mb0038-management process & organizational behavior

8/6/2019 MB0038-Management Process & Organizational Behavior

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MB0038 Management Process and Organization BehaviorAssignment Set- 1

Q.1 Write a note on the managerial roles and skills?

Ans.Managerial Roles

To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A

role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg (1973) has identified ten Sub roles

common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups:

interpersonal, informational, and decisional.

According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are as follows:

1. Informational roles

2. Decisional roles

3. Interpersonal roles

1. Informational roles: This involves the role of assimilating and disseminating information

as and when required. Following are the main sub-roles, which managers often perform:

a. Monitor-collecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the

organization.

b. Disseminator-communicating information to organizational members

c. Spokesperson-representing the organization to outsiders

2. Decisional roles: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be subdivided in to the

following:

a. Entrepreneur-initiating new ideas to improve organizational performanceb. Disturbance handlers-taking corrective action to cope with adverse situation

c. Resource allocators-allocating human, physical, and monetary resources


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d. Negotiator - negotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders

3. Interpersonal roles : This role involves activities with people working in the organization.

This is supportive role for informational and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles can be

categorized under three subheadings:

a. Figurehead-Ceremonial and symbolic role

b. Leadership-leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc.

c. Liaison-liasoning with external bodies and public relations activities.

Management Skills

A manager's job is varied and complex. Managers need certain skills to perform the duties

and activities associated with being a manager. What type of skills does a manager need?

Robert L. Katz (1974) found that managers needed three essential management skills

i. Technical

ii. Human

iii. Conceptual

Technical skills: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require

some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.

Vocational and on the job training programs can be used to develop this type of skill.

Human Skill : This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both

individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns.

People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face

difficulty to manage their subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to

recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate others even in adverse

situation, and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and inspiring way.

Conceptual Skill : This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and forward a


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feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the best

available option. A mark of a good leader is to be able to provide consistent motivation to his

team encouraging them to attain excellence and quality in their performance. A good leader isalways looking for ways to improve production and standards. Here are six management

skills you can develop as a leader in working to create a quality effective team.

This is an important aspect that often gets neglected due the demands on a leader's time and

schedule. Observation and regular visits to the work environment are a priority and should be

scheduled into the calendar. Observing employees at work, the procedures, interaction and

work flow is foundational to implementing adjustments to improve results. To have

credibility, a leader needs to be seen and be known to be up to date with what is happening in

the work place.

1. Monitor Employee Performance

Employee performance needs to be monitored in mutually accepted ways. Policies and

procedures need to be clear. Conferencing should be on a regular basis and not just whenthere is a problem. Assessments and evaluations should not be merely all formality or viewed

a necessary paperwork to be done and filed away. Individual and group conferencing should

be undertaken not only to monitor performance, but with the expectation of on going

professional development and support. There should be frequent encouragement and clear

criteria for on going goals both for the group and individual.

2. Implementation of Professional Development Programs

A good leader evaluates weaknesses and provides training and development strategies to

strengthen the weaker skills in the team.

3. Demonstrates Working Knowledge and Expertise

Good leadership comes from a place of strong knowledge and experience of the production

and process leading to results. If a leader does not possess all the expertise and knowledge

personally, then regular consultations with experts involved in the departments should be

held. This is important in order to maintain an accurate and informed overall picture.


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4. Good Decision Making

Good leadership is characterized by the ability to make good decisions. A leader considers

all the different factors before making a decision. Clear firm decisions, combined with the

willingness and flexibility to adapt and adjust decisions when necessary, create confidence

in the leadership.

5. Ability to Conduct and Evaluate Research

Ongoing review and research is vital in order to keep on the cutting edge in business. While

managing the present to ensure ongoing excellence in product and performance, a good

leader is also able to look towards the future. Conducting and evaluating research is an

important way of planning and being prepared for the future.

Excellent leadership is always pro active rather than reactive. By developing these six

managerial skills builds a solid foundation for success.

Q.2 Discuss the methods of shaping behavior in detail.

Ans.Shaping Behavior

When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals behaviour by directing theirlearning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping

Behavior. They are as follows:

1. Positive reinforcement This is the process of getting something pleasant as a

consequence of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a

commission, if he/she achieves sales target.

For example,


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i) Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year are an example of positive

reinforcement.ii) Employees will work hard for a raise or a promotion.

iii) Salesmen will increase their efforts to get rewards and bonuses.

iv) Students will study to get good grades, and

v) In these examples, the rises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, are

positive reinforces.

2. Negative reinforcement This is the process of having a reward taken away as a

consequence of a undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student

who has not done well on the examination. Just as people engage in behaviors in order to get

positive reinforces, they also engage in behaviors to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions.

Terminating an unpleasant stimulus in order to strengthen or increase the probability of a

response is called negative reinforcement.

3. Punishment- This causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an

undesirable behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a

behavior. According to B. F. Skinner, punishment is still the most common technique of

behavior control in todays life. When a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not

behave as the society or law wants him to do, he is punished by arrest and jail.

Example: Loss of pay for coming late to office. Punishment can be accomplished either by

adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus. The added unpleasant

stimulus might take the form of criticism, a scolding, a disapproving look, a fine, or a prison

sentence. The removal of a pleasant stimulus might consist of withholding affection and

attention, suspending a drivers license, or taking away a privilege such as watching

television.

Accordingly, in situations where punishment is desirable as a means of behaviormodification, certain guidelines would make it more effective thus minimizing its

dysfunctional consequences.


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a) Praise in public; punish in private.

b) Apply punishment before the undesirable behavior has been strongly reinforced.Thus, the punishment should immediately follow the undesirable behavior.

c) The punishment should focus on the behavior and not on the person.

4. Extinction An alternative to punishing undesirable behavior is extension the attempt to

weaken behavior by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is

equivalent to ignoring the behavior. The rationale for using extinction is that a behavior not

followed by any consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed

for it to be effective.

This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behavior, especially when such

behaviors were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed from

behaviors that were previously reinforced, then such behaviors would become less frequent

and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous anddisturbs the class, he is probably asking for attention. If .the attention is given to him, he will

continue to exhibit that behavior.

Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and

increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and

tend to decrease its subsequent frequency

Q.3 Explain the classification of personality types given by Myers -Briggs.

Ans. There are a lot of different ways of thinking about and looking at personality types. The

goal of defining personality types is to be able to efficiently describe patterns that every

person falls into that make that person similar to some people but different from most people.

Personality classifications are based on measuring different variables that the authors believe

are important ways in which different people are different from each other.


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Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, first published their "Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)" in 1962. They based it on four different variables that they

felt help distinguish different kinds of people, and that can vary independently from eachother. These were based on ideas originally presented by the psychiatrist Carl Jung. Each

variable is described as a choice between two opposite traits (also known as a dichotomy):

Attitude: Extrovert or Introvert? [Is the person more outgoing or more reserved?]

Function: Sensing or Intuitive? [Does the person make judgments more based on experience

of the world or more based on intuition?]

Function: Thinking or Feeling? [Does the person use rational thinking or emotional feelings

most to make decisions?]

Lifestyle: Judgment or Perception? [Does the person tend to make decisions about whether

things are good or bad, or does the person have more of a "live-and-let-live" attitude?]

Each one of these variables on the MBTI yields an answer on one side or the other. Becausethere are four variables each with two possible values, the total number of possible

personality types on the MBTI is 2x2x2x2, or 16.

The MBTI, which is self-administered, asks several questions of individual, each of which is

designed to shed light on one of these four dichotomies. At the end, the responses determine

whether you fall on one side or the other of each of the four dichotomies. The result is that

every person who takes the MBTI is given one of the 16 personality types, usuallyrepresented by letters from the variables, e.g. ENTP, ISFJ, ESTJ, ISTJ.

The theory is that these four domains combine to create different types of people, and that

each of the 16 categories is different from the others. Someone who is "ENTP" would be

described as a person who is outgoing, relies on intuition and uses rational thought, but is not

quick to judgment. The theory goes on to make conjectures about what this kind of person is

likely to be good at, what that person's vulnerabilities are more likely to be, and what other personality types the person is more or less likely to get along with.


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Because of these interpretations, many like to use this quick assessment to make people to

think about themselves and how they relate to the world, frequently when a group of people

is about to work closely together or spend time together, like in a company or on acommittee. Some psychotherapists also use the MBTI to help clients understand themselves

better and think more objectively about why and how things are difficult or what might be a

pitfall in the future.

There are many common criticisms of this assessment. Common ones include:

1. It forces people's description into categories, and doesn't allow for people to be, forexample, halfway between any of the dichotomies. Therefore, people who score

weakly toward one side or the other of one of the personality variables are given the

same personality interpretation as people who strongly manifest that trait.

2. There is not much scientific evidence that these four traits vary independently of each

other; it may be that being strongly on one side of any one of these affects how you

score on the others.

3. The assessment asks people about how they think about themselves, which may or may

not accurately reflect how they actually are.

Q.4 What are the factors influencing perception?

Ans. Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both therecognition of environmental stimuli and action in response to these stimuli. Through the

perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment

that are critical to our survival.

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception These factors can

reside:

i) In the perceiver

ii) In the Object or target being perceived or


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iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affectperception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she

stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the

individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception

are:

a) Attitudes: The perceivers attitudes affect perception. For example, Mr. X is

interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a positionthat requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. X may

feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This

attitude with doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We

think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition,

we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better thaninformation that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we

form more positive impressions of other. When in a negative mood, we tend to

evaluate others unfavorably.

c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong

influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who

is insecure perceives a sub ordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to hisor her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that

others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.

d) Self - Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-

concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes

in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out

negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have moreaccurate perceptions of others.


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e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because

our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can

differ from what other perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just beenreprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues

coming late tomorrow than he did last week.

f) Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also

affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as

height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Cognitive complexity allows a person

to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just afew traits.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see

what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S

Zalking and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver

reveal

i. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

ii. One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in other.

iii. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favorable aspects

of other people.

iv. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives other than heenvironmental situation.

2. Characteristics of the Target: Characteristics in the target that is being observed can

affect what is perceived. Physical appearance pals a big role in our perception of others.

Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group

than ordinary looking individuals. Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target

shape the way we see it. Verbal Communication from targets also affects our perception

of them. Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target.


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The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all

in a attempt to form an impression of the target.

3. Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the

perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the

target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations

provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In this situation, we assume that + i.e

individual's behaviours can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect

the individual's disposition.

Q.5 Mr. Solanki is the VP- HR of a leading Financial services company. He is having a

meeting with Ms. Ramani leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned about

creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst

employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant. What suggestions you

will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job satisfaction.

Ans. Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of one'srelationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they

work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc.. Numerous research results show that there are

many factors affecting the job satisfaction. There are particular demographic traits (age,

education level, tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours worked per week)

of employees that significantly affect their job satisfaction.

Satisfying factors motivate workers while dissatisfying ones prevent. Motivating factors are

achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors relatedto the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the working environment

result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy him.

Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with the

maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting,

etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (good relations with the

environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-

confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of self-


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actualization (maximization of the latent[potential] power and capacity, development of

abilities, etc.)

Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack ofcommunications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has been

asserted that participating in the management, having the decision making power,

independence on the job and the unit where the individual works, have positive impact upon

the job satisfaction. The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at

work result in satisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and

colleagues result in dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents,

creativity, responsibility, recognition have influence on the job satisfaction.

Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different

countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied. Kose has also found a meaningful

relation between the age and job satisfaction.

There is a strong connection between feeling secure and saying one is satisfied with a job.

People who state their job is secure have a much larger probability of reporting themselves

happy with their work.Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction.

Besides, Wahba has found out that male librarians give more importance to personal

development and free decision making in their jobs than the female librarians, and the female

librarians are more dissatisfied than the male librarians.

Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have great

impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performance are

economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones.

However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the conditions

surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually result only in short-term

improvements in attitudes and productivity, and the situation often returns quickly to normal.

There is no strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased job

satisfaction produces improve job performance -- in fact, improved job satisfaction can

sometimes decrease job performance. For example, you could let workers sometime sit

around all day and do nothing. That may make them more satisfied with their "work" in the

short run, but their performance certainly doesn't improve. The individual's willingness to get


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a result, his/her endeavor and expectation of maintaining the result will push him/her to show

the highest performance.

Job satisfaction varies a lot. (Researches suggests, the higher the prestige of the job, thegreater the job satisfaction). But, many workers are satisfied in even the least prestigious

jobs. They simply like what they do. Most workers like their work if they have little

supervision. The least satisfied workers are those in service occupations and managers that

work for others. Ethnic and religious orientation is associated to work attitudes, and job

satisfaction is related to education. The difference between the results that the individual

desire and those s/he maintained will affect his/her satisfaction. There is a consistent

relationship between the professional status and the job satisfaction. High levels of job

satisfaction are observed in those professions which are deemed of good standing in the

society.

The workers usually compare their working conditions with the conditions of the society,

under the variable of social conditions. If the social conditions are worse than the individual's

working conditions, then this will result in satisfaction of the individual, as the workers deem

themselves relatively in good position.No meaningful relationship between the job satisfaction and age, professional experience,

education level, level of wage, sex and professional group was found. On the contrary,

professional experience has been claimed to increase job satisfaction.

Q.6 Given below is the HR policy glimpse of the VARK-LEARNING a learning and

training solutions company

1. It offers cash rewards for staff members2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people

they know may be their friends, ex. Colleagues batch mates, relatives.

3. What all needs do it takes care off according to maslows need hierarchy

4. It recognizes good performances and give fancy titles and jackets to the people who

perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company.

What all aspects does it takes care of according to the Maslows Need Hierarchy?

Ans. Maslow is a humanistic psychologist. Humanists do not believe that human beings are

pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements

(behaviorism) or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists


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focus upon potentials. They believe that humans strive for an upper level of

capabilities. Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest reaches of

consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled "fully functioning person","healthy personality", or as Maslow calls this level, "self-actualizing person." Maslow

has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctual,

equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is

then fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow

straight and beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment

is not "right" (and mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful.

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher

levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation andpurely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel the

second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the

second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

Physiological Needs

These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a

relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a

person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the

person's search for satisfaction.

Safety Needs

When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and

behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness oftheir security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the

social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of

insecurity and the need to be safe.

Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness

When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class

of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people

seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and

receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging.


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Needs for Esteem

When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become

dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets

from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect,

and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident

and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels

inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.

Needs for Self-Actualization

When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-

actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be

and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music, an

artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt in signs of

restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short, restless. If a

person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self- esteem, it is very easy

to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what a person wants

when there is a need for self-actualization. The hierarchic theory is often represented

as a pyramid, with the larger, lower levels representing the lower needs, and the

upper point representing the need for self-actualization. Maslow believes that the only

reason that people would not move well in direction of self-actualization is because of

hindrances placed in their way by society. He states that education is one of these

hindrances. He recommends ways education can switch from its usual person-

stunting tactics to person-growing approaches. Maslow states that educators shouldrespond to the potential an individual has for growing into a self-actualizing person

of his/her own kind. Ten points that educators should address are listed:

Questioning performance, Reviewing/clarify objective, Changing/confirming roles, Opening

risky issues, Assertiveness, Listening, Testing new ground, Identifying strengths and

weaknesses. Performing: Groups reach a conclusion and implement the solution to their

issue. Indicators include:

Creativity, Initiative, Flexibility, Open relationships, Pride, Concern for people, Learning,Confidence, High morale, Success, etc.


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Adjourning: As the group project ends, the group disbands in the adjournment phase. This

phase was added when Tuckman and Jensen's updated their original review of the literature

in 1977. Each of the four stages in the Forming-storming-norming-performing-adjourningmodel proposed by Tuckman involves two aspects: interpersonal relationships and task

behaviors. Such a distinction is similar to Bales' (1950) equilibrium model which states that a

group continuously divides its attention between instrumental (task-related) needs and

expressive


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MB0038 Management Process and Organization BehaviorAssignment Set- 2

Q.1 Write a note on classical era for evolution of Organization behaviour.

Answer: The Classical Era We see this trend to continue in what is called as the classical era which

covers the period between 1900 to mid 1930s. the first general theories of management began to evolve

and the main contributors during this era were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol , Max Weber, Mary parker

Follet and Chester Barnard. Frederick Taylors main emphasis was on finding one best way of doing each

job. He stressed on selecting the right people for the job, train them to do it precisely in one best way. He

favoured wage plans to motivate the workers. His scientific principles of management stressed thefollowing principles:

1. Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager; managers should

do all the thinking relating to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of

implementation.

2. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; assign the workers task

accordingly, specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done.

3. Select the best person to perform the job thus designed.

4. Train the worker to do the work efficiently.

5. Monitor worker performances to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and thatappropriate results are achieved. Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze human

behavior at work. He insisted the use of time-and-motion study as a means of standardizing work

activities. His scientific approach called for detailed observation and measurement of even the most

routine work, to find the optimum mode of performance. The results were dramatic, with productivity

increasing significantly. With passing time, new organizational functions like personnel and quality

control were created. Of course, in breaking down each task to its smallest unit to find what Taylor called

the one best way to do each job, the effect was to remove human variability. Hence he lay the ground

for the mass production techniques that dominated management thinking in the first half of the twentiethcentury. Henri Fayol, a mining engineer and manager by profession, defined the nature and working

patterns of the twentieth-century organization in his book, General and Industrial Management, published

in 1916. In it, he laid down what he called 14 principles of management. This theory is also called the

Administrative Theory. The principles of the theory are: 1. Division of work: tasks should be divided up

with employees specializing in a limited set of tasks so that expertise is developed and productivity

increased.

2. Authority and responsibility: authority is the right to give orders and entails enforcing them with

rewards and penalties; authority should be matched with corresponding responsibility.3. Discipline: this is essential for the smooth running of business and is dependent on good leadership,

clear and fair arguments, and the judicious application of penalties.
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4. Unity of command: for any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one superior

only; otherwise authority, discipline, order, and stability are threatened.

5. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single objective should be co-coordinated by

a single plan under one head.6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: individual or group goals must not be allowed

to override those of the business.

7. Remuneration of personnel: this may be achieved by various methods but it should be fair, encourage

effort, and not lead to overpayment.

8. Centralization: the extent to which orders should be issued only from the top of the organization is a

problem which should take into account its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the

personnel.

9. Scalar chain (line of authority): communications should normally flow up and down the line ofauthority running from the top to the bottom of the organization, but sideways communication between

those of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as superiors are kept informed.

10. Order: both materials and personnel must always be in their proper place; people must be suited to

their posts so there must be careful organization of work and selection of personnel.

11. Equity: personnel must be treated with kindness and justice.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel: rapid turnover of personnel should be avoided because of the time

required for the development of expertise.

13. Initiative: all employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative within limits imposed by therequirements of authority and discipline.

14. Esprit de corps: efforts must be made to promote harmony within the organization and prevent

dissension and divisiveness. The management functions, that Fayol stated, consisted of planning,

organizing, commanding, co-coordinating and controlling. Many practicing managers, even today, list

these functions as the core of their activities. Fayol was also one of the first people to characterize a

commercial organization s activities into its basic components.

Q.2 . What is groupthink. Explain.

Answer.Groupthink occurs when the pressure to conform within a group interferes with that group's

analysis of a problem and causes poor group decision making. Individual creativity, uniqueness, and

independent thinking are lost in the pursuit of group cohesiveness, as are the advantages that can

sometimes be obtained by making a decision as a groupbringing different sources of ideas,

knowledge, and experience together to solve a problem. Psychologist Irving Janis defines groupthink

as: "a mode of thinking people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, whenthe members' striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative

courses of action. Groupthink refers to a deteriorationof mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral
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judgment that results from in-group pressures." It can also refer to the tendency of groups to agree

with powerful, intimidating bosses. The concept of groupthink provides a summary explanation of

reasons groups sometimes make poor decisions. Indeed, groups are supposed to be better thanindividuals at making complex decisions, because, through the membership, a variety of differing

perspectives are brought to bear. Group members not only serve to bring new ideas into the discussion

but also act as error-correcting mechanisms. Groups also provide social support, which is especially

critical for new ideas. But when new perspectives are rejected (as in the "not invented here"

syndrome), it is hard to correct errors. And if the social support is geared toward supporting the

group's "accepted wisdom," the elements that can make groups better decision makers than

individuals become inverted, and instead make them worse. Just as groups can work to promote

effective thinking/decision making, the same processes which enhance the group's operation can

backfire and lead to disastrous results. How Groupthink Works Janis identified seven points on how

groupthink works. First, the group's discussions are limited to a few alternative courses of action

(often only two), without a survey of the full range of alternatives. Second, the group does not survey

the objectives to be fulfilled and the values implicated by the choice. Third, the group fails to

reexamine the course of action initially preferred by the majority of members from the standpoint of

the nonobvious risks and drawbacks that had not been considered when it was originally evaluated.

Fourth, the members neglect courses of action initially evaluated as unsatisfactorythey spend little

or no time discussing whether they have overlooked nonobvious gain. Fifth, the members make little

or no attempt to obtain information from experts who can supply sound estimates of gains and losses

to be expected from alternative courses of action. Sixth, selective bias is shown in the way the group

reacts to factual information and relevant judgments from experts. Seventh, the members spend little

time deliberating about how the chosen policy might be hindered by bureaucratic inertia or sabotaged

by political opponents; consequently, they fail to work out contingency plans. Three general problems

seem to be at work: overestimation of group power and morality, closed mindedness, and pressurestoward uniformity. Group-think occurs when a group feels too good about itself. The group feels both

invulnerable andoptimistic. The group feels morally right. Linked to this attitude of perfection is a

correlative close mindedness. Warnings are ignored. Messengers of difference are dismissed.

Negative, stereotypical views of opponents are created and used. Finally, there is pressure for

uniformity. A certain amount of self-censorship occurs. If individuals have questions, they keep them

to themselves. This lack of dissent results in what Janis calls an "illusion of unanimity." If any

difference does occur, group pressure is applied to bring the dissident into line. Janis also mentions"the emergence of self-appointed mindguardsmembers who protect the group from adverse

information that might shatter their shared complacency." If these precipitating problems support
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tendencies to groupthink, there arepredisposing conditions as well. Janis suggests four conditions that

predispose a group to groupthink: cohesiveness, group isolation/ insulation, leader intimidation, and

an absence of decision-making procedures. As a group "hangs together" and members grow to like

each other, there will be greater pressure not to introduce disturbing information and opinions that

might tear at that cohesiveness. Maintaining the good feelings that come from such cohesion become

part of the group's "hidden agenda." The insulation of the policy-making group is another factor.

Frequently groupthinking groups are removed from interaction with others, perhaps because of their

position within the organization. Lack of impartial leadership is a third contributing cause. When

powerful leaders want to "get their way" they can overtly and covertly pressure the group into

agreement. Finally, the lack of a template or protocol for decision making, or what Janis calls "norms

requiring methodological procedures for dealing with decision making tasks," can also contribute to

groupthink. How to Avoid Groupthink There are several things businesspeople can do to avoid

groupthink: follow good meeting procedures, including the development of an agenda; aim for proper

and balanced staff work; present competing views; and attend to correlative meeting problems, like

exhaustion. A template for discussion might also be useful. One suggestion is to use an "options

memotechnique" in which information is presented as a problem statement, a list of options, and a

preliminary recommendation. The group then looks at the preliminary recommendation with at least

four questions in mind: 1) is the logic correct? (in selecting the preliminary recommendation from

among the options); 2) is the judgment correct? (the logic may be fine, but the judgment may be

poor); 3) are there any problems or errors remaining in the preliminary recommendation?; and 4) can

the preliminary recommendation be improved? In order to prevent group isolation, it may be helpful

to bring in new participants on a regular basis, use outside experts, and invite the group to meet off-

site so that changes in settings and surroundings are astimulant. To avoid groupthink, it is vital for the

group leader to become a statesperson or conductor instead of a partisan virtuoso. Leadership almost

always involves getting work done through others. High-quality decisions are not made throughintimidation, whether intentional orunintentional. Some bosses have no idea why people do not speak

up, while the reason they do not is because they are likely to be attacked. Bosses encourage the best

performance from groups when they can alert them to the kind of review that is expected. If the leader

can be clear, and temperate, there is a great likelihood that norms of disagreement will develop.

Finally, there is the cohesion process itself. Decision making tears at the fabric of group cohesion, and

it is the desire to preserve cohesion that is an underlying dynamic of groupthink. But if decisions

lower group cohesion it is not necessary to avoid decisions; an alternative is to rebuild cohesion eachtime. One way to accomplish this rebuilding is to complete decision making by about 65 percent of

the way through the meeting, then move on tobrainstorming for the last 20-30 percent of the meeting.
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People who have differed before have a chance to continue to interact, now around less threatening,

future-oriented items. This meeting technique allows for decompression, and for rebonding of the

group. Because of the flaws of individual decision makingselective perception, excessive self-

interest, limited knowledge, limited timemost important decisions today are made in groups. And

groups can do a spectacular job; but they often do not. Meetings, the place where groups do their

decision-making work, have a bad reputation these days, largely because of processes such as

groupthink. Groupthink is the result of flawed procedures, poor leadership, insulation, and an

unmanaged desire for the maintenance of group cohesion and its good feelings. These factors can be

addressed positively, and group decision making improved, while groupthink is kept to a minimum.

Q.3 Explain the process of Negotiation?

Answer. Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon

courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy

various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in

business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in

personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is

called negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators,

leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles,

such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained

negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation

where a disinterested third party listens to each sides' arguments and attempts to help craft an

agreement between the parties. It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both

sides make an argument as to the merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for

both parties. There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a greater understanding of

the essential parts. One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process, behavior and

substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties

to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these

play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between them

and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the

issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the

end. Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process and tools, and tactics.

Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the final outcome.Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in both preparing for

and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and
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responses to others' statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that

these have become integral to modern day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted. Skilled

negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from negotiation hypnosis, to a straight forward

presentation of demands or setting of preconditions to more deceptive approaches such as cherry

picking. Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying the outcome of negotiations.

Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy tactic is when one negotiator acts

as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being considerate

and understanding. The good guy blames the bad guy for all the difficulties while trying to get

concessions and agreement from the opponent This is a unique combination framework that puts

together the best of many other approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex,

higher-value and slower negotiations.

Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them. Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.Argue: Support

your case. Expose theirs. Explore: Seek understanding and possibility. Signal: Indicate your readiness

to work together. Package:Assemble potential trades. Close: Reach final agreement. Sustain: Make

sure what is agreed happens. There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is

designed to break down important activities during negotiation, particularly towards the end. It is an

easy trap to try to jump to the end with a solution that is inadequate and unacceptable. Note also thatin practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may be loops back to previous stages,

stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out of order. The bottom line is to use what

works. This process is intended to help you negotiate, but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is

not a substitute for thinking. If something does not seem to be working, try to figure out why and

either fix the problem or try something else. Although there are commonalities across negotiations,

each one is different and the greatest skill is to be able to read the situation in the moment and adapt

as appropriate.

Q.4 The environmental stressors have a great impact on work performance and

adjustment of the individual in an organization. Discuss the different categories of

environmental stressors.

Answer.It must be noted that stress factors are subjective and what one person may find

stressful, others may not necessarily experience as negatively. The way in which we

experience and react tostress is described as an emotional condition which triggers physical,psychological and emotional responses from the individual.Formally, a stressor is defined as

an event or context that elevates adrenaline and triggers the stress response which results in


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the body being thrown out of balance as it is forced to respond.Examples of Stress Triggers

Environmental stressors (elevated sound levels, over-illumination, overcrowding) Daily

stress events (e.g. traffic, lost keys)

Life changes (e.g. divorce, bereavement)

W orkplace stressors (e.g. role strain, lack of control)Stressors usually fall into one of four

categories:

Internal stressors - these we carry around inside of us. They are self owned stressors. These

stressors may range from the posture we adapt, to addictions and assessment of life/personal

satisfaction or simply not getting enough sleep.

External stressors - these are the stressors in the environments in which we operate and will

rangefrom parental pressure, to work pressure, to role pressure, to household pressure, traffic,

crime etc.

Hidden stressors - these are factors which cause stress but where the underlying cause is

difficult to identify. It often results in conflicting feelings and a sense of an inappropriate

reaction or responseto a situation. For example underdeveloped emotional intelligence where

self-awareness is notapparent.

Obvious stressors - there are also those situations which obviously do or are intended to

bringabout stress. For example a work deadline would be an imposed obvious stressor where

as thedeath of a loved one would be un-imposed but an obvious one.Types of Environmental

StressorsNoiseResearch has demonstrated that high levels of background noise can severely

impair ones ability to concentrate. It has been shown that excessive, intermittent orunpredictable noise can cause tensionand headaches as well as raise people's blood pressure.

It can impact concentration and reduce the ability to perform complex tasks. It can also

undermine teamwork, as people in a noisy environmenttend to become more irritable and less

willing to help one another.Solutions to noise at work can involve:

Arranging to work from a home office.

Installing partitions or physical barriers to reduce or deaden sound.


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Scheduling work tasks so that those requiring the most focus can be completed when the

environment is more peaceful.

Using meeting rooms separate from the main source of noise.

If all else fails, using earplugs!LightingPoor lighting, such as insufficient light, light that is

too bright or light that shines directly into ones eyes can cause eye strain and increase

fatigue. In addition to lighting conditions, the quality of light is also important. Most people

are happiest in bright daylight. Daylight which measures 10,000 lux (equivalent to a bright

sunny day) is known to trigger a release of chemicals in the body that brings about a sense of

psychological well-being. Unfortunately, most types of artificial light do not seem tohave thesame effect on mood. You will probably find that improving the quality of light will also

improve the quality of your working environment. Solutions to poor light conditions at work

mayinclude:

Arranging work spaces to be near a window.

W henever possible, allowing natural light to shine through open doors and windows.

Trimming bushes that are in front of windows, painting walls with lighter colours, checking

into thepossibility of installing skylights.

Installing brighter light bulbs in work areas or using full-spectrum bulbs in desk lamps.Poor

AirQuality Research has shown that poor air quality at work can trigger headaches and

tiredness, as well asimpair one is ability to concentrate. A variety of factors can contribute to

the problem of poor airquality, including a high concentration of pollutants in the air, poor air

circulation or inadequateventilation.Other sources of poor air quality include smoking, heatingand air conditioning systems, ionization by electrical equipment, overcrowding (too many

people in a small space), pollution, solvents or other chemicals from carpets, furniture or

paint, and excess humidity or dryness.Solutions to poor air quality at work may involve:

Opening windows.

Banning smoking indoors.

Using dehumidifiers when humidity is a problem or humidifiers if it is too dry.

Introducing plants not only do plants raise the amount of oxygen in the air and reducestuffiness, they also help to absorb pollutants in the air; evaporation of water from plant pots or

the plants themselves will help to raise humidity when the air is too dry.


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Keeping yourself hydrated by drinking water. Clutter and Disorganization

Another source of environmental stress can be a work environment that is dirty, messy, or

uncomfortable. The distraction of working in an area that is disorganized, untidy and chaotic

can make it more difficult to achieve your goals. Solutions to disorganization can involve: Contracting with janitorial services to ensure the workplace is kept clean.

Developing systems for organizing product, information, and equipment.

Implementing on- or off-site storage systems.

Storing or discarding unnecessary furniture, equipment and office products.

Furniture and Ergonomics

Poorly designed furniture, or the improper use of quality furniture, generally contributes to a

variety of aches and pains. The most common of these is backache. Prolonged ergonomic

problems can produce serious injuries. Taking the time to arrange ones working environmentis key to working comfortably and avoiding injury.

Solutions to ergonomic concerns at work may involve:

Ensuring that office chairs are properly adjusted to reduce the risk of injury to the body.

Arranging computer work stations so that correct postures are used when working with the

monitor, keyboard, mouse, and documents.

Organizing work materials and accessories to improve efficiency and reduce the distance and

frequency of reaches.

Organizing your workday to include tasks, breaks and exercises that allow you to vary yourposture, rest your muscles and prevent muscle tension or soreness.

Consulting with a professional who can give you expert advice, as often the ideal solution

may not be immediately obvious. Stress and performance For the most part, people view stress

as a negative factor. Stress however is only negative when it is

excessive, unmanaged and results in adverse symptoms and experiences. Some of the negative

consequences include:

Feeling anxious, irritable, or depressed

Apathy, loss of interest in work or other activities

Problems sleeping

Fatigue,

Trouble concentrating Muscle tension or headaches

Stomach problems

Social withdrawal

Loss of sex drive

Using alcohol or drugs to cope

It is clear that with these symptoms the individual's performance at work, home and in social

settings will be adversely affected. Negative stress also seems to have a self-building facetwhere once stressed, additional factors just keep contributing to the stress and increase the

stress levels while decreasing performance and functioning.


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Q.5 Given below are certain instances observed by the summer trainee Ritu,

whi le making an obse rvati onal study at G l o b a l G r e e n c o n s u l t a n t s . Anorganization dealing with recycling of plastic products waste etc. She makes the

following observation about two key people in the organization.

1 . Mr. Patnayak He is a very fr iendly person and encourages his team members by giving those recommendations and appreciations. This helps HR to

decide about giving a bonus or promotion to employees.

2. Mr. Dutta - He is an aggressive person. He frequently loses his temper. Ritu

observes that he frequently punishes the non-performers and also give them

warnings regarding suspension etc. Now ex plain what base of power does Mr.Patnayak and Mr. Dutta belongs to.E x plain the type of power

they use often

ANS:

Ten Types of Power

1. Position. Some measure of power is conferred on the basis of ones formal position in an

organization. For example, a marketing manager can influence the decisions that affect the

marketing department. However, the marketing manager has little power to influence thedecisions that affect the finance department.

2. Knowledge or expertise. People who have knowledge or expertise can wield tremendous

power. Of course, knowledge in itself is not powerful. It is the use of knowledge and expertise

that confers power. Thus, you could be an incredibly bright person and still be powerless.

3. Character or ethics. The more trustworthy individuals are, the more power they have in

negotiations. The big issue here is whether they do what they say they are going to doeven

when they no longer feel like doing it.

4. Rewards. People who are able to bestow rewards or perceived rewards hold power.

Supervisors, with their ability to give raises, hold power over employees. Money can have

power. But money, like anything else, holds very little power if it is not distributed.

5. Punishment. Those who have the ability to create a negative outcome for a counterpart have

the power of punishment. Managers who have the authority to reprimand and fire employees

hold this type of power. State troopers and highway patrol officers who have the ability to give

out speeding tickets also have this power.

6. Gender. Dealing with someone of the opposite sex can confer power. We have videotaped

many negotiation case studies in which the turning point came when a woman casually

touched a mans hand or arm to make her point.7. Powerlessness. In some instances, giving up all power can be very powerful. If a kidnapper

threatens a hostage with death enough times, the hostage may just challenge the kidnapper to


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go ahead and kill him. At the point that the hostage gives up power, or control over his own

death, the kidnapper actually loses power.

8. Charisma or personal power. When we ask participants in our seminars for examples of

leaders who have had charisma or personal power, invariably the names of Mother Teresa,

John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan come up. When we ask, What do all three of these

leaders have in common? participants usually respond, Passion and confidence in what they

believe in.

9. Lack of interest or desire. In negotiations, as in many other areas of life, the side with the

least interest in what is being negotiated holds the most power. If you are buying a house and

you really do not care if you purchase the house you are currently negotiating for or the one

down the street, you will most likely hold more power in the negotiationunless, of course, the

sellers could care less if they sell the house today or live in it for another ten years!

10. Craziness. This may sound funny, but bizarre or irrational behavior can confer a

tremendous amount of power. Every organization has someone who blows up or behaves

irrationally when confronted with problems. Those who have been exposed to this type of

behavior tend to avoid such individuals. As a result, these individuals are not given many tasks

to accomplish because others are afraid to ask them.

Leadership style influence level of motivation. However, throughout a lifetime, mans

motivation is influenced by changing ambitions and/or leadership style he works under orsocializes with. Command-and-control leadership drains off ambition while worker

responsibility increases ambition. Leadership Style versus Motivation Leadership Style

Motivation Type Motivation is Based on: Personality Type Efficiency Limited supervision

Worker with decision making responsibility Self motivated Creativity Leader of ideas or

people. Independent Achiever Thrives on change High Team motivated Mixed styles Goal

motivated Opportunity Personality type and efficiency depends on leader's skill and/or the

work environment he's created. Reward motivated Materialism Recognition motivated Social

status High level of supervision Command-and-control Peer motivated To be like others Statusquo Dependency Resist change Low Authority motivated Follows policy Threat, fear

motivated Reacts to force

Self-motivated or visionaries will not accept authority controlled environments. They will

find a way to escape if trapped.

In a team-motivated environment, dependency types will become inspired and strive to be

acceptable with independent thinking coworkers.

Associates influence the level of individual motivation. Reaction to Change Command-and-

control leadership is the primary style in our society. It is accepted because efficiency iscreated by repetitive action, teaching people to resist change. Once acquiring a skill, they do

not want to learn another. The worker adapts to level three with an occasional trip to level two

Worker responsibility is just the opposite, it motivates people to thrive on change by seeking


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challenges, finding ways to achieve goals. Level one is the leader of changing technology,

finding ways to create efficiency. Reaction to Efficiency The efficiency of advancing

technology is forcing change. It is up to the individual or business to decide which side of

change they want to be on, the leading edge or trailing edge. The leading edge is excitingwhile the trailing edge is a drag. Playing catch-up drains motivation while leaders of change

inspire motivation. With todays changing technology, an individual must be willing to

abandoned old skills and learn new ones. The ability to adapt is achieved through self-

development programs. Because level one thrives on change, they adapt to whatever methods

gets things done with the least amount of effort. This brings us to work habits.

In level one, management and front line workers, together, are searching for ways to solve and

prevent problems. Decisions are made on the front line where alternative methods are

analyzed. Being able to prevent problems is a motivating force. In level three managementmakes all decision, as a result, management must find ways to solve all problems and find

alternative methods. Front line employees may be aware conflicts, but they dont have the

authority to take action and have learned not to be concerned. Supervisors are only concerned

with elements that management thinks

are important. Under command-and-control leadership, management considers the opinions or

concerns of people on the front line to be trivial. As a result, management takes action only

when problems become too big to ignore. If workers have conflicts with their supervisors, they

will find ways to increase the magnitude of problems, creating a combative environment. Adownward spiral of management implementing more control and workers resisting control

develop. Under worker responsibility,

management and workers unite to prevent or solve problems.

Team Motivated

Elementary problems are prevented or solved at the source. Getting the job done is the primary

goal of management and workers. Dependency of Authority Elementary are dealt with by

management when large enough to be recognized. Abused Workers

Lack of leadership skills and the desire for power creates elementary problems. Managersfocus on worker control. Getting the job done is down the list. Workers goal is to find ways to

do little as possible. Command and Control Leadership - Problems are always out of control.

Reaction to Learning Habits In level two, young workers are establishing work habits,

developing attitudes and learning a professional skill. Out of training and on the job,

motivation level will depend on the leadership style they work under. Under command-and-

control leadership, ambitions will be associated with

maintaining the status quo. Under worker responsibility, ambitions will be associated with

opportunity. They will continually expand their skills as the need or as opportunity arises.Reaction to Goals Self-motivated people are goal motivated. Once they conquer one goal, they

establish another. Every goal is a learning process that requires all the elements in level one.


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Companies that attract and keep this type of person stay on the leading edge of technology.

The CEO is a visionary in customer service and employee leadership. The employees' goals

are the same as the CEOs.

If the CEO desires control, then he will lead in such a way that trains subordinates to lead bycontrol. As a result, the employees' goals are quitting time and payday.

Reaction to Recognition

Recognition is important; it builds positive self-esteem. By itself, its benefits are short lived.

Long-term benefits are achieved when the employee feels the job could not have been done

without them. This means they were faced with a challenge, which means, they had the

responsibility and authority to take action. This environment is found in level one. Self-

motivated projects' is the ability to start and finish what one has started. Most people, working

alone, do not finish what they start. The ability to finish challenging projects is the secret tobeing a winner. First requirement is interest, then asking questions which inspires' the learning

process. W ith information, a challenge is

Presented and a goal set. W hen action is taken, the barriers of persistence, risk, fear and

failure become a challenge by itself. Self-motivated projects are difficult because no one cares

if they succeed, which is another barrier. This is why most people quit before they get a good

start. People, who find ways to overcome barriers and hang in there, are the winners. They

develop skills and confidence, which are required steps to larger projects.

Team Motivated Projects

Everyone can be inspired to achievement in a team-motivated environment. With a common

goal, team members support each other until success is achieved. In this environment, others

do care and team members are needed for achieving the goal. For this reason, team motivation

is extremely powerful. The exchange of ideas, information and testing the results, adds to the

motivating force. As a result, each member seeks to be a leader of quality input.

Q.6 Fashion4Now is a famous and old magazine. The top management decides to

start the e- edition of the magazine. They also decide the redefine the policies andculture of window to truth To start implementing, this change, they frequently

call meetings of employees. They have also formed groups at different levels to

clarify doubts and ex plain the perspective of change. Analyze the situation in the

context of organizat ional change and elaborate why the top management is

fo llowing the d iscussed pract ices and what approach is most evident in the

context.

Answer: Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide

change, as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc.Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission, restructuring

operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), new technologies,


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mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such as Total Quality

Management, re-engineering, etc. Some experts refer to organizational transformation. Often

this term designates a fundamental and radical

reorientation in the way the organization operates. The levels of organizational changePerhaps the most difficult decision to make is at what "level" to start. There are four levels of

organizational change: First let's describe these levels, and then under what circumstances a

business should use them.

Level 1- shaping and anticipating the future

At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what it is

"good" at, and what the future will be like. Management generates alternate "scenarios" of the

future, defines opportunities based on these possible futures, assesses its strengths and

weaknesses in these scenarios changes its mission, Measurement system etc. Moreinformation on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 2 - defining what business(es) to be in and their "Core Competencies Many attempts at

strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future will be like the past or

at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for the future"; or 3)

management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid to start at level 1

because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) the only mandate they

have is to refine what mission already exists.

After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and

threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals, strategies,

etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes Either as an aftermath or

consequence of level one or two work or as an independent action, level three work focuses on

fundamentally changing how work is accomplished. Rather than focus on

modest improvements, reengineering focuses on making major structural changes to everyday

with the goal of substantially improving productivity, efficiency, quality or customer

satisfaction. To read more about level 3 organizational changes, please see "A Tale of Three

Villages."Level 4 - Incrementally Changing your Processes

Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing work

processes. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting every employee

focused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect. Unfortunately, making

improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is made will rarely come up

with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because cars have been invented. To

read more about level 4 organizational changes and how it compares to level 3, please see "A

Tale of Three Villages." Some General Guidelines to Organization-Wide Change1. Consider using a consultant. Ensure the consultant is highly experienced in organization-

wide change. Ask to see references and check the references.


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2. W idely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate what you're doing about

it. Communicate what was done and how it worked out.

3. Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are the

problems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team of employeesto manage the change.

4. Don't get wrapped up in doing change for the sake of change. Know why you're making the

change. What goal(s) do you hope to accomplish?

6. Plan the change. How do you plan to reach the goals, what will you need to reach the goals,

how long might it take and how will you know when you've reached your goals or not? Focus

on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not on each part by

itself. Have someone in charge of the plan.

7. End up having every employee ultimately reporting to one person, if possible, and theyshould know who that person is. Job descriptions are often complained about, but they are

useful in specifying who reports to whom.

8. Delegate decisions to employees as much as possible. This includes granting them the

authority and responsibility to get the job done. As much as possible, let them decide how to

do the project.

9. The process won't be an "aha!" It will take longer than you think.

10. Keep perspective. Keep focused on meeting the needs of your customer or clients.

11. Take care of yourself first. Organization-wide change can be highly stressful.

12. Don't seek to control change, but rather to expect it, understand it and manage it.

13. Include closure in the plan. Acknowledge and celebrate your accomplishments.

14. Read some resources about organizational change, including new forms and structures.

mb0038-management process & organizational behavior

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