded for hercontributions to the tribe. The women in the Seneca tribe ownednearly everything: the longhouses, the tools, the very corn fieldsthemselves. It was Faith Keepers, many who were women, whomade the decisions. They arranged marriages, settled argumentsand decided when the tribe should go to war. Swaying Flower'sgrandmother as a Faithkeeper had such power that she helpedchoose and dismiss the leaders of the Seneca Tribe.

As she planted, Swaying Flower thought of becoming a womanand of the many other ways the tribe depended on women andon corn. Swaying Flower remembered her own girlhoodhowshe had played with corn husk dolls whose flowing hair wasmade from the cob silk. Now she often made such dolls for theyounger children. She also wove corn husk mats andlatticeworks to separate the family compartments in hergrandmother's longhouse. Corn even brought restful sleep to thetribe, for many people lay down each night on mattresses andpillows of corn husks. All this and more, thought SwayingFlower, would come from the kernels she was planting.

50

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Swaying Flower wiped her hands on her deerskin skirt andstepped in soft-soled moccasins to the next planting spot. Shesang a song of thanksgiving to the Three Sisters and turned thenew soil with her hoe. It would not be long before she and theother women would come back to hoe again. Next time it wouldbe to pick weeds around the new green corn shoots, beansprouts and young squash plants poking from the earth. Soonshe would be able to look out from the village and see cornfields. They would stretch far beyond the river. Eventually, theywould grow so tall she would have to be lifted on to someone'sshoulders to see over the corn tassels.

Then would come the time for harvest, when the women andmen would return to the fields with large baskets on their backs, .

to take the Three Sisters home with them. She thought of theburden strap of slippery elm bark cord that would be pressingacross her chest or forehead when the basket was full. It wouldbe heavy as she trod back to the longhouse with the Sisters.Then Swaying Flower, with her mother and the other women ofthe tribe, would braid the corn husks together and hang the earsof corn to dry inside the longhouse. Other ears would be shelledand buried in baskets or bark-lined pits, or stored in elevatedcribs. Harvest would be an important time with much work -somuch that the whole village helped.

Swaying Flower often thought about what it was to be a womanamong the Seneca. It was an important role. The elders saidthat a woman's childbearing powers passed to the corn and madeit produce young of its own. They also said that the women andthe Three Sisters were as one--the life-sustainers of the tribe.

9751

In many ways, corn was the center of life. It would beexpressed in the ongoing spirit of the tribe. It would flowthrough their thanksgiving ceremonies: the Green CornCeremony, the Harvest Festival, the Midwinter Ceremony markingthe beginning of the Seneca new year and, finally,the CornPlanting Festival, when the juneberry tree was in blossom. Atthese times the entire tribe would gather to give thanks to thewhole family of spirit forces. Ears of sacred white corn would becarried by the women as they sang and danced in joy andthanksgiving to the Creator.

Suddenly Swaying Flower was lifted out of her daydreaming bythe excited voices of the other girls. Her grandmother had rolleda deer hide ball filled with corn husks onto the field. The girlswere kicking at it, trying to keep it away from each other. Thiswas one of Swaying Rower's favorite games, and she raced tojoin them for this welcome break in the planting.

52

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by Sherry Mathers)

.9 9

STORY OF THECORN HUSK DOLL

This legend is told by Mrs. Snow,a talented Seneca craftswoman.

Many, many years ago, thecorn, one of the Three Sisters,wanted to make something dif-ferent. She made the moccasinand the salt boxes, the mats, andthe face. She wanted to do some-thing different so the Great Spiritgave her permission. So shemade the little people out of cornhusk and they were to roam theearth so that they would bringbrotherhood and contentment tothe Iroquois tribe. But she madeQne that was very, very beautiful.This beautiful corn person, youmight call her, went into thewoods and saw herself in a pool.She saw how beautiful she wasand she became very vain andnaughty. That began to make thepeople very unhappy and so theGreat Spirit decided that wasn'twhat she was to do. She didn'tpay attentionio his warning, sothe last time the messenger cameand told her that she was going tohave her punishment. Her pun-ishment would be that she'd haveno face, she would not converse

with the Senecas or the birds orthe animals. She'd roam the earthforever, looking for something todo to gain her face back again. Sothat's why we don't put any faceson the husk dolls.

53

54

WHY CORN HUSK DOLLSHAVE NO FACES

It is said that in the old days theunmarried Seneca men lived in aseparate Longhouse. One of thestrict rules of their life was not tohave any women inside theLonghouse.

Well, it happened that onenight a young man awoke to seewhat appeared to be a youngwoman walking through theLonghouse. He told everyone thenext day, but no one believedhim.

A few nights later, the sameyoung man saw the woman again

102

and this time he yelled and wokethe rest of the men. All the youngmen saw her and ran after her,but she ran off before they couldreach her.

They set a trap for her for thenext few nights. Each young mantook turns pretending to sleepand keeping watch for the youngwoman. Finally, she came andthe young man shouted and allthe other men blocked all theexits. They rushed toward theyoung woman. She struggledwith them until dawn. As the lightof day increased, she becamesmaller and weaker, until finally,she became a corn husk doll witha face.

The young men took her to theelders of the Longhouse. Theoldest man held the doll in hishands and he shook it back andforth. As he did this, he said,"Someone of our people here onEarth has put this face on thisdoll. This is not to be! Our Creatoris the only one who can put a faceon these dolls!"

Thisis why the Corn Husk dollshave no faces.(The Seneca cornhusk storiesand related information are usedby permission from Keeper OfThe Western Door, Teacher'sManual. Seneca Iroquois Nation-al Museum, Salamanca, NewYork, 1980.)

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Ceremonies

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CEREMONIES

The Pawnee, Seneca, Hopi and many other tribes have ceremonies inthankfulness and honor of corn and other food.

A SENECA CORN THANKSGIVING

Gwa! Gwa! Gwa!

Now the time has come!Hear us, Lord of the Sky!

We are here to speak the truth,for you do not hear lies,

We are your children, Lord of the Sky.Now begins the Gayant' gogwus

This sacred fire and sacred tobaccoAnd through this smoke

We offer our prayersWe are your children, Lord of the Sky.Now, in the beginning of all things

You provided that we inherit your creationYou said: I shall make the earthon which the people shall liveAnd they shall look to the earth as their motherAnd they shall say "It is she who supports us."You said that we should always be thankfulFor our earth and fOr each otherSo it is that we are gathered hereWe are your children, Lord of the Sky.

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Now again the smoke risesAnd again we offer prayersYou said that food should be placed beside usAn it should be ours in exchange for our labor.You thought that ours should be a worldwhere green grass of many kinds should growYou said that some should be medicinesAnd that one should be Ona'othe sacred food, our sister cornYou gave to her two clinging sistersbeautiful Oa'geka, our sister beansand bountiful Nyo'sowane, our sister squashThe three sacred sisters; they who sustain us.This is what you thought, Lord of the Sky.Thus did you think to provide for usAnd you ordered that when the warm season comes,That we should see the return of lifeAnd remember you, and be thankful,and gather here by the sacred fire.So now again the smoke arisesWe the people offer our prayersWe speak to you through the rising smokeWe are thankful, Lord of the Sky.

(Liberally translated)Chuck Larsen, Seneca 10"6

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Many of these ceremonies are centered around songs, dances, chants,and prayers to the Creator asking for rain and abundant crops.

Acoma Pueblo chant

There in the westis the home of the raingods,

There in the westis their water pool,

In the middle of the water poolis the spruce treethat they use as a ladder,

Up from the water the vaingodsdraw the crops w hich give us life,

East from there, on ttm, placewhere we dance they lay the crops,

Then up from that plar..:e the peoplereceive crops ard life.

Sacred corn in the forms of ears, kernels, meal, flour andpollen are often used in many special ceremonies.

From the Zuni people

They shall dance for the increaieand strength of the corn-seed,of each grain, making many,Each grain that ye nourishwith new soil and water.

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1OS

Most of these ceremonies are verycomplex and involved and some aresecret. If you wish to know more aboutthe ones that have been written aboutthere are other books you can read.You can learn about Senecaceremonies and lifestyles by readingParker On the Iroquois, by WilliamFenton, Syracuse University Press,New York, 1968. Arthur C. Parker was aSeneca anthropologist and he alsowrote several books-on the Iroquoispeople. Gene Weltfish writes aboutPawnee ceremonies and ways of livingin her book, The Lost Universe, BasicBooks Inc., New York, 1965. ManyHopi people prefer not to share infor-mation about their ceremonies withthose who do not share their languageand culture and who may not under-stand the true meaning andsacredness of these ceremonies. Werespect their wishes and suggest youlook at a beautifully done book ofpoems and photography inspired bythe Navajo and Pueblo Indians of theSouthwest, Mother Earth Father Sky,by Marcia Keegan, Grossman Publish-ers, New York, 1974.

CONCLUSIONIIIMMIIIMMIL

It's hard to imagine Seneca, Pawneeand Hopi cultures without corn. Thesurvival of these people's unique life-styles and the survival of their cornwere intertwined. They depended oncorn for food and their corn dependedon them. The corn could grow only if itwere planted. Through time and inmany environments, humans and cornhave been constant companions.

What made corn so useful anuimportant to these people? And whatwas it about these people and the:.cultures that allowed them to discove,and develop the highest potentials ofcorn to fit their lifestyles? The answerslie in the combined qualities of cornand human cultures, and their abilitiesto change through the centuries.

Natural variation in corn has enabledit to adapt to many different environ-ments. For example, Hopi corn isdifferent from Seneca corn. One typeof Seneca corn grows in fertile lands,cleared of trees, next to streams andrivers. It is tall, often over 6 feet high,with long ears of white corn. Hopi corn,often grows only 3-4 feet tall with shortblue ears of corn, grows in desert landswhere there is not much water. Indianfarmers selected seed ears from plantsthat did well in their areas. So cornchanged and adapted tt. variousenvironments. Regardless of howvaried the types of corn were, they allshared the basic requirements for sun,water, and soil nutrients.

To satisfy these requirements,Indians assisted the corn plants. Theycontrolled or changed the placeswhere their corn grew so that theseenvironments would be improved andtheir crops would be more successful.

For example, the tribes cleared theland to allow more sun to reach thecorn. They removed other plants whichmight compete for soil nutrients andwater. What other ways did these tribeschange or control parts of the environ-ment to favor the growth of corn?

Just as corn adapted or changedthrough human selection, tools andutensils were adapted to fit thequalities of corn. One example is thehusking pin which was created to helpit. the corn harvest. This pin was usedto ',ear away the husk covering the earsof corn. Dried corn can be stored for along time, but it is very hard when it isdried. So different types of mortars andpestles were developed to break up thecorn into more usable forms. Diggingsticks, planting and harvestingbaskets, storage structures andrecipes are more examples of thingsthat were partially determined by thecharacteristics of the corn.

The storage of corn and other foodsmade it possible for people to live inenvironments which were not suitablefor growing crops all year around. Withstored corn it was possible to insurethat some food would be availableduring the non-growing season and foremergencies so that the whole tribewould not starve if fire, war, floods or

109 I.;, %) .V-

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droughts disturbed the normalrhythms of life. Since corn could begrown in such large quantities, driedand stored, more permanent settle-ments became possible. It wasn'tnecessary to always be on the movehunting pnd gathering. Yet, it was stillpossible to hunt and gather as neededor .desired. The three tribes we havestudied showed considerabledifferences in the amount of hunting,gathering, and moving they did.

When comparing the mobility of the3 tribes, the Hopi are the least mobile.That is, their villages are the mostpermanent. Their pueblos are made ofstone, a very enduring buildingmatei Jul. Some of today's Hopi live inthe same pueblo villages their ant-as-tors did thousands of years ago. Gameis scarce in Hopiland because there islittle water and forage for animals. Thismakes the Hopi extremely dependenton their corn and other crops.

The Pawnee are the most mobile ofthe three tribes. They had permanentvillages which they returned to atplanting and harvest time. But most ofthe year they traveled in search of.buffalo and other game. Corn was veryimportant to the Pawnee because itwas a dependable source of food. It en-abled them to survive times of harshweather and poor hunting. But thebuffalo was their mainstay.

The Seneca fall in the middle of theline on all three elements. They builttheir villages along the rivers in

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forested land. Game was abundant andmuch meat was eaten as well as fish.The soil was rich and there was plentyof river water and rainfall. The cropsgrew well, especially corn. The Senecastayed in their villages for many yearsuntil the firewood and game becamescarce and the fields wore out. Then itwas time to move on-- up or down theriver and establish new longhousevillages.

By understanding the role of corn inthese three Native cultures, we havegained some insights into the lives ofthese Native Americans before theintroduction of modern technology.Indian agricultural accomplishmentsand technology were impressive longbefore the introduction of these newmethods. The perceptual and observa-tional skills necessary to understandcross-pollination were necessary tomaintain pure corn strains and todevelop new varieties .of .corn.

All of these cultures had to perceivepatterns and laws in nature and to workwith them. Many of their day to daydecisions were based upon anunderstanding of the natural world.What natural signs did the Seneca andPawnee use to tell when to plant orharvest? Why might these signs workbetter than dates marked in advanceon a calendar?

Much of the work associated withgrowing and preparing corn was donein the spirit of social interaction andfriendliness. This helped to preserve

family and tribal Unity which is asimportant to survival as corn. Work andplay were not necessarily separate, butwere balanced, so that both physicaland cultural survival wera favored. Andindeed, these tribes survive today andwith them a rich heritage of culturewhich includes corn; still it is acompanion and giver of life.

The story of corn is also the story ofpeople. The corn we have today camefrom centuries of interaction betweenNative Americans and corn. Thishistorical relationship between peopleand corn should remind us of our ownconnection to nature. Perhaps thatconnection was more easily seen andunderstood in the tradition of theSeneca, Pawnee and Hopi. But it is noless real for us today. The laws ofnature apply to the corn plant and to allmembers of all cultures, past andpresent.

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RECIPES FROM THESENECA, PAWNEE ANDHOPI TRIBES

We've learned quite a bit about how theSeneca, Pawnee and Hopi tribes raise andprepare corn. In this section we'll findtraditional recipes, some that use unusualingredients or cooking methods, as well asauthentic recipes you can easily fix in yourown kitchen.Before you try the recipes, there are a few

things we should understand about Indianways of cooking.

1. Many Indian people prepare dishesusing a pinch of this and a palm full of that.They consider cooking an art that cannotbe restricted by measuring cups. A few ofthe recipes you will see here may have littleinformation about exact measurements.The amounts of ingredients will varydepending on how many people are eatingand what is on hand in the kitchen. To giveus an idea of the way traditional Indianpeople feel about their food, let's read thefollowing dialogue from Pueblo and NavajoCookery, by Marcia Keegan. Thisconversation is between Agnes Dill ofIsletta Pueblo, Indian woman leader, andPaul Enciso, Taos Pueblo & Apache ,

artist and craftsman.

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PAUL: "Anciently and traditionally, whamimportant to the Pueblos is thesacredness of the food which theyeat. So the food must be carefullyprepared and washed, and a lot ofcare goes into the making. Becauseof the sacredness of the food itself,cooking is just like handling anycraft. If you're making a kachinadoll, or any kind of thing like this--moccasin making, or pottery--younever measure anything. An in thesame way, you just have a certainkind of feel that you get even forfood. And when you prepare it, youjust put in as much as you feel isright. And I know my grandmotherused to say, 'If you're doing theright things, if you have that sparkof faith in you,'---and when I'mspeaking of faith, I'm speaking ofeverything that surrounds the life ofthe person---'...because of that, youcan never make a mistake.' Andthen you put in lust so much off thepalm of your hand, and that'senough. That's right. And you don'tneed another kind of measure-ment."

AGNES: "It depends on how much you'remaking, how much you're cooking.If you're cooking for a small family,then you say, well, this is aboutright. You use a lot more, and youjust measure in your hand to seehow much---say if you're making abig potful of soup, maybe twogallons or three gallons. And youput a big pinch of salt in the palm ofyour hand---the Indians always

used the ground salt, their ownIndian salt from the salt lakes, andthey used to grind it. And a lot oftimes they would just take a pinchand put it in. Preparing food islike a craft, like painting a picture,or making a pot. And corn is verysacred food, because in thelegends, when the corn finallycomes up, the corn becomes a man.Corn comes from the earth---it's athing that's been given to us by theGreat Spirit. So the corn is used insacred ceremonies and is universalthroughout the whole IndianNation."(From Pueblo and Navajo Cookeryby Marcia Keegan. Copyright©1977 by Marcia Keegan. Reprintedby permission of Morgan andMorgan, publishers, Dobbs Ferry,New York.)

2. Most of the Plains Indians, includingthe Pawnee tribe, traditionally cook withvery little spices--a little salt and pepperperhaps and occasionally some wildonions. But most of their foods are theflavors of corn, squash, beans, and meat.

3. As you've learned, corn has to beprocessed in some way to preserve it. Itmay be roasted, dried, or made intohominy. Then it can be ground into flour orused in recipes many months after it hasbeen picked. We'll learn how we can grindflour, roast corn, and make hominy.

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4. Some of the recipes will use uniqueingredients like blue corn flour or meal,dried corn and special cooking ashes madefrom wood."Blue Cornmealthe pulverized kernelsof a variety of corn that is blue in color.Commercially ground white or yellowcornmeal can be substituted, but there willbe a change in color and flavor, and theauthenticity of the original will certainly bechallenged. Commercially groundcornmeal should be further pulverized in ablender or food mill when corn flour orfinely ground cornmeal is called for.""Culinary Ashesthe charred remains ofcertain plants. Hopis prefer to use the four-winged, saitbush (chamisa) because of itsability to color foods blue, a color that isreligiously significant. Culinary ashes canbe omitted from a recipe without noticeablechange in taste but with a loss in mineralcontent. An equivalent amount of watershould be substituted for the ash water thatis omitted."

(Quotes from Juanita Tiger Kavena'sHopi Cookery. Copyright © 1980, used bypermission of the University of ArizonaPress.)

CORN PREPARATIONMETHODS

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MAKING BLUE CORN FLOURHOPIThis will work with other kinds of driedcorn too.Shell dried blue corn.Wash corn until the water runs clear.Coarsely grind corn in a hand-powered

corn mill.Put ground corn in a shallow pan and bake

at 350° F until the corn puffs andsmells like popcornabout twentyminutes.

Remove corn from pan and cool.Grind puffed corn on grinding stones or in

a food mill until it is as fine as flour.Store cornmeal in a covered container in

a cool place.Blue corn flour is available commercially asharinella, but this product is a mixture ofblue and white cornmeals so it doesn't haveas strong a flavor and color as the pure bluecornmeal. (HC)

ROASTED SENECA CORNSeneca cooks roast corn outside over hotcoals. To do this they remove the toughouter husk and silk from the ears they willroast. Then they tie the open end of the earand dip them in cold water. The ears arethen placed over coals. to cook. lt isimportant to turn the ears several timeswhile roasting. These ears cook from thehot coals heat and they are also steamed bythe water they were dipped in.

DRIED CORN('o' goenh 'saah') by Miriam LeeSENECA

12 ears white corn in milky stageScrape corn with sharp knife three times.First scrape corn just to break off thekernels. Second scrape remainder of cornhalfway.Third scrape rest of kernels offthe cob. Then use potato masher and mashall kernels until milk comes out. Take loafpan which is about 1 1/2" deep, grease andput in all corn that has been mashed andbake in oven until all kernels are goldenbrown. Use low heat and bake approxi-mately 45 minutes. When kernels arebrown, let cool for about 15 minutes; thencut up and store.

HOMINYHominy is corn kernels that have been

processed in a special way to remove thehulls or skins that surround each kernel cfcorn. The corn is cooked in a solution ofwood ash and water. This makes thekernels expand and burst their hulls. Nextthe corn is washed thoroughly severaltimes to remove the hulls and ash. Finallythe corn is spread out to completely dry.The following recipes are examples of Hopiand Pawnee methods of making hominy. Asimilar method is used by the Seneca whenmaking corn bread and hulled corn soup.

PAWNEE HOMINY

III .1 I MI I I I

1 quart of sifted wood ashes2 gallons of waterdried corn kernels (unhulled)Mix wood ashes and water togetherthoroughly. Add corn kernels. Boil for 1hour and 15 minutes. Take out immediatelyand wash thoroughly in several waters toremove hulls. Spread out to dry. (FRF)

HOPI HOMINY

2 cups shelled, dried, white or speckledcorn10 cups water1 cup chemise or other cooking ash

Put corn and water in an enamel saucepan,cover, and bring to a boil.When water boils, stir in the cooking ash.(The corn will turn yellow-orange.)Cover and simmer corn until hulls becomeloose and corn turns white again. Stiroccasionally and add water as needed.Drain corn in a colander and rinse undercold running water, removing hulls withyour fingers.The hominy can be dried or pressurecanned for use at a later date, or can bepatted dry and frozen in suitablecontainers.For more rapid processing of the hominy,larger amounts of ashes can be used.Regardless of amount of ashes, however,the hominy must be processed in anenamel pot, as the ashes react with metalutensils. (HC)

RECIPES USINGSPECIALIZEDINGREDIENTSOR COOKING METHODS

HOPI FINGER BREAD(Serves six) (Huzusuki)

1 3/4 cups blue cornmeal, groundmedium fine

2 cups waterBring water to es boil, then reduce heat tolow. Gradually add cornmeal to boilingwater, stirring constantly. Stir until allcornmeal is mixed in. (This makes a verystiff dough.) Spoon bread out onto a plateand serve.

Finger bread, as the name implies, is eatenwith the fingers. Each person breaks off apiece, using the thumb and first finger tohold it,and butters it(or not)before eating.Finger Bread is served often, especiallywith roasted meats and stews, and leftoverbread is sliced and served for breakfast thenext morning. Older Hopi women stirredthe thick dough with a stirring stick, but acooking fork dissolves the lumps morequickly.

Mrs. Remalda LomayeatewaSecond Mesa, Arizona (HC)

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CORN BREAD(go-gal-denh-doenh')

by Hazel D. John (Seneca)

3 quarts white corn ,

1* pinto or kidney beans3 pints sifted ashes (preferably poplar)

Cooking utensils needed:

cast iron kettle (5 quart)aluminum kettle (5 quart)wooden paddlecorn washing basketsifter for ashessifter for flourdippersaucepan (2 quart capacity)dishpans (2)Fill cast iron kettle 3/4 full of water and puton to boil. When waterboils, put in corn andsifted ashes. Stir with paddle until wellmixed. Boil for 10-15 minutes.Clean beans and put on to simmer insaucepan for approximately 1 hour.Test corn by putting in cold water and see ifouter hull comes off. If it does, drain corninto sifter basket and rinse in tepid wateruntil clear. Use towel to absorb water in

corn. Grind corn in food chopper, finestgrind, sift 2 or 3 times.Fill aluminum kettle 3/4 full, put on to boil.

Drain beans when cooked, rinse twice.Pour into sifted corn flour. Mix with thepaddle. Add boiling water until well mixed(approximately 4 dippers full). Too muchwater it will get mushy, too little waterdough will get hard. Fill dish pan with coldwater. Hands should be clean, dip hands incold water; then .pat into a smooth wheel

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about 2" thick, dipping hands in cold wateras often as necessary to keep hands fromsticking to the dough.Place wheel on wooden paddle and put intoboiling water and cook approximately 50minutes. Check every few minutes andseparate wheels (which are standing) sothey won't stick. Wheels are done whenthey float and the water in which wheelswere boiled in can be drunk.

HOPI HUSH PUPPIES(Serves Six)

2 cups blue cornmeal1 teaspoon salt2 teaspoons baking powder2 beaten eggs1 1/4 cups milk1 small onion, chopped fineshorteningMeasure cornmeal, salt, and baking

.powder into a mixing bowl.Stir milk into beaten eggs and gradually

add to cornmeal mixture.Add chopped onions to cornmeal and mix

well.Drop by teaspoonfuls into 1 1/2 inches of

very hot shortening.Fry hush puppies until golden brown,

turning to brown all sides.Hush puppies are served with stews orbeans instead of bread. Although made ofcorn, they are corn in a different form andadd variety to meals. Yellow cornmeal canbe substituted for blue, but does not haveas delicate a flavor. (HC)

SOMEVIKI(Serves Eight)

5 rounded tablespoons chemise orother cooking ash

1 1/2 culie boiling water1 cup finely ground blue cornmeal3/4 cup granulated sugar4 cuos boiling waterAlso:30 corn husks that have been soaked in

very hot water for ten to fifteen minutes

Mix ashes with 1 1/2 cups of boiling waterand set aside.

Measure cornmeal and sugar into a bowl.Add 4 cups of boiling water to dry ingred-

ients; stirring constantly.Pour a cup or more of ash water through

a strainer into dough, until dough isdistinctly blue in color.

Put 2 heaping tablespoons of dough oneach corn husk and fold husks arounddough, sides first and then ends.Secure with strings made from cornhusks.

Drop husk-wrapped dough into a largepot of boiling water. Cover and simmerfor twenty to twenty-five minutes,and drain.

Someviki is a sweet cornbread that isserved hot, usually with beans or stew. Thehusks are carefully unwrapped fromaround the bread and discarded. Mostpeople eat several pieces with a meal.

Mrs. Olive DennisOraibi, Arizona (HC)

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PUDDINGSOPP(from Helena Hood, Pawnee)

Roast blue corn L.- stove top or in pit,remove kernels and dry thoroughly

. grind corn until fineIngredients:4 cups boiling water1 1/2 cups blue corn meal (finely ground)3/4 cup nuts (preferably black walnutsbut pecans will do) - grind the nuts1/2 cup sugar

Mix blue corn meal into boiling water. Use awire whip or wisk to stir until most of thelumps have dissolved.

Add sugar and continue stirring so thesugar will dissolve.

Add ground nuts and mix well.Cook 30 minutes.

This recipe will make 101/2 cup servings ofdelicious, nutritious Opp. (FRF)

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SWEET CORN PUDDING(Pikami) HOPI

(Serves Fifty)

2 cups ground sprouted wheat30 cups finely ground white or yellowcornmeal16 cups boiling water4 cups (approximately) sugar or honey,if desired

Sprout 6 cups of wheat until the shoots are1 to 1 1/2 inches tall.Spread the sprouted wheat out to dry andgrind it fine. This should yield approxi-mately 2 cups of ground sprouted wheat.(Extra wheat can be stored in a jar for lateruse.)Mix 2 cups of ground sprouted wheat with30 cups of cornmeal.Add approximately 16 cups of boiling waterto make a heavy batter, and stir with astirring stick until smooth.Add sugar to taste and mix well.Line a 10-quart container with dried cornhusks.Fill the container with pudding mixture.Cover pudding with wet corn husks andaluminum foil, then put the lid on thecontainer.Lower pudding into preheated pudding pitand cover with pit cover. Seal the pit withwet mud.Bake eight to ten hours or overnight in thepit of hot coals.Early the next morning, open the pitcarefully and stir the pudding.Dip pudding out and serve warm with stewfor breakfast.

A smaller amount of pudding can be madewith 4 cups cornmeal, 1/4 cup groundsprouted wheat, 2 cups boiling water, and1/2 cup sugar, but it is prepared andcooked in the same manner.

Stirring sticks are made from greasewood.Some are single sticks the size of'a broomhandle and others are made of four slendersticks (about 3/8 of an inch in diameter)tied together.

Mrs. Phyllis AdamsPolacca, Arizona(HC)

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SPOONS FROM CORN HUSKSSome early Hopi families had spoons

made from gourds, but many did not. Ondance and feast days, when there were notenough spoons for all the visitors, theingenious Hopi would take the moist cornhusks from the someviki, tie knots in thetips, and make useable spoons. The cornhusks need to be soft and pliable in order tobe twisted and tied in a knot, and, sinceboiled someviki is usually served with thestews and beans on feast days, the corn-husk wrappings were ideal. (HC)

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SWEET CORN PUDDING(Modern Version) HOPI

5 pounds whole wheat flour5 pounds white corn flour5 pounds granulated sugar10 to 14 cups boiling waterIn a large pan (we keep a tub just for thispurpose), combine whole wheat flour, cornflour, and sugar.Add boiling water to the dry ingredients, alittle at a time, stirring well to moisten allingredients and make a thick pudding.(Three women, usually the in-laws, areneeded to stir the pudding as it is very thickand hot.)Test a small amount of pudding on a hotgriddle. If it browns readily, the pudding issweet enough. If not, more sugar should beadded.Prepare the cooking container (usually a 5-gallon can) by lining it with clean cornhusks.

68

Dip a dipper into water and then into thepudding, and carefully pour the puddinginto the bottom of the container. Continueto dip the dipper into water before dippinginto the pudding, to help pudding slip offthe dipper more easily.When all the pudding has been put in thecontainer, cover it with wet corn husks,aluminum foil, and a lid.Lower the pudding into a hot pudding pit,cover it with the pit cover, and plaster it withwet mud, sealing the opening well.Build a small fire over the pudding pit andcook the pudding overnight. (You can alsocook this in a crock pot.)

Hopi or Sweet Corn Pudding is served forbreakfast on feast and dant:a days, and atweddings and the naming party for a newbaby. It is not eaten with a spoon, but bybreaking small pieces off and eating themwith the fingers. Leftover pudding is driedand pulverized and made into a beverageby adding hot water.The in-laws usually "trade off" for work atHopi weddings. If a Hopi woman has adaughter, she will help her clan relatives attheir daughters' weddings. They will thenreturn the favor when her daughter getsmarried. (HC)

HULLED CORN SOUPby William Bennett (Seneca)4 qts. dry corn kernels1 # dry red kidney beans3 # salt pork1 qt. hardwood ashes

Put enough water in an old*,kettle to coverthe corn. Bring to a boil; add corn andashes. Cook about 20 minutes, stirringfrequently. This loosens the hulls or shellsof the corn.When the hulls slip off the kernels byworking between the fingers, drain thewater and rinse corn in cold water, workingcorn with the fingers to help remove hulls.Drain and parboil; drain, rinse, and parboilagain. Repeat several times until theparboiled water looks clean and clear. (Ahandmade basket is traditionally used forthis purpose.)When corn is good and clean, place it in alarge kettle or canner with clean water.Parboil washed beans separately untilwater is colored; add both water and beansto the corn mixture.Cut salt pork into small pieces; add to thecorn and beans. Be sure to use plenty ofwater because the corn will swell as itcooks. Cook 3 or 4 hours, or until corn istender, stirring occasionally and addingwater as needed. Makes 16 quarts of soup.

*Use enamel or cast iron, not aluminum orother metal because the ashes react to themetal pots.

OTHER RECIPES

BLUE MARBLES HOPI(Serves One)

2 heaping teaspoons chamisa or othercooking ash8 tablespoons boiling water1/2 cup finely ground blue cornmeal1 tablespoon sugar (if desired)

Mix the chamisa ash with 2 tablespoons ofboiling water and set aside.Measure the blue cornmeal and sugar intoa bowl and stir in 5 tablespoons of boilingwater.

Z 2 s-er-mere-of-the-ash-water mixture through a strainer into thecornmeal, until the dough is distinctly bluein color.Shape dough into balls the size of marbles.Drop balls into 2 cups of boiling water andcook for-ten minutes.

Blue marbles are served in a bowl in theircooking water along with dried onions,fresh or dried chiles, fried salt pork, orstrips of beef. This is usually a breakfastdish and is a complete meal.

Mrs. Phyllis AdamsPolacca, Arizona (HC)

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PIKI(Juanita Tiger Kavena's words)

Piki is a tissue-thin cornbread that isunique to the Hopi culture. It is served ascrackers or wafers are served, often withonions and greens and a small dish of saltwater on the side to dip the piki in. It is alsoserved as a snack with tea or coffee, orcarried for lunch when members of thefamily are working away from home.Piki comes in different flavors and colors.Chile piki is particularly good with beansprouts and stews, for example, and pikimade from red or yellow corn is strung andgiven to children and friends at the summerKachina dances. There is also a fresh cornpiki, but it is seldom made or served.Hopi women and girls make piki, as theyhave for centuries, on specially preparedcooking stones called piki stones. Thesestones must be a dertairi sue aird-dhaftie,and must also be very smooth. They take along time to prepare, and most piki stonesare heirlooms that have been handed downfrom mother to daughter for generations.Piki-making is a hot demanding task and Ididn't learn how until the summer of 1978,when a lady from New Oraibi invited me toher home for lessons. I took her up on heroffer and went to her house every week tomake piki. One of the first things I learnedwas that you must be determined to learnthe art of piki-makingfor it is indeed anartas it would be very easy to give up aftertouching the hot stone for the first time! Itwas awe inspiring for me to see the pikibatter sizzle right behind my unprotectedhand.

But I enjoyed being in the piki house, for Ifound it to be a center of activity. The"moccasin grapevine" was headquarteredthere, and it was also a place for familycounseling.During the lessons, my teacher built the fireunder her piki stone, for she knows herstone just as any good homemaker knowsher cooking range. But I usually minded theingredients, while she continuallyencouraged me. Piki-making cannot belearned in one lesson but is a skill thatcomes with practice. (HC)

%).h

MAKING PIKI HOPI3 tablespoons chamisa ash1/2 cup cold water6 cups finely ground cornmeal6 cups finely ground c9rnmeal8 cups boiling water6 to 8 cups cold water

Mix chamisa ash with 1/2 cup of cold waterand set aside.Put cornmeal in piki bowl, pushing a thirdof the meal to the back of the bowl.Pour 4 cups of boiling water into the largeramount of cornmeal and stir with a woodenspoon or stirring stick until well blended.Add the rest of the boiling water andcontinue to mix until the larger amount ofcornmeal is moistened. (The dough shouldbe heavy and stiff.)Strain ash water through broom straws or asieve lined with cheesecloth into thedough, a little at a time, until dough turnsblue. (Too little ash water is better than toomuch as you can always add more. If youdo use too much, then add another cup ofmeal from the remaining cornmeal in thebowl and another cup of water.)

When dough is cool enough to handle,knead it by hand until the lumps aredissolved. Add extra meal, a little at a time,until all the cornmeal in the bowl is blendedIn.

Set dough aside and build a fire under thepiki stone.

tr .1

While the stone is heating, begin adding thecold water to the dough, a little at a time,and continue working dough with yourhands. Add enough water to make asmooth, thin batter that is the consistencyof crepe batter or thinner. The thinner thebatter, the easier it is to work with, hut someHopi women prefer thicker batters. As youare making the piki, it may be necessary toadd more cold water, since the batter has atendency to thicken.Wipe off the hot stone and oil it with eitherbone marrow or cooked brains, which willmake the stone as slick as glass. The stonemay require additional oiling after cookingtwo or three sheets in order to preventsticking.Dip your hand in the batterand hold a smallamount in the curve of your fingers. Spreadbatter across the stone (touching the stonelightly with your fingers), moving from rightto left and back again, and removing anylumpy deposits. Dip fingers into batteragain to cool themone has to work fast toavoid burning the fingersand continuespreading batter across the stone,overlapping the previous strip, until stoneis completely covered.When piki is done, the edges will separatefrom the stone. With both hands, gently liftit from the stone and place it on the pikitray. (The first piece is "fed to the fire." Alsoat this time, the stone is asked "not to belazy and to work well" for the cook.)

Spread more batter on the stone and, whileit is cooking, gently lift the sheet of pikifrom the piki tray back onto the stone andlet it sit for a minute or twO to soften. Thenfold the two ends of the piki a quarter of theway toward the center and gently roll thepiki away from you, as you would acinnamon roll. Place rolled piki back ontray.Lift the sheet still on the stone to the pikitray and spread the stone with more batter.Continue to bake and roll the piki until allbatter is used.

If a sheet of piki tears when you areremoving it from the stone, it may be putback into the bowl, where it will dissolveinto the batter, to be used again. Or, ifchildren are in the area, they will be glad tosample your failures! (HC)

128

THUMBPRINT BREAD (Kolatquvi)HOPI

(Serves Six)

2 teaspoons chemise ash1/4 cup water2 cups coarse cornmeal1 cup boiling water1 tablespoon sugarMix ashes and 1/4 cup water and set aside.

Measure cornmeal and sugar into mixingbowl.

Add 1 cup boiling water to cornmealmixture and stir with a wooden spoon.Strain ash water into cornmeal and stir untilmixture turns blue.Shape heaping tablespoons of dough into 11/2 inch balls..lndent the center of each ballwith your thumb.Put the thumbprint bread in a colander andset it in a pot of boiling water.Cover pot and simmer bread forapproximately eight minutes.

Some Hopi women divide the cornmealmixture in half and add the boiling water toone side only, working the remainder of thecornmeal into the dough with their hands.This gives them more control when theyadd ash water to color the dough. Beforecolanders were available, Hopi housewivesused dried peach twigs to make piki traysand other similar cooking utensils. (HC)

.N1% A.

129

OTHER CORN DISHES

HOMINY AND PORK SHANKSfrom Mary Red Eagle, Osage TribePAWNEE (Serves Eight to Ten)

6 ears dried white or speckled corn, brokeninto 3- or 4-inch lengths1 bunch bean sprouts

1 pound salt pork (or 1/2 cup porkdrippings)

1/4 cup salt

WHOLE CORNAND.BEAN SPROUTS(Hazruquive) HOPI

4 cups hominy

2 fresh pork shanksEnough water to cover the meatBoil pork shanks in water for about 30minutes. Add hominy and cook untilthickened.

PARCHED CORNMEAL MUSH(os-hoenh-wanh) by Hazel D. JohnSENECA

2 qts. white corn10-12 pieces of salt pork

sugar

Slice pork and fry about 10 pieces. Brown 2quarts white corn in iron skillet, low heat(just so corn doesn't burn). Grind corn realfine by sifting two or three times. Take largekettle, fill half full of hot water and put on toboil. Add sugar to water (sweeten to indivi-dual taste), mix sifted flour with cold wateruntil creamy. Add mixture slowly to boiledwater, stirring to keep smooth and notlumpy. Cook until done, approximately 10-15 minutes. Pour cooked pork slices andgrease over mush. Stir and serve.

Wash corn well to remove dust.

Put corn in a saucepan, cover it with water,and add salt and salt pork or drippings.Cover saucepan and simmer corn untiltender, usually overnight. (A crock pot isideal for this.)The next morning, wash bean sprouts untilwater runs clear, cut them in 1 1/2 inchlengths, and add to corn.

Cover and continue simmering untilsprouts are tender and the kernels on thecobs popabout three hours.Serve with plain or chile piki.This dish is a real specialty as it is preparedonly once a year, during the PowamuCeremony in late winter that celebrates thechanging of the seasons. The corn cobscooked with the other ingredients give thedish a deliciously sweet taste. (HC)

71

OTHER RECIPES THATDO NOT USE SPECIALIZEDINGREDIENTS

BEAN BREAD from Lizzie ByersPAWNEE3 cups white corn meal

1/2 tsp. salt

2 Tbsp. bacon drippings1 cup cooked brown beans (save the waterthe beans are cooked in)Put corn meal in a bowl and add salt. Addenough bean cooking water to make a thickbatter. Add beans and mix. Add bacondrippings and mix. Pour into a well greasedpan. Make the top smooth. Bake in a hotoven until done. (FRF)

CAKES

CORN CAKES from Helena Hood(This is a favorite treat that Helena'smother used to cook over a pit.)

Corn just fresh from the fieldsA little flour to bind cakes together

WaterGrate corn from the cobs. Mix with waterand a little flour. Form into thin cakes andbake until they are done. (Helena saysshe'd put a little salt on her cake and eat it."There's nothing like itl")

72 1311

SOUPS

CORN SOUP from Helena HoodPAWNEE

1 cup white or yellow dried corn (alreadyhulled)Beef with marbling, chuck roast is good.(The amount of beef will vary depending onwhat you have on hand or how meaty youwant the soup to taste.)

3 cups of water (If you want thinner )oupadd more water.)

Salt to taste

Put all these ingredients together and boilon a low fire for at least an hour and one halfor all afternoon if you wish.

ROAST CORN SOUP('o' nanh-dah) by Miriam LeeSENECA12 ears white corn in milky stage

1 # salt pork (lean and fat)

1 # pinto or kidney beans

Using luw heat, take corn and roast on topof range (using griddle if your stove isequipped with one) and keep rotating cornuntil ears are a golden brown. After thecorn is roasted, take ears and put. on foilcovered cookie sheet until cool enough tohandle. Scrape each ear once or twice witha sharp knife. Corn is ready for makingsoup. While corn is being roasted, fill kettle(5 qt. capacify) approximately 3/4 full withhot water and put on to boil along with saltpork which has been diced in small piecesfor more thorough cooking. Beans shouldbe sorted for culls, washed twice andparboiled for approximately 35-45 minutes.After parboiling beans, rinse well in tepidwater 2 or 3 times. Corn and beans shouldthen be put in kettle with pork and cookedfor about 1 hour. (Note: Beans can also besoaked overnight to cut cooking time whenpreparing soup).

132

SUCCOTASH SENECAIngredients

green corn with kernels removedfresh shelled beansenough water to coversalt and pepper to tastecubed salt pork

Mix the corn and beans and cover withwater. Cook the mixture over mediumheat for about a half hour. (Be sure tostir the mixture to avoid scorching.) Addpepper and salt and salt pork if desired.

USING NAKVIKLOKVU HOPI

4 cups water1 cup dried nakviklokvu pieces1 teaspoon salt2 tablespoons butter or bacon drippingsBring water to a boil in a saucepan.Add nakviklokvu pieces, salt, and butter.Cover and aimmer for one hour, or untilnakviklokvu is soft. Stir frequently as cornrolls will stick, just as corn will.Serve as a vegetable.

Nakviklokvu can also be added to stews ora pot of beans. (HC)

FRESH CORN ROLLS (Nakviki)

6 ears fresh tender corn1 teaspoon salt, if desiredRemove husks from corn by cutting offends. Save larger husks and wash them.Remove silks from corn.Cut corn from cob, scraping as much milkfrom the cob as possible.Grind corn with the fine blade of a handmeat grinder. (An electric blender can beused also, but tends to separate the starch,so it is necessary to stir the corn well.)Add salt and mix well.Put a tablespoon of corn mixture into aclean husk. Fold the left edge of husk overcorn, then the right edge. Finally, fold thetip end up towards the center.Stand rolls upright, open side up, in a jellyroll or similar pan.Bake in a preheated 325°F oven for thirtyminutes, or until corn mixture is solid.Serve as corn bread with stews, soups, orroasted meat.Nakviki is quite versatile and can be splitand browned in butter or oleo to make adelicious breakfast toast. It can also besliced crosswise and scrambled with eggs,or dried for winter use. (HC)

133

DRYING FRESHCORN ROLLS (Nakviklokvu)

Remove corn husks from leftover cornrolls and .split them lengthwise .(or slicecrosswise) to ensure quick drying. Put rollsin a sifter basket and place them in awindow or othersheltered,sunny spot.Turnrolls two or three times a day for evendrying, and, when completely dried, storethem in a tightly covered container. Nakvik-lokvu will keep for a year in a tightly closedcontainer.In the 1970s, many Hopi homes still didn'thave electricity, and a few didn't have ice-boxes, so drying foods for future use wasvery necessary. Sifter baskets wereloosely-woven, shallow baskets made ofyucca, that allowed plenty of air circula-tion. They were also used for shaking dirtfrom beans, seeds, etc., and for winnowingthe hulls from parched corn. (HC)

73

74

111ft.GLOSSARY

135

ancestor - a person from whom one isdescended and who usually is held ingreat respect.

anecdote - a short story of an interesting,amazing or biographical incident.

arioyo - a water-carved gully in an arid region,usually dry but containing a streamduring the rainy season.

bedrock - solid rock that is lying under dirt andloose rock on the surface.

clan - a group united by a common character-istic like familyline, or relationship to acertain animal or place.

Clan Mother - head of clan in societies withmatrilineal descent.

contour interval - the distance betweencontour lines indicating a rise or fall inelevation.

contour lines - the lines on a map indicatingthat all the land along that line is thesame elevation.

corn flour - produced when corn meal isground even finer.

corn meal - the remains of dry corn kernelsafter they have been ground by a mortarand pestle. Stone or steel grinders areused to produce commercially.

corn silk - female flower appearing as slenderthreads on the ear of corn.

Crest - a painting of a particular family orclan symbol.

crop rotation - the practice of planting differ-ent crops in a plot each year to preventdisease to improve the soil.

cross pollination - when reproductivc cellsfrom two plants unite to form new seeds.

descendants - a person who can trace theirfamily tree from a certain ancestor.

desperation - hopelessness leading ,to rash-ness.

dry farming - special methods used in aridspaces to farm without the use ofirrigation.

duma - a specialized cooking stor.e used byHopi women when making piki bread.

earth lodges - the permanent home of manyplains tribes. They were made of sod andtree trunks. Today the Pawnee use earthlodges for ceremonial and socialgatherings.

environment - all of the social, cultural, bio-logical and climatic influences thataffect any living thing.

fertilization - the process of two germ cellsuniting to form a seed.

field rotation - similar to crop rotation only ona much larger scale. One year a heavyfeeding crop such as corn would beplanted, then a heavy giver like beam,then a light feeder such as sweet pota-toes, then the cycle begins again.

floodwater - overflow from streams and rivers.Some tribes planted crops to takeadvantage of water and nutrients infloodwater.

floodwater farming - crops are planted whereanticipated floods will bring water andnutrients in the form of silt to a field.

,&:1 136

genealogy - a recorded history of one'sancestry.

girdling - cutting a ring around a tree in orderto stop fluids from traveling up anddown the trunk in an effort to kill thetree.

habitat - the place where something iscommonly found.

hominy - a process of removing hulls fromdried corn by boiling corn with ashes.

hull - the hard outer covering of a seed.husk - the outer covering of the corn cob.insights - seeing the true nature of things.intertwined - two or more objects wrapping

themselves around each other.

Iroquois Confederacy - originally five nationslater joined by the Tuscaroras, had cen-tral government with individual nationshaving unique statehood. U.S. consti-tution patterned after this confederacy.

irrigate - supplying water to the land by arti-ficial means.

Juneberry tree - a tall shrub with bluish-redfruits that usually form in June. It isfound in woody areas and is also knownas service berry. The Seneca plant theircorn when it is in bloom.

jugular vein - those veins on either side of theneck that return blood from the head.

kernels - the whole seed of the corn.leggings - rawhide or cloth covering for the

legs.

lifestyle - a typical way of living.ligaments - the tough bonds of tissue connec-

ting bones or holding up organs.

137

livelihood - the means of supporting oneselfor of gaining subsistence.

longhouse - the traditional houses of Senecapeople. Today they are used aS ceremonialand community houses.

mainstay - the major food of a particulargroup of people.

mano - a mooth, oblong stone used by Hopiwomen to smash and grind corn againstanother rough stone called a metate.

matrilineal descent -following lines ofancestry through the female side of thefamily.

mesa -an isolated broad tableland havingsteep sides and level top.

metate -a rough slab of saldstone that Hopiwomen use to grind corn on.

milkweed - a plant found in arid areas whichhas sap that is milk-white. The Pawneeused this plant to tell when their corncrops were ready to be harvested.

mortar - a strong base in which corn isground by a pestle.

nitrogen -a common element in the air,nitrogen is necessary for green growth,some plants fix nitrogen in the soil.

nitrogen fixing plants - all beans and peasand some other plants that have bacteriathat attach themselves to their roots.These bacteria are almost pure nitrogen.

nutrients - there are three major nutrientsnecessary for plant growth. Nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium. In addition,many other trace elements are necessary I

for healthy plant growth.observation - the act of observing something

and remembering how it happened.

oral history - the entire collective recollec-tions of a group of people containing laws,history, entertainment, education, foodpreparation, etc.

parfleches - a leather suitcase-like deviceused by many Plains tribes.

perception - the awareness of things in theenvironment through using the differentsenses.

pestle - a club-shalied tool used for grindingcorn in a mortar.

phosphorus - one of the major nutrientsneeded for healthy root growth, diseaseresistance and production of goodflowers, fruits and vegetables.

piki - a thin, paper-like bread, characteristicof Hopi cooking.

plateau - a usually flat area elevated abovesurrounding landmasses.

pollen- the germ plasm of plants thatusually looks like fine dust.

pollination - the transfer of pollen from themakepart of the plant to the female part.

porous - land that lets water pass through it,usually consisting of sand with little clayor organic matter.

potassium - one of the major nutrients neces-sary from healthy stem growth, vigorousroots and disease resistance.

potentials - anything that ean be developed orbecomes actual.

pueblos - a community of flat-roofed stone oradobe houses in groups usually severalstories high,

reproductive cells - the part of the corn plantused to give rise to more corn plants.

6

sandstone - a sedimentary rock consistingusually of quartz sand.

self- pollination - when reproductive cellstrom one plant unite-to form new-see

sieve - a tool with mesh r fine holes in it topass finer particles out of a mixture.

silt fine materials in water made up ofsedimentary materials.

succotash - a Seneca corn dish made fromgreen ears of corn and fresh green beans.

surface run off - when soil is totally full ofwater, any more rain that falls flows offthe surface.

sustains any food that provides regularnourishment to a particular group of people.

tablelands - large flat areas, usually havingsteep sides and surrounded by arid regions.

tassel - the terreinal male part of corn plant.technology - the use of tools and knowledge

to make any task easier.

Tirawa - the Pawnee name for the Creator orGreat Spirit.

topographic maps - map showing theelevation of land above or below sea level.

travois - device used by many plains tribes totransport material when on the move.It is attached to the back of a horse anddragged on the ground.

tributaries those smaller creeks and streamsthat flow into any larger river.

variation - a thing somewhat different fromanother of the same kind.

wikya - a Hopi tool used to break up theground before planting.

Zea Mays - scientific name for corn.

138

BIBLIOGRAPHYThis bibliography is listed in five categories: Corn, Hopi, Pawnee, Seneca, and General.

& indicate books that -were-used-while researching the particular subject areas.The general category includes books that cover information on many Native American tribes.

CORN

Brandenberg, Aliki. Corn is Maize. Lets-Read-And-Find-Out Science Books. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. 1976.

Carter, George. Plant Geography and Culture History in the American Southwest. Viking Fund P..:blicationsin Anthropology, number 5. 1945.

Limburg, Peter R. The Story of Corn. Julian Messner. 1971.

Mangelsdorf, P.C. and Reeves, R.G. The Origin of Indian Corn and Its Relatives. Texas Agricultural ExperimentStation Bulletin *574. May 1939.

Niethammer, Carolyn. American Indian Food and Lore. Collier Books. 1974.

4-H Plant and Soii Science Program. Exploring the World of Plants and Soils, Unit 1. Plant and Soil ScienceMembers Manual. Cooperative Extension Services of Arizona and New Mexico State Universities and the UnitedStates Department o Agriculture.

Weatherwax, Paul. Story of the Maize Plant. University of Chicago Press. 1923.

GENERAL

Brescia, Pederson, LaFrance, and Starkman. Development of Native American Curriculum. United IndiansI Tribes, Daylgeak_Star...Er.ess. -1919_

Catlin, George. Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Conditions of the North American Indians,V. II. Dover Publications, Inc. 1973

Cohen, Fay and Heuving, Jeanne. Tribal Sovereignty. Indian Tribes in United States History. United Indiansof All Tribes, Daybreak Star Press. 1977.

Curtis, Natalie. The Indian's Book. Collier Books. 1939.

Embree, Edwin. Indians of the Americas. Collier Books. 1939.

Hodge, F.W. Handbooks of American Indians North of Mexico. United States Gov't. Printing Office. 1907.

Hollow, Kitty. Yesterday's Children. United Indians of All Tribes, Daybreak Star Press. 1979.

Hungry Wolf, Adolf. Teachings of Nature. Good Medicine Book Series, No. 14. Good Medicine Books,invere, British Columbia. 1975.

Maxweh, James A. America's Fascinating Indian Heritage. ed. Reader's Digest Association, Inc. 1978.

Ortiz, Alfonso. Handbook of North American Indians - Southwest #9. Smithsonian institute. 1979.

13977

Parsons, Elie Clews. American Indian Life. University of Nebraska Press. 1922.

Ouen, R.C.; Deetz, J.J.F.; and Fisher, A.D. The North American Indians. MacMillan Company. 1967.

Trigger, Bruce G. Handbook of the North American Indians - Northeast #15. 1978.

Underhill, Ruth M. Red Man's America. University of Chicago Press. 1953.

HOPI

Bingham, Janet and Sam. Navajo Farming. Rock Point Community School. 1979.

Castetter, Ed F. and Bell, Willis H. Pima and Papago Indian Agriculture. University of New Mexico Press. 1942.Collier, John. American Indian Ceremonial Dances. Bounty Books, division of Crown Publishers, Inc.

Cour lender, Harold. People of the Short Blue Corn. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. 1970.

Densmore, Frances. Music of Acoma, Is leta, Cochin and Zuni Pueblos. Bulletin of the Bureau of AmericanEthnology, Number 165. Washington: G.P.O., 1957. Acoma Pueblo Chant in Ceremonies section.

James, Harry C. The Hopi Indians. Caxton. 1956.

Kanenea, Juanita. Hopi Cookery. University of Arizona Press. 1980.

Keegan, Marcia. Navajo Pueblo Cookery. Earth Books, division of Morgan and Morgan. 1977.

Keegan, Marcia. Mother Earth Father Sky. Grossman Publishers, New York 1974. Tewa Thant (1) inCermonies section.

Mathews, Washington. Songs of Sequence of the Navajos. Journal of American Folklore, Vol. VII, No. 26.July-Sept. 1894.

O'Kane, Walter Collins. The Hopis. University of Oklahoma Press. 1953.

The Night Chant, A Navajo Ceremony. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. VI.New York. American Museum of Natural History, 1902. Zuni Chant in Ceremonies section.

Spmden, Herbert J. Songs of the Tewa. New York. Exposition of Indian Tribal Arts, 1933. Tewa Chant (2) inCeremonies section.

Thompson, Laura and Joseph, Alice. The Hopi Way. University of Chicago Press, 1944.

Titier, Mescha. Old Oraibi. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, HaroldUniversity, Vol. XXII, No. 1. 1944.

Yava, Albert. Big Falling Snow. Edited and annotated by Harold Courtlander. Crown Publishers, Inc. 1378.

140

PAWNEEDorsey, George A. Pawnee Mythology (Part 2). Carnegie Institution of Washington, publication 59. 1906,

Friends Recipes of Friends, by United Society of Friends, Women of Hominy Friends Church and their friends,Hominy, Oklahoma.

Grinnell, George Bird. Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-Tales. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893.

Hyde, George E. Pawnee Indians. University of Denver Press. 1951.

Weltfish, Gene. Lost Universe. Basic Books, Inc. 1956.

Will, George F. and Hyde, George E. Corn Among the Indians of the Upper Mibsouri. University of NebraskaPress, 1917.

SENECA

Canfield, William. The Legends of the Iroquois. Ira J. Friedman, Inc. 1902

Chafe, Wallace L. Seneca Thanksgiving Rituals. Smithsonian Institute. Bureau of American Ethnology,Bulletin 183. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1961.

Doctor, Peter Memorial Indian Scholarship Foundation, Inc. Iroquois Indian Recipes.

Fenton, William. Parker on the Iroquois. Syracuse University Press. 1968.

Harrington, M.R. Some Seneca Corn Foods and Their Preparation. (reprinted from the AmericanAnthropologists (N.S.) Vol. 10, No. 4, October-December 1908) New Era Printing Co. 1908

Morgan, Lewis. League of the Ho-de'-no-sav-nee, Iroquois. Sage and Brother. 1851.

Parker, Arther C. and Morgan, Lewis H. New York State Archeological Assoc. Chapter. 1926

Parker, Arther C. Seneca Myths and Folk-Tales. Buffalo Historical Society. 1923.

Wallace, Anthony F. C. and Knopf, Alfred A. The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. 1970.

Weinman, Paul. A Bibliography of the Iroquois Literature. New York State Museum and Science Service,Bulletin No. 411. University of New York State. December 1969.

Witthoft, John. Green Corn Ceremonies in the Eastern Woodlands. Occasional Contributions from the MuseumAnthropology of the University of Michigan. University of Michigan Press. 1951.

141

AcknowledgementsSpecial thanks go to several gracious people who acted as resource people during researchon the Hopi, Pawnee and Seneca tribes: Helena Hood(Pawnee),Chuck Larsen (Seneca),Cultural Teacher/Specialist with Tacoma Public Schools; Terry Tafoya(Taos Pueblo),educatorand curriculum developer; and Bennard Dallasi,Hopi),secondary educator, Indian HeritageProgram, Seattle Public Schools. These people assisted in innumerable ways includingreading, making suggestions, and verifying the three short stories. Among these people arethree others from whom we received invaluable assistance and information at all times:Hazel Dean-John(Seneca)Faithkeeper of the Wolf Clan Longhouse; Midge Dean(Seneca),Producer, Writer and Administrator of "The Keeper of the Western Door" video series, andMilo Kalectaca(Hopi),Associate Director of the Center for Indian Education, Bilingual ServiceCenter, Arizona`State University.

Special thanks also goes to John Bierlein, Lynne Givler, and Brandt Morgan, assistingresearchers and developers, and to Ed Aites for typesetting.

I also want to thank Juanita Tiger Kavena, author of Hopi Cookery, for her generosity inletting us use many of her corn recipes, and the Hopi, Pawnee, and Seneca Tribes.

Special thanks to Fred Brave Alone for his encouragement and inspiration.Printed 1981.For further information contact:

Community Educational ServicesUNITED INDIANS OF ALL TRIBES FOUNDATION

P.O. Box 99253Seattle, WA 98199(206) 285-4425

142

If you enjoyed this book you will be interested inthese other books by the Daybreak Star Press.

Suquamish Today

Fisherman on the Puyallup

Sharing our Worlds

The Mamook Book

Indians in Careers

Yesterday's Children (video)

113

HOW TO GET CORN PRODUCTS

To appreciate the delicious, authentic tastes from the recipes,

traditional ingredients should be used whenever possible. Here are

some names of merchants that specialize in these unusual ingredients:

*Peter CasdosBox 852

San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico 87566

*El Molina Mills

3060 West Valley BoulevardAlhambra, California 91803Telephone 213 962-7167

*Fernandez Chile Company8267 Road 10 SouthAlamosa, Colorado 81101Telephone 303 589-6043

*John F. Copes, Inc.P.O. Box 56

Rheems, Pennsylvania 17570Telephone 717 653-8075

*Red Corn's Indian Foods145 East Main

Pawhuska, Oklahoma 74056Telephone 918 287-4242

(Blue Corn flour, dried hominy,chicos, which is a dehydratedsweet corn traditionally roasted)

(Dried corn only)

(Blue corn, blue corn flour, driedcorn, dried hominy, cracked corn)

*These merchants accept mail-order requests.

These three Hopi women raise and sell blue, red, and white corn in driedforms such as flour and meal.

Marian Tewa Ada Fredricks Elsie NahshonhoyaNew Oraibi, Arizona New Oraibi, Arizona Polacca, Arizona

86039 86039 86042

Calvin Lay, a Seneca man, raises and sells Seneca white corn. Hisaddress is: Box 517, Gowanda, New York 14070. He sells 1 quart for $2.00.

The Hopi Culture Center in Oraibi, Arizona, is another possible source ofinformation. The address is: Hopi Culture Center

Second Mesa, Arizona 86043 i A ATelephone 602 734-2401 1.11

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