mba3810 ito perception
TRANSCRIPT
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MBA3810
Individuals in the Organisation
The psychology of Perception
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By the end of this session, you
should be able to:
Critically reflect on the impact of perceptual
differences
Understand how various strategies can
recognise this and address these issues
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An orientation / approach for this
session ± student guidance
There is a substantial amount of µtheory¶ here. Itprovides you with a good understanding of thedevelopment of the various models and theories.
However, it is addressing real and important issuesfor organisations ie how do individuals perceiveorganisations and what they stand for. How and for what reasons do we develop different approaches
It is recognised that an understand of, and approachto diversity will underpin many of the discussions.This will be considered in more detail separately
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Reflective exercise
Why do the perceptions and assumptionspeople hold matter so profoundly ?
Try to identify 4/5 areas where perceptionsheld by managers of various individuals /groups matter and impact on the business.
What are some of the business implications ±ie impact on the µbottom line¶
What can be done to address this ?
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Possible comments / issues
Perceptions can include:
Attitudes to work / motivators
Ability to work in teams / interpersonal skills
How we learn
Commitment / not committed
Honesty / dishonesty / trustworthiness Capable of being promoted and taking responsibility
µCan¶t hack it¶ !
General intelligence
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To address these:
Policies: Diversity / bullying / harassment
Positive support /action: eg women only groups
( Used extensively in Government )
Training ± line managers Support and sponsored groups sponsored by the
Organisation ( eg black managers )
Objective management and control ± eg use of competences to measure performance objectively
Transparent promotion possibilities. Assessmentcentres
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Achieving objectivity
The following slides discuss the concept
of truth as a social construction
The discussion is around what we meant by µtruth¶ ?
Is there an objective µtruth¶ or is it something we
create in our own minds ± ie it is socially constructed
This is really important in research ± because we
need to recognise the various approaches. In science
there may be absolute truths ± but do they exist in
management / social science ± where we are dealingwith people and their attitudes etc
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Carrying out research: Implications
Recognise need to consider this: whose truth
will you be examining?
EG: a µmanagement¶ statement ± µthis
Organisation has advanced people policies¶
What will be the perspective from:
employees: new / old etc
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Truth is socially constructed
It is all about your individual paradigm!
Harman (1970) defines a paradigm as "the
basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and
doing associated with a particular vision of
reality..."
(Harman, W. (1970). An incomplete guide to the
future. New York: W. W. Norton.) NB ± paradigms are explained in the next slides ±but
are a way of thinking / a model
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µParadigms¶ defined
Baker (1992) defines a paradigm as "a set of rules and regulations (written or unwritten)that does two things: (1) it establishes or
defines boundaries; and (2) it tells you how tobehave inside those boundaries in order to besuccessful.
(Baker, J. (1992). Par adigms: The business of
discovering the future. New York: Harper Business.
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Paradigm cont.
Capra (1996) defines paradigm as "aconstellation of concepts, values,perceptions and practices shared by acommunity, which forms a particular vision of reality that is the basis of theway a community organizes itself"
(Capra, F. (1996). The web of life: A new scientific underst anding of living systems. New York: Anchor
Books.
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Truth as a social construction ±
review: a summary
A critical factor in research and practice
There is no µobjective reality¶ - management /the social sciences are different from the
natural sciences. The µtruth¶ is socially
constructed
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From µtruth¶ to values
The slides below discuss the concept of
µ values¶; and then the practical and
organisational implications.
Remember: values (individual and
organisational reflect perceptions of µtruth¶
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What about values?
Categorisation of values according to Allport & Lindzey,
(1960) ± shows that we all µvalue¶ different things
1. the theoretical -- a scientist, for example, values truth
2. the economic -- a businessperson may value usefulness
3. the aesthetic -- an artist naturally values beauty
4. the social -- a nurse may have a strong love of people
5. the political -- a politician may value power
6. the religious -- a monk or nun probably values unity.
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Also include
Professional values:
Eg a teacher; doctor; accountant; engineer
As a result of their socialisation
But then consider the implications for the
Organization
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A social worker¶ values will include ?
This will impact on their attitude tomanagement and the organisation
generally
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Reflective exercise:
How can managing hospital and
medical staff be different; but also
similar to managing private profitmaking companies ?
Focus on the µpeople issues¶
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Differences:
Need to engage with and motivate
µprofessionals¶ - with their µvalues¶
Need to work collaboratively Need to provide appropriate training /
development activities
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Similarities:
Need to achieve objectives
Need to performance management
people Need to address customer NOT
employee needs ( sometimes seen as
the same Need to manage costs effectively
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Values contain a judgemental
element«
They carry an individual¶s ideas as to
what is right, good or desirable
Values have both content and intensityattributes
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Values«
Lay the foundations for the
understanding of attitudes and
motivation Influence our perceptions
Can cloud objectivity and rationality
Influence attitudes and behaviour
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Distinguish between µ terminal¶ and
µinstrumental µvalues
The slides below show the distinction
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Terminal values
(Rokeach Value Survey)
A comfortable (prosperous) life
An exciting (stimulating, active) life
A sense of accomplishment (lastingcontribution)
A world of beauty (nature and the arts)
Equality
Family security
Freedom
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Terminal values
Happiness
Inner harmony
Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (enjoyable, leisurely life)
Salvation (saved, eternal life) Self-respect (self-esteem)
Social recognition (respect, admiration)
True friendship
Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)
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Instrumental values
Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)
Broad minded (open-minded)
Capable (competent, efficient)
Cheerful (light-hearted, joyful) Clean (neat, tidy)
Courageous (standing up for your beliefs)
Forgiving
Helpful (working for the welfare of others)Honest (sincere, truthful)
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Instrumental values
Imaginative (daring, creative)
Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)
Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)
Logical (consistent, rational)
Loving (affectionate, tender)
Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Polite (courteous, well-mannered)
Responsible (dependable, reliable)
Self-controlled (restrained, self-disciplined) Source: M Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values
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Mean value rankings of
executives
Terminal
1. Self-respect
2. Family security 3. Freedom
4. A sense of
accomplishment
5. happiness
Instrumental
1. Honest
2.R
esponsible 3. Capable
4. Ambitious
5. independent
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Mean value ranking union
members
Terminal
1. Family security
2. Freedom Happiness
Self-respect
Mature love
Instrumental
Responsible
Honest Courageous
Independent
Capable
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Mean value ranking activists
Terminal
1. Equality
2. A world of peace 3. Family security
4. Self-respect
5. Freedom
Instrumental
1. Honest
2. Helpful 3. Courageous
4.Responsible
5. Capable
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Dominant work values
Stage Year
born
Entered
the
workforce
Approx.
current
age
Dominant
work values
Protestant
work ethic
1925-
1945
Early
1940s toEarly
1960s
55-75 Hard work,
conservative,loyalty to
the org.
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Dominant work values
Stage Year born Entered
the
workforce
Approx.
current
age
Dominant
work
values
existential 1945-
1955
1960s to
mid
1970s
45-55 Quality of
life, non-
conforming,
seeks
autonomy,
loyalty to
self
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Dominant work values
Stage Year
born
Entered
the
workforce
Approx.
current
age
Dominant
work values
Pragmatic 1955-
1965
mid
1970s to
late
1980s
35-45 Success,
achievement,
ambition,
hard work,
loyalty to
career
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Dominant work values
Stage Year born Entered
the
workforce
Approx.
current
age
Dominant
work values
Generatio
n X
1965-
1981
Late
1980s to
present
Under 35 Flexibility, job
satisfaction,
balanced
lifestyle,
loyalty to
relationships
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Reflective exercise and practical
example: From individual toorganisational values. The
importance of developing
organisational values In enforcing required behaviours / attitudes.
In providing clarity as to what is expected;
and what will not be tolerated Changing organisations through values
analysis
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Group exercise ( Stage 1)
What are the key values of
organisations you have experienced ( 4
/ 5) Be careful to distinguish betweenvalues and policies ± values drive
policies
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Group Exercise ( Stage 2)
To what extent do they support / detract from
the organisational goals ± you will have to
identify these ?
What policies could be adopted to drive
through the values you would want to have ?
( develop this carefully ± focus on wherethere can be changes to meet organisational
goals/ objectives )
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V
alues associated with highperformance companies Respect for the interest of key organisational
stakeholders ± particularly customers
Respect and encouragement for the
assumption of leadership and entrepreneurial
behaviour by mid and lower level managers.
Respect for and willingness to supportchange efforts within the organisation.
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Values of poor performing
companies
Arrogance, particularly to ideas from outside
the company
Lack of respect for key stakeholders such as
customers, employees, suppliers, and
stockholders
A history of resisting change efforts and
µpunishing¶ mid and lower level managerswho showed too much leadership.
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Gert Hofstede¶s framework for
assessing culture: An international
perspective
Power distance
Individualism v collectivism Quantity v quality of life
Uncertainty avoidance
Long-term v short-term orientation
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Some observations criticisms /
Highly µgeneralised¶ ± some
stereotypical assumptions
The emergence of an internationalmiddle / business class
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An international business class?
Recent research supports (2009)
µdifferences¶ are reducing ?
An international vocabulary:
Eg talent management
Performance Management
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Summary slides
Some key issues are considered and
summarised below
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The most powerful influences
on perception seem to be«
Personality
Learning
And past experience
Much of perception can be describe as
classification or categorisation.
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Some issues:
In the recruitment and selection process
± esp with interviews
Team working Perception of interpersonal skills
Emotional intelligence
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A note on Emotional Intelligence ( EI)
The basis:
Which behaviours are valid ( cultural impact)
Developing EI
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Different does not necessarily
imply wrong / better / worse
Problems arise when we act as if our
culture had a monopoly on µright
thinking¶ on such issues.
Reflects the debate on µ diversity¶ and
issues associated with this
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A perceptual set is«
An individual¶s predisposition to respond
to particular events in a particular
manner. A perceptual set is also known
as a mental set. As we tend to perceive
what we expect to perceive, this can
also be called our perceptual
expectation.
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The individual¶s perceptual
world is«
Simply their personal image, map or
picture of their social, physical and
organisational environment.
Unfortunately we tend to forget that our
own perceptual world is not the only
possible or correct one.
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f
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Remember the concept of
µselective attention¶«
This phenomenon applies to our perception of people.
It is a natural human response to µsizeup¶ new people and make judgementsabout them.
We tend to give more favourable
judgements to people who havecharacteristics in common with us.
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The remedies«
Taking more time & avoiding instant or µsnap¶ judgements
Collecting & consciously using moreinformation
Developing self-awareness &understanding of how our personal bias
and preferences affect our perceptionsand judgements
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The remedies«
Checking our attributions ± the
assumptions we make about the causes
of behaviour, particularly the links we
make between aspects of personality
and appearance on the one hand and
behaviour on the other
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Perception is:
Perception is critical to our
understanding of each other¶s
behaviour, in organisational and social
settings
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Exam Guidance and Practice
Preparing for the exam: getting
organised
Time management and planning: don¶tleave until the last moment !
Record your reading and research
Make a µlist¶ set up your own databaseof research and references
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Exam guidance ( cont)
Be active ! Do as many exam questions
as possible
Please do the exam questions set inthe classes
You must always show theories and
models; but include your own
experience
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Exam guidance (continued )
Answering questions:
1. Try to develop the ability / habit of mind
mapping2. Try to plan your answers ( rough plan )
Introduction: set the scene / show structure
main discussion / points
Conclusions / recommendations
3. Write up ± don¶t make your notes illegible
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Exam guidance ( cont)
Try to be µreflective¶ / analytical
Do not reduce to bullet points ± there¶s
nothing for the examiner to mark !
Make sure you focus clearly on the question
± don¶t just µwaffle¶
Allocate your time carefully so you answer all
the required questions; and have a fewminutes at the end to check
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Exam guidance ( cont)
Now try these:
Identify two of the most important motivation
theories and explain how they are relevant to
today's organisations
Why is it important for a manager tounderstand the importance of µperception¶,
what are some of the consequences of this
for both the manager and their staff ?