mdrc report
TRANSCRIPT
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B u i l d i n g K n o w l e d g e i m p r o v e S o c i a l p o l i c y
mdrc
J a n u a r y
2 0 1 2
imprving academic prgress and
substantiay imprving graduatin
prspects, particuary fr disadvantaged
students. This reprt incuded data fr
ver 21,000 students frm fur chrts
wh entered ninth grade between fa2005 and fa 2008.4 Findings in the reprt
were based n a series f randmized
tteries that were used when SSCs had
mre appicants than seats, in rder t
determine wh gt ffered an pprtunity
t enr in an SSC and wh did nt. SSC
tteries are a itte-knwn byprduct
f the current district-wide high sch
appicatin prcessing system (HSAPS).5
These tteries make it pssibe trigrusy estimate the effects f enring
in an SSC versus enring in sme ther
New Yrk City pubic high sch, based
n a cmparisn f subsequent utcmes
fr ttery winners and ttery sers and
a prcedure that accunts fr wh amng
them enr in an SSC.6
In a arge sampe, ike that used fr the
MDRC study, ttery winners and ttery
sers are the same, n average, in a
ways befre they enter high sch.
Cnsequenty, it is vaid t attribute any
differences in their future academic
utcmes t their access t an SSC.
Because students wh se an SSC
ttery attend ver 200 high schs that
vary widey in their size, age, structure,
academic prgrams, and effectiveness,
the MDRC reprt judged SSCs against the
Sst pst effts gt rtsp b n yk cts S
pb Hh Shs f chBy Hward S. Bm and Rebecca Unterman
During the past decade, NewYrk City undertk a district-wide high sch refrm that is perhaps
unprecedented in its scpe, scae, and pace.
Between fa 2002 and fa 2008, the sch
district csed 23 arge faiing high schs(with graduatin rates bew 45 percent),1
pened 216 new sma high schs (with
different missins, structures, and student
seectin criteria), and impemented a
centraized high sch admissins prcess
that assigns ver 90 percent f the rughy
80,000 incming ninth-graders each year
based n their sch preferences.
At the heart f this refrm are 123 sma,academicay nnseective, pubic high
schs. Each with apprximatey 100
students per grade in grades 9 thrugh 12,
these schs were created t serve sme f
the districts mst disadvantaged students
and are cated mainy in neighbrhds
where arge faiing high schs had been
csed.2 Hence, they prvide a reaistic
chice fr students with widey varying
academic backgrunds. MDRC researchers
ca them sma schs f chice (SSCs)
because f their sma size and the fact that
they d nt screen students based n their
academic backgrunds.3
In June 2010, MDRC, a nnprt,
nnpartisan research rganizatin,
reeased a reprt n the effectiveness
f 105 f the 123 new SSCs, which
demnstrated that they are markedy
P
o
l
I
C
Y
B
R
I
E
F
demnstrated that they are markedy
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M D r C P o l i C y B r i e
resurces during start-up.8 By integrating a
demanding and cmprehensive academic
curricuum, persna attentin t student
academic prgress, and rea-wrd experiences
with cmmunity partners, the new smaschs intended t prepare students fr bth
cege and career.
In ther cities, sma high schs are ften
fashined by recnguring arge existing
schs int smaer units in the same
buidings with the same teachers and students;
in cntrast, the typica SSC was created argey
frm scratch with a principa, teachers, and
students wh were new t the sch. At thesame time, many SSCs are cated with ther
SSCs in buidings that previusy hused a
arge pubic high sch that was csed.
SSCs are nt just sma in size. They are
purpsefuy rganized arund smaer
educatina units that are designed t give
students a better chance f being knwn by
their teachers and ther aduts in the buiding.
Fr exampe, many SSCs have created speciastudent advisry structures that prvide
cmmn panning time fr teachers t discuss
their students prgress and prbems.
SSCs received start-up funding frm
phianthrpic rganizatins pus technica
assistance and picy supprt frm the New
Yrk City Department f Educatin and
intermediary rganizatins that were ften
experienced in managing the aunching f
new schs which heped t faciitate
sch eadership devepment, staff hiring,
and prgram start-up. Mst SSCs began with
ny a ninth-grade cass, adding a subsequent
grade each year. Finay, SSCs received specia
awances with respect t serving Engish
language learners and specia educatin
students during their rst tw years f start-up.
The creatin f SSCs was supprted by a
cnsrtium f funders, ed by the Bi &
vera effectiveness f a diverse grup f
ther high schs.7 The resuts reeased in
2010 indicated that, n average, the 105 SSCs
studied increased student prgress tward
graduatin during their rst three years fhigh sch and increased students fur-year
graduatin rates.
Given data that were avaiabe at the time,
the rst MDRC reprt cud ny fw
the rst student chrt (that entered in fa
2005) thrugh fur years f high sch t
examine its graduatin rates. This picy
brief extends the anaysis by a year, which
adds infrmatin n high sch graduatinrates fr the 2006 chrt and prvides a fth
year f fw-up fr the 2005 chrt. This
infrmatin makes it pssibe t address the
fwing three questins:
Was the psitive average effect f SSCs n
fur-year graduatin rates fr the studys
rst student chrt sustained thrugh the
secnd chrt?
Was this psitive average effect sustained
acrss subgrups f students with differentprir academic prciency, famiy incme,
race/ethnicity, and gender?
Was the average fur-year graduatin effect
sustained after ve years?
The answer t a three f these questins is yes.
w H a T a r e S S c s ?
SSCs were deveped thrugh a cmpetitive
prpsa prcess that was designed t
ensure that sch funders met specied
cnditins and t stimuate innvative ideas
frm a range f stakehders and institutins.
SSCs emphasize academic rigr and strng
and sustained persna reatinships amng
students and facuty. In additin, mst were
funded with cmmunity partners wh ffer
students reevant earning pprtunities inside
and utside the cassrm and prvide sch
facuty with additina stafng supprt and
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Meinda Gates Fundatin, the Carnegie
Crpratin f New Yrk, and the open
Sciety Institute. SSCs were impemented
in cabratin with the United Federatin
f Teachers and the Cunci f SchSupervisrs and Administratrs.10 Unike
charter schs, which typicay perate
independenty f the sch district in which
they are cated, SSCs are directy respnsibe
t the New Yrk City Department f Educatin.
w H y S T u d y S S c s ?
Amst a majr urban sch districts in the
U.S. and a but fur states have attempted
t create new sma schs r attemptedt transfrm arge schs int campuses
with sma earning cmmunities.11 This
mvement had its beginnings in the 1960s,
when urban educatrs and cmmunity
rganizatins began t impement smaer
sch structures as an aternative t the arge
high schs that dminated the andscape,
many f which were faiing. By the ate 1990s,
sma schs had emerged as a natina
refrm strategy champined by such grupsas the Caitin f Essentia Schs and the
Natina Assciatin f Secndary Sch
Principas. This strategy priferated thrugh
district- and fundatin-ed initiatives in majr
cities ike Chicag, Phiadephia, Bstn,
oakand, and New Yrk. In 2000, the Bi &
Meinda Gates Fundatin aunched a natina
campaign t imprve faiing urban high
schs, with sma schs as a key strategy.12
The cmmn thery f change underying
bth sma schs and sma earning
cmmunities species that smaer
educatina units prmte strnger
reatinships amng students, amng
aduts, and between students and aduts.
These reatinships, in turn, are expected
t increase student engagement and hep
teachers respnd t students academic and
scia needs, thereby increasing students
academic achievement.13 Prir research n
sma schs has prduced mixed resuts
abut their effectiveness. Sme studies have
fund that they imprve student utcmes,
such as increasing eves f academicachievement and wering rates f sch
drput.14 In additin, sme studies suggest
that these effects are mst prnunced
fr disadvantaged students.15 on the ther
hand, a majr study f a arge number f
sma schs initiatives suggests that they
d nt imprve student academic utcmes
appreciaby.16 In a f these cases hwever, the
nnexperimenta nature f the research imits
its abiity t supprt causa cncusins.
MDRCs ndings abut SSCs are reevant
t current federa picy n high sch
refrm, particuary the U. S. Department f
Educatins Sch Imprvement Grants
(SIGs) fr faiing schs. Refrms funded by
SIGs incude sch transfrmatin, sch
restart, sch csing, and sch turnarund.
SSCs stradde severa f these categries since
they are typicay repacements fr schsthat have csed and they perate as reguar
pubic schs. Hwever, it is imprtant t
recgnize that SSCs represent far mre than
just changes in sch size and structure.
They as represent innvative ways t use
these structura changes t everage human,
nancia, and curricuar resurces.
The cuping f sma schs with a
system f chice fr a entering ninth-
graders as has reevance fr the natina
debate abut charter schs. on the ne
hand, SSCs share many simiarities with
charters they are sma and persnaized;
mst began with the hep f intermediary
spnsrs that resembe charter management
rganizatins; the students and teachers
are there by chice; and the curricua are
demanding. on the ther hand, SSCs are
verseen by the Department f Educatin
J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2
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M D r C P o l i C y B r i e
4
The reprt fund simiar psitive effects n
prgress tward graduatin in ninth grade
fr subgrups f students wh varied in
terms f their reading and math prciency
befre entering high sch, their eigibiity
fr free r reduced-price unches, and theirrace/ethnicity and gender.
At tw and three years after students entered
high sch, the study fund that SSCs
increased their prgress tward graduatin by
rughy the same amunt as they did during
the rst year. And at fur years after students
entered high sch, the study fund that
SSCs increased high sch graduatin rates
by 6.8 percentage pints (t 68.7 percent fr
target SSC enrees frm 61.9 percent fr
their cntr grup cunterparts).
n Fs gt c
rss f T Stt chts: Findings
in Tabe 1 indicate that SSC effects n
fur-year high sch graduatin rates are
sustained thrugh a secnd chrt f entering
ninth-graders. Enring in an SSC instead
f anther type f New Yrk City pubic high
with uninized teachers and principas;
the schs are nnseective and pen t
students regardess f academic prciency;
and the sch chice prcess was designed
t engage a entering ninth-graders, nt just
the mst mtivated parents and chidren thatmight seek ut charter schs.
H o w m u c H d o S S c s
H e l p S T u d e n T S ?
ps St Fs: Because students
became part f the study sampe in fur
annua chrts, MDRCs rst reprt n the
effects f SSCs was based n fur years
f fw-up fr the rst chrt f entering
ninth-graders, three years f fw-up fr the
secnd, tw years f fw-up fr the third,
and ne year f fw-up fr the furth chrt.
Based n data fr a fur chrts, the reprt
fund that SSCs increased the percentage
f students wh were n track17 tward
graduatin in ninth grade by 10.0 percentage
pints (t 58.5 percent fr target SSC
enrees frm 48.5 percent fr their cntr
grup cunterparts).18
Table 1. estimtd avrg effcts of SSCs on Four-Yr Grdution Rts: Studnt Cohorts 1 nd 2
ouTcome (%)TargeT
SScenrolleeS
conTrolgroup
counTerparTS
eSTimaTedeFFecT
p-value ForeSTimaTed
eFFecT
graduaTion
graduaTed From HigH ScHool 67.9 59.3 8.6 ** 0.000
l t 19.9 19.6 0.3 0.406
rts t 41.5 34.9 6.5 * 0.041
a rts t 6.2 4.7 1.6 0.154
college readineSS
pss mth rts t 75 hh 23.3 22.5 0.8 0.682
pss esh rts t 75 hh 37.3 29.7 7.6 ** 0.002
NoTES: There are 13,064 student observations for cohorts one and two combined. There are no statistically signicant differences betweenestimated effects for the two cohorts. Because of rounding error and the complex calculations involved, results by diploma type do not sumexactly to those for overall graduation rates.
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J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2
subgrups examined that had sampes that
were arge enugh t supprt ndings.21
Cnsider the resuts fr subgrups dened
by students prir academic prciency, asmeasured by their eighth-grade state test
scres in reading and math. New Yrk State
reprts this prciency in fur eves. leves 1
and 2 (did nt meet r partiay met standards)
represent student perfrmance that is bew
grade eve. leves 3 and 4 (fuy met standards
r met standards with distinctin) represent
perfrmance that is at r abve grade eve.
Since very few sampe members scre in the
tp categry, n ndings are reprted fr it.The ndings indicate that SSCs increased fur-
year graduatin rates appreciaby fr students
in eves 1, 2, and 3 f reading and math prir
prciency.
Athugh specic estimates vary smewhat
(frm 7.7 t 11.3 percentage pints fr reading
and frm 8.6 t 11.4 percentage pints fr
math), a f the effects are appreciabe and
statisticay signicant, indicating that everygrup beneted substantiay frm attending
an SSC. Fr exampe the 11.4 percentage pint
gain in high sch graduatin rates prduced
by SSCs fr students with a eve 1 eighth-grade
math prciency scre impies a 33 percent
increase (11.4/34.5) in graduatin rates fr this
subgrup f students with especiay weak math
preparatin. Hwever, there is n cear pattern
t the variatin in resuts acrss prciency
subgrups; s whie the impacts are statisticay
signicant, the reprted differences between
subgrups are nt statisticay signicant.
Therefre, ne shud nt cncude, fr
instance, that SSCs wrked differenty fr eve 1
students than fr eve 2 students, even thugh
the pint estimates differ.
These subgrup ndings by academic
prciency are especiay striking given
the dramatic differences that exist in the
sch increased average fur-year graduatin
rates fr the rst tw chrts cmbined by 8.6
percentage pints (t 67.9 percent fr target
SSC enrees frm 59.3 percent fr their
cntr grup cunterparts).19 Amst a fthis graduatin effect reects an increase in
receipt f New Yrk State Regents dipmas.
Fr this type f dipma, students must pass
a minimum f ve Regents examinatins
(Engish language Arts, Mathematics,
Science, Gba Histry, and American
Histry) with a scre f 65 pints r abve
and must pass a curses that are required
by the state. Nne f the SSC graduatin
effect appears t reect an increase in receiptf ca dipmas, which have ess stringent
standards fr scres n Regents examinatins
and are being phased ut by New Yrk State
fr the graduating cass f 2012. likewise,
itte if any f the SSC graduatin effect
reects an increase in receipt f Advanced
Regents dipmas, which have the mst
stringent standards and are received by very
few students wh appy t SSCs.
Tabe 1 as indicates that enring in an
SSC increased students cege readiness
in Engish but nt in math, as measured
by the percentage wh scred 75 pints r
higher n the crrespnding New Yrk State
Regents examinatins.20 This threshd
is used by the City University f New Yrk
t exempt students frm taking remedia
curses in these subjects.
n Sb Fs gt
f T Stt chts: Adding a secnd
chrt f students t the anaysis f SSC
effects n fur-year graduatin rates
increased the sampe size by enugh t
make it pssibe t examine hw these
effects vary acrss subgrups f students
with diverse backgrunds. Findings in Tabe
2 indicate that SSCs increased fur-year high
sch graduatin rates appreciaby fr a
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Table 2. estimtd effcts of SSCs on Four-Yr Grdution Rts for Studnt Sugroups: Studnt Cohorts 1 nd 2
STudenT cHaracTeriSTicTargeT
SScenrolleeS
conTrolgroup
counTerparTS
eSTimaTedeFFecT
p-valueSTima
eFFe
8TH-grade reading proFiciency
nt t Stt l Sts ( 1) 37.3 29.6 7.7 * 0
pt t Stt l Sts ( 2) 66.7 55.5 11.2 **
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experienced a 7.6 percentage pint increase
in fur-year graduatin rates; the rughy 43
percent f students in the sampe wh were
nt knwn experienced a 10.1 percentage
pint increase. Bth ndings are statisticaysignicant athugh they are nt statisticay
signicanty different frm each ther. Thus,
cntrary t what might be expected, students
wh make an effrt t becme knwn t their
SSC d not benet mre frm attending it
than students wh d nt make this effrt.
n Fs F-y gt
rts f th Sts Fst Stt cht:
Cmpeting hyptheses exist abut the ikeyeffects f SSCs n ve-year graduatin
rates. Fr exampe, SSCs might be especiay
effective at keeping strugging students
engaged in sch fr a fth year in rder
t meet their graduatin requirements. If
s, then SSC effects n ve-year graduatin
rates might be greater than their effects n
fur-year graduatin rates. on the ther
hand, SSC effects n fur-year graduatin
rates might reect their abiity t speedup graduatin fr students wh therwise
wud need ve years. In additin, due t
their sma staffs, SSCs might nt have the
capacity t prvide the additina resurces
needed t adequatey assist students in their
fth year. Fr either r bth f these reasns,
SSC effects n ve-year graduatin rates
might be ess than their effects n fur-year
graduatin rates.
Tabe 3 presents estimates f SSC effects n
graduatin rates at ve years after the studys
rst student chrt entered high sch, as
we as their fur-year graduatin rates (frm
MDRCs rst reprt). These ndings indicate
that between year fur and year ve, graduatin
rates fr target SSC enrees and their cntr
grup cunterparts increased by amst exacty
the same amunt. Hence, the effect f SSCs n
graduatin rates did nt change.
graduatin prospects fr each subgrup, as
measured by its cntr grup cunterparts
graduatin rate. Fr exampe, rates range
frm 29.6 t 55.5 t 69.8 percent fr eves 1,
2, and 3 in reading, respectivey. Therefre,SSCs increase high sch graduatin rates
appreciaby fr students with extremey weak
graduatin prspects, mdest prspects,
and strnger prspects.
Findings fr subgrups f students wh were
and were nt eigibe fr free r reduced-
price unch te a simiar stry. They indicate
that SSCs increased graduatin rates fr
bth subgrups (by 11.2 and 6.9 percentagepints) even thugh their graduatin
prspects differed substantiay.
Findings fr subgrups f students by race/
ethnicity and gender further reinfrce the
preceding resuts. They indicate that SSCs
increase graduatin rates appreciaby fr
a subgrups with a sampe that is arge
enugh t detect these effects.22 Specicay,
SSCs increase graduatin rates fr backmaes and femaes by 9.9 and 8.3 percentage
pints and fr Hispanic maes and femaes
by 7.7 and 8.7 percentage pints.23
The na subgrup ndings in the tabe
are based n whether r nt students were
knwn ahead f time t the SSC in whse
ttery they participated.24 A student can
becme knwn t an SSC by cntacting it
in persn r by teephne, by visiting it, by
meeting with its representatives at a high
sch fair, r in ther ways. T prmte
infrmed sch chice, the New Yrk City
Department f Educatin encurages eighth-
graders and their parents t d a f these
things, which require initiative and effrt.
Findings in Tabe 2 indicate that the rughy
57 percent f students in the subgrup
sampe wh were knwn t their SSC
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Specicay, graduatin rates increased frm
68.7 percent in year fur t 75.2 percent in year
ve (r by 6.5 percentage pints) fr target SSC
enrees and frm 61.9 percent in year fur t68.1 percent in year ve (r by 6.2 percentage
pints) fr their cntr grup cunterparts.
The effect f SSCs n ve-year graduatin rates
(a 7.1 percentage pint increase) therefre was
amst identica t the effect f SSCs n fur-
year graduatin rates (a 6.8 percentage pint
increase).25 In additin, at ve years, the majrity
f the SSC impact cmes frm receiving Regents
dipmas, as was the case at fur years.
w H y a r e T H e S e
F i n d i n g S i m p o r T a n T ?
T pace these ndings in perspective,
cnsider: (1) the scae f the interventin
evauated, (2) the size f the effects it
prduced, (3) the nature f the ppuatin it
served, (4) the diversity f subppuatins
it beneted, (5) the institutina nature f
the interventin, and (6) the rigr f the
evauatin cnducted.
The 105 SSCs studied serve abut1.
45,000 students at fu capacity. This
is equivaent in size t the entire high
sch ppuatin f Hustn, Texas,the seventh argest sch district in the
United States.
The estimated 8.6 percentage pint effect2.
f SSCs n fur-year graduatin rates
is equivaent in magnitude t abut 43
percent f the gap in graduatin rates
between white students and students f
cr in New Yrk City.26 Furthermre,
this effect is reative t currenty existing
schs, nt t the 23 arge faiing high
schs that were csed, schs that had
graduatin rates that were much wer than
the rates f the cntr grup schs that
the SSCs were cmpared with in this study.
SSC effects reect a student ppuatin3.
that is 93.2 percent back r Hispanic,
83.9 percent eigibe fr free r reduced-
price unch, 21.8 percent verage fr
Table 3. estimtd avrg effcts of SSCs on Four-Yr nd Fiv-Yr Grdution Rts: Studnt Cohort 1
ouTcome (%)TargeT
SScenrolleeS
conTrolgroup
counTerparTS
eSTimaTedeFFecT
p-value ForeSTimaTed
eFFecT
Four-year graduaTion
graduaTed From HigH ScHool 68.7 61.9 6.8* 0.013l t 24.6 21.9 2.8 0.261
rts t 39.5 34.6 4.9 0.074
a rts t 4.4 5.5 -1.1 0.366
Five-year graduaTion
graduaTed From HigH ScHool 75.2 68.1 7.1* 0.018
l t 27.3 24.4 3.0 0.265
rts t 44.9 40.0 4.9 0.081
a rts t 4.7 5.8 -1.1 0.368
NoTES: There are 5,363 and 5,428 student observations for the four-year and ve-year analyses, respectively. The difference represents65 students who reenrolled in a NYC public high school between their fourth and fth years. Because of rounding error and the complexcalculations involved, results by diploma type do not sum exactly to those for overall graduation rates
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J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2
grade, and 70.5 percent bew grade eve
in reading and 63.9 percent bew grade
eve in math, based n state tests in
these subjects in eighth grade.
SSC effects were experienced by students4.
with widey varying graduatin prspects,
by students wh were and were nt
eigibe fr free and reduced-price unch,
by students wh were mae and femae,
back and Hispanic, and by students wh
were knwn and nt knwn t their SSCs.
New Yrk Citys SSCs were deveped5.
thrugh a demanding prpsa prcessthat was designed t ensure specied
cnditins and t stimuate innvatin
frm a range f stakehders and
institutins. This differs markedy frm
many sma schs in ther jurisdictins
that are created by recnguring existing
schs. Furthermre, SSCs perate
within the sch district, in cntrast
t charter schs, which perate mre
independenty.
These ndings are based n data fr a6.
very arge sampe that was created by a
series f naturay ccurring randmized
tteries. Hence, they prvide unusuay
rigrus evidence abut the causa
effects f SSCs. And instead f reying
n a singe test scre as a prxy fr
ater ife utcmes, the study measures
actua grade prgressin, high sch
graduatin, and Regents dipmas
attained and scres achieved.
w H a T a r e T H e n e x T S T e p S
F o r r e S e a r c H o n S S c s ?
over the next three years, with funding frm
the Bi and Meinda Gates Fundatin,
MDRC and its partners wi expand and
deepen their research n SSCs t address
such questins as:
D SSCs increase cege readiness and
success in pstsecndary educatin?
Hw were SSCs created? Hw d they
perate? What bstaces d they face?
Hw are they deaing with these bstaces?What are their mst imprtant surces
f nancia and human resurces? What
factrs d they beieve are mst imprtant
t their success?
Hw d SSC effects vary by sch and
what factrs predict this variatin?
What re des teacher seectin, training,
and quaity pay in prducing SSC effects?
c o n c l u S i o nIn summary, the present ndings prvide
highy credibe evidence that in a reativey
shrt perid f time, with sufcient
rganizatin and resurces, an existing
sch district can impement a cmpex
high sch refrm that markedy imprves
graduatin rates fr a arge ppuatin f
w-incme, disadvantaged students f cr.
e n d n o T e S1 The csure f the 23 arge high schs happened vertime as they n nger accepted entering ninth-gradersand, thus, phased ut ver fur years.
2 Fifty SSCs are in the Brnx and 31 are in Brkyn. Manyf them are in the citys prest neighbrhds.
3 other new sma secndary schs created by New YrkCity during this time perid incude 38 genera high schsfr grades 9-12, which screen students based n theiracademic backgrunds; 21 transfer schs that are designedt hep students wh are verage fr grade and under-credited; 33 midde/high schs fr grades 6-12 r 7-12; andne speciaized high sch fr high-perfrming students.
4 Bm, levy Thmpsn, and Unterman (2010).5 SSC tteries are nt pubic events, but rather the resut fthe rues by which HSAPS assigns students t SSCs. of the123 SSCs created in New Yrk City, 105 had at east ne t-tery fr ne f the fur student chrts in the present study.
6 Appendix A f Bm, levy Thmpsn, and Unterman(2010) describes hw HSAPS creates SSC tteries, hwan SSC ttery creates a treatment grup f SSC tterywinners and a cntr grup f SSC ttery sers, andhw this infrmatin was used, tgether with infrmatinabut the schs in which students enred, t estimatethe effects fenrollingin an SSC reative t enring insme ther New Yrk City pubic high sch.
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SSCs wrked better fr the secnd chrt than the rst.
20 These ndings n cege readiness fr chrts neand tw cmbined te the same stry as thse fr chrtne in MDRCs rst reprt.
21 T estimate SSC effects fr student subgrups, thesampe fr each SSC ttery is stratied by the studentcharacteristics that dene each subgrup. Because nt
a tteries cntain students frm each stratum, the ttasampe represented by each type f student characteristic(e.g., by reading prciency r race/ethnicity) varies.
22 The sampe fr ther maes cmprised ny 283 stu-dent bservatins; fr ther femaes, the sampe wasny 261 student bservatins.
23 The estimated SSC effect fr Hispanic maes is nt sta-tisticay signicant at the 0.05 eve, athugh it is statisti-cay signicant at the 0.10 eve, which is used by manyresearchers. Furthermre, this nding is cnsistent withthse fr the ther three subgrups f students f crand is nt statisticay signicanty different frm them.Hence, the data suggest that SSCs increase fur-year
graduatin rates fr Hispanic maes, athugh the evi-dence fr this subgrup is weaker than that fr the thers.
24 Bm, levy Thmpsn, and Unterman (2010) de-scribe hw each SSC ttery incudes either students whwere knwn t the SSC r students wh were nt knwnt it, but nt bth. lttery winners and sers are thusperfecty matched in this regard.
25 The sight discrepancy between the reprted differencein changes ver time f graduatin rates fr target SSCenrees and their cntr grup cunterparts and thechange ver time in the estimated impact f SSCs n thegraduatin rate is due t runding.
26 MDRC cmputatins based n 2011 data frm the NYC
Department f Educatin indicate a gap between citywidefur-year graduatin rates fr white students and studentsf cr equa t 21.0 percentage pints fr the fa 2005chrt and 18.8 percentage pints fr the fa 2006 chrt.The average gap is thus 19.9 percentage pints.
reFerenceS
Fr a anayses in this brief, MDRCs cacuatins useHigh Sch Appicatin Prcessing System data frmeighth-graders in 2004-2005 t 2006-2007, as we asdata frm New Yrk City Department f Educatin atten-dance, curse credits, Regents exam, and enrment esfrm the 2005-2006 t 2009-2010 sch years.
Aenswrth, Eaine, and Jhn Q. Eastn. 2005. The On-Track Indicator as a Predictor of High School Graduation .Chicag: Cnsrtium n Chicag Sch Research.
Bm, Hward S., Saskia levy Thmpsn, and RebeccaUnterman. 2010. Transforming the High School Experience:How New York Citys New Small Schools Are Boosting Stu-dent Achievement and Graduation Rates. New Yrk: MDRC
Evan, Aimee, Jamie Shknik, Mette Huberman, BeckySmerdn, Barbara Means, Mengi Sng, Karen Mitche,Chares Strey, linda Shear, and Kazuaki Uekawa. 2006.Evaluation of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundations HighSchool Grants Initiative. Washingtn, DC: American Insti-tutes fr Research.
M D r C P o l i C y B r i e
0
Crrespnding ndings fr the effects f winning an SSCttery are presented in Appendix B f the rigina reprt.These ndings are cnsistent with thse fr the effects fenring in an SSC. The anaysis in this picy brief usesthe same methdgy.
7 Because MDRCs study examines ny one component fNew Yrk Citys vera high sch refrm initiative (thatis, the sma schs f chice), it des nt attempt t de-termine the vera effect f these refrms. Neither desit attempt t determine the effect f csing the 23 argefaiing high schs n students wh wud have attendedthem had they nt been csed.
8 Fr exampe, a aw rm prvides internships and em-beds rea-wrd exampes in the curricuum fr the UrbanAssemby Sch fr law & Justice, and the Urban Assem-by New Yrk Harbr Sch is grwing ne f the argestyster beds in the regin.
9 As a resut f a curt decisin, the New Yrk CityDepartment f Educatin ended this practice.
10 As described by Randi Weingarten at a frum n sma
schs spnsred by the Aiance fr Exceent Educatinin Nvember f 2010, the United Federatin f Teachersparticipated in the panning and apprva prcess frmany f the new sma schs in New Yrk City.
11 By 2008, 46 f 50 states and the District f Cumbiahad received mutimiin-dar federa grants fr smaearning cmmunities (U.S. Department f Educatin,n.d.).
12 Whie the Gates Fundatins stated ga was t sup-prt the creatin f schs that pssessed seven Attri-butes f High Perfrming Schs, it was the structurafcus n sch size (nt t exceed 100 students pergrade) that became a key strategy f the fundatinsgrantmaking (Evan et a., 2006).
13 See Finn and Vek (1993); lee and leb (2000); Was-ey et a. (2000); Kem and Cnne (2004).
14 Fr student achievement, see Haer, Mnk, and Tien(1993); Hwey (1989); Hwey and Huang (1991); leeand Smith (1997). Fr drput rates, see Pittman andHaughwut (1987); McMuen, Sipe, and Wf (1994).
15 See lee, Bryk, and Smith (1993); lee and Smith (1995);lee and Smith (1997).
16 See Evan et a. (2006).
17 The n-track measure was deveped by the Cnsr-tium n Chicag Sch Research. High sch studentswh are n track t graduate by the end f their rst year
meaning that they have earned at east 10 credits andare faiing n mre than ne cre subject are three anda haf times mre ikey t graduate in fur years than arether students (Aenswrth and Eastn, 2005).
18 Target SSC enrees are sampe members fr whmSSC effects are reprted. Appendix A f Bm, levyThmpsn, and Unterman (2010) describes hw thisgrup is dened and hw ndings fr it are btained.
19 The estimated average effect f SSCs n fur-yeargraduatin rates was 9.9 percentage pints fr the secndchrt and 6.8 fr the rst chrt. Bth f these estimatesare statisticay signicant, athugh the difference betweenthem is nt. Hence, ne cannt say with cndence that
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Finn, Jeremy D., and Kristen E. Vek, 1993. Sch Char-acteristics Reated t Student Engagement.Journal ofNegro Education 62, 3: 249-268.
Haer, Emi J., David H. Mnk, and lydia T. Tien. 1993.Sma Schs and Higher-order Thinking Skis.Journalof Research in Rural Education 9, 2: 66-73.
Hwey, Craig B. 1989. Synthesis f the Effects f Sch
and District Size: What Research Says Abut Achievementin Sma Schs and Sch Districts.Journal of Ruraland Small Schools 4, 1: 2-12.
Hwey, Craig B., and Gary Huang. 1991. ExtracurricuarParticipatin and Achievement: Sch Size as a PssibeMediatr f SES Inuence Amng Individua Students.ERIC Dcument N. ED336247. Charestn, WV: Appaa-chia Educatina labratry.
Kem, Adena M., and James P. Cnne. 2004. Reatin-ships Matter: linking Teacher Supprt t Student Engage-ment and Achievement.Journal of School Health 74, 7:262-273.
lee, Vaerie E., Anthny S. Bryk, and Juia B. Smith. 1993.
The organizatin f Effective Secndary Schs. Re-view of Research in Education 19, 1 (January): 171-267.
lee, Vaerie E., and Susanna leb. 2000. Sch Sizein Chicag Eementary Schs: Effects n Teachers At-titudes and Students Achievement.American EducationResearch Journal 31, 1:3-31.
a c K n o w l e d g m e n T S
This picy brief and the study upn which it is based
are funded by the Bi & Meinda Gates Fundatin. The
authrs thank the fundatin eaders wh supprted thiswrk Aan Gstn, Vicki Phiips, and James Shetn
(frmery f Gates) and the fundatin staff wh pr-
vided hepfu guidance and feedback: David Siver (ur
prject fcer), Adam Tucker, Sara Aen, Isis Randph-
McCree, and Nah Wepman.
The study wud nt have been pssibe withut cntinued
supprt and cperatin frm s many persns frm the
New Yrk City Department f Educatin that they are t
numerus t name. In additin, we beneted frm discus-
sins with Avin Rth, Parag Pathak, Atia Abdukadirgu,
and Nei Drsin, creatrs f New Yrks High SchAppicatin Prcessing System, wh shared their insights
abut ur study design. Furthermre, we received much
hepfu advice frm Jennifer Hi, Brian Jacb, Thmas Kane,
Jeffrey King, Sean Reardn, and Richard Murnane, and frm
ur current and frmer ceagues at MDRC: Grdn Ber-
in, Fred Ditte, Jhn Hutchins, Rb Ivry, James Kempe
(frmery f MDRC), Saskia levy Thmpsn (frmery f
MDRC), Pei Zhu, Micah Delaurentis, and Christian Fster.
Disseminatin f MDRC pubicatins is supprted by the
fwing funders that hep nance MDRCs pubic picy
utreach and expanding effrts t cmmunicate the re-
lee, Vaerie E., and Juia B. Smith. 1995. Effects f HighSch Restructuring and Size n Eary Gains in Achieve-ment and Engagement. Sociology of Education 68, 4:241-270.
lee, Vaerie E., and Juia B. Smith. 1997. High SchSize: Which Wrks Best and fr Whm? EducationalEvaluation and Policy Analysis 19, 3: 205-227.
McMuen, Bernard. J., Cynthia l. Sipe, and Wendy C.Wf. 1994. Charter and Student Achievement: Early Evi-dence from School Restructuring in Philadelphia. Phiade-phia: Center fr Assessment and Picy Devepment.
New Yrk City Department f Educatin. 2011. NYCGraduatin Rates Cass f 2010 (2006 Chrt). Web site:http://schs.nyc.gv
Pittman, Rbert B., and Perri Haughwut. 1987. Inu-ence f High Sch Size n Drput Rate. EducationEvaluation and Policy Analysis 9, 4: 337-343.
U.S. Department f Educatin. n.d. Smaller Learning Com-munities Program. Web site: www.ed.gv/prgrams/scp/funding.htm.
Wasey, Patricia A., Michee Fine, Matt Gadden, NiceE. Hand, Sherry P. King, Esther Msak, and linda C.Pwe. 2000. Small Schools: Great Strides. New Yrk: BankStreet Cege f Educatin.
Weingarten, Randi. (2010, octber). lecture. Presentedat the Aiance fr Exceent Educatins Sma SchsFrum. Washingtn, DC.
suts and impicatins f ur wrk t picymakers, practi-
tiners, and thers: The Ambrse Mne Fundatin, The
Annie E. Casey Fundatin, Carnegie Crpratin f New
Yrk, The Kresge Fundatin, Sander Fundatin, andThe Starr Fundatin.
In additin, earnings frm the MDRC Endwment hep sus-
tain ur disseminatin effrts. Cntributrs t the MDRC
Endwment incude Aca Fundatin, The Ambrse M-
ne Fundatin, Anheuser-Busch Fundatin, Brist-Myers
Squibb Fundatin, Chares Stewart Mtt Fundatin, Frd
Fundatin, The Gerge Gund Fundatin, The Grabe
Fundatin, The lizabeth and Frank Newman Charitabe
Fundatin, The New Yrk Times Cmpany Fundatin, Jan
Nichsn, Pau H. oNei Charitabe Fundatin, Jhn S.
Reed, Sander Fundatin, and The Stupski Famiy Fund, as
we as ther individua cntributrs.
The ndings and cncusins in this brief d nt neces-
sariy represent the fcia psitins r picies f the
funders.
Cpyright 2012 by MDRC. A rights reserved.
a B o u T T H e a u T H o r S
Hward S. Bm is MDRCs Chief Scia Scientist, and
Rebecca Unterman is a Research Assciate in MDRCs
K-12 Educatin Picy Area.
J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2
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Sst pst effts gt rtsp b n yk cts S pb Hh Shs f ch
By Hward S. Bm and Rebecca Unterman
T aking advantage f ttery-ike features in New Yrk Citys high schadmissins prcess, this study prvides rigrus evidence that new sma
pubic high schs are narrwing the educatina attainment gap and markedy
imprving graduatin prspects, particuary fr disadvantaged students. The newndings in this picy brief demnstrate that these schs are having a sustained effect
n graduatin rates, with psitive impacts fr virtuay every subgrup, incuding mae
and femae students f cr, students with w eighth-grade prciency in math and
Engish, and students eigibe fr free and reduced-priced unch. In additin, the sma
high schs shw psitive impacts n ve-year graduatin rates and n a measure f
cege readiness.2