meaning of the child interview ccpp - cambridge centre for ... · of winnicott: the mother gazes at...

TheMeaningofTheChildInterview(MotC)–Anewmethodofassessingandunderstandingparent-childrelationshipsof‘atrisk’families

AcceptedforpublicationbyClinicalChildPsychologyandPsychiatry,Pre-publicationversion

BenGrey,PhD,CambridgeCentreforAttachment,andSteveFarnfield,PhD,UniversityofRoehamptonCorrespondence:[email protected]

RederandDuncan’swellknown1990’sstudiesoffatalchildabusedrewattentiontohowparentalscriptsregardingtheirchildrencoulddangerouslydistortrelationshipsinwaysthatweresometimesfataltochildren(Reder,Duncan,&Gray,1993;Reder&Duncan1999).Thispaperreportsonanewsystemforassessingthe‘meaningofthechildtotheparent’,calledtheMeaningoftheChildInterview(MotC).ParentsareinterviewedusingtheestablishedParentDevelopmentInterview(Aber,Slade,Berger,Bresgi,&Kaplan,1985),orequivalent,andthetranscriptoftheinterviewisthenanalysedaccordingtoparentalsensitivityandlikelyrisktothechild.TheMotCconstructsweredevelopedfromthoseusedinobservedparent-childinteraction(specifically,theCARE-Index:Crittenden2010,CrittendenandBonvillian1984)andtheformofdiscourseanalysisusedintheDynamicMaturationalModel–AdultAttachmentInterview(CrittendenandLandini2011),allowingamoresystemicandintersubjectiveunderstandingofparentingrepresentationsthanoftenputforward.ThepaperdiscussesthetheoreticalbackgroundtotheMotC,givesabriefreviewofsimilarmeasures,andthenintroducesthecodingsystemandpatternsofcaregiving.ThevalidityoftheMotCisaddressedelsewhere(Grey2014a&b;GreyandFarnfieldsubmitted).

Introduction

Intheirclassicstudiesofchilddeathenquiries,Rederandhiscolleaguesdrewattentiontothewaysinwhichthemeaningparentsgavetoaparticularchildcouldbecomesodistortedthat,inextremecases,itledtofatalabuse(Reder,Duncan,&Gray,1993;Reder&Duncan,1999).Whilstallchildrenholdapsychologicalmeaningtotheirparents,inthesesituations,thechildren’sownidentityhadbecomesubmergedintheirparent’sblueprintfortherelationship;theybecame‘actorsinsomeoneelse’splay’(Reder&Duncan1999,p.71).Whilethemeaningchildrenhavetotheirparentscanbeseenasacoredimensionofallparenting(Farnfield2008),itisofparticularrelevancetosituationsofchildabuseandneglect.Thispaperdescribesanewsystemforanalysingthemeaningofthechildtotheparent,whichcanbeusedbychildprotectionandotherhealthandsocialcareprofessionals.

WhatistheMeaningoftheChild?

Themeaninganadultinvestsintheirchild,andthewayinwhichitshapestheparent-childrelationship,hasalonghistorygoingbackatleasttopsychoanalyticmodelsofthe

TheMeaningofTheChildInterview(MotC)–Anewmethodofassessingandunderstandingparent-childrelationshipsof‘atrisk’families––CCPPPre-publicationversion

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developmentofidentityininfantdevelopment,(Winnicott,1967).InMiller’sparaphrasingofWinnicott:

Themothergazesatthebabyinherarms,andthebabygazesathismother'sfaceandfindshimselftherein...providedthatthemotherisreallylookingattheunique,small,helplessbeingandnotprojectingherownexpectations,fears,andplansforthechild.Inthatcase,thechildwouldfindnothimselfinhismother'sface,butratherthemother'sownprojections.Thischildwouldremainwithoutamirror,andfortherestofhislifewouldbeseekingthismirrorinvain.(Miller,1979pp.61-62)

Inaliteraturebasedtheoreticalmodeloftheassessmentofparenting,themeaningofthechildisseenasacoredimensionofparenting(Farnfield2008).Thetaskforassessmentiswhethertheparentalscript,ordominantstoryaboutachild,canbemadevisibleinawaythatsupportsinformedinterventioninthatrelationship.TheMeaningoftheChildInterview(MotC)offersameansofdoingthis.

The‘MeaningoftheChild’inAttachmentTheory:TheSelf-ProtectiveTransformationofMeaning

Putrathercrudely,theassessmentofparentingcanbereducedtoobservingwhatparentsdowiththeirchildren,andaskingthemquestionsabouttheirchildandparentingtoelicithowtheythinkaboutwhattheydo.Intheoreticalterms,theseareparentalsensitivityandtheparent’srepresentationsofaparticularchild,orthemeaningthechildholdsfortheparent(Farnfield2014).Riskincreaseswhenparentsactinselfprotectiveratherthanchildprotectiveways(Crittenden2008)leadingtochronicwithdrawal(neglect)orhostilecontrol(physicalabuse).

Intheattachmentfield,pioneeringworkonadultrepresentationofattachmentwasbegunbytheMainandGoldwynsystemofdiscourseanalysis(patternsofspeech),(Main&Goldwyn,1994),foranalysingtheAdultAttachmentInterview(AAI:George,Kaplan,&Main,1985).ThebasicpremiseoftheAAIisthatcoherenceofspeechaboutearlyexperienceisadirectwindowontocoherenceofmindregardingthesametopics,acoherencethathasfoundtoberelatedtosecurityinwiderrelationshipsandinparenting(Hesse,2008).Forexample,aground-breakingstudyfoundthatsecurityofadultsontheAAIbeforetheirbabywasbornactuallypredictedattachmentsecurityoftheinfantat11-months-old(Fonagy,Steele&Steele1991).

ThemechanismsbywhichattachmentsecurityispassedonfromparenttochildisimperfectlyunderstoodleadingVanIJzendoorn(1995)topointouta‘transmissiongap’.Inparticular,parentalsensitivity(whatparentsdo)isonlyweaklylinkedtoattachmentsecurityintheirchild(Madiganetal.2006),suggestingastrongmediatingfactorishowparentsthinkaboutthechildandhowtheyprocessinformationconcerningcomfortanddanger(Slade,2005;Grienenberger,Kelly,&Slade,2005;Crittenden,2008).Other


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confoundinginfluencesmaybegeneexpression(Fearon,Shmueli-Goetz,Viding,Fonagy,&Plomin)andtheimpactofthewiderfamilysystem(Crittenden,Dallos,Landini,&Kozlowska,2014).

Tounderstandthisfurther,interviewsweredevelopedthatspecificallyelicitedparentalrepresentationoftheirchild,ratherthanoftheirchildhoodrelationships(thefocusoftheAAI).AnearlyattemptsimplytoapplyAAIdiscourseanalysistoaparentinginterviewfound,perhapsnotunsurprisingly,thatAAIpatternsofattachmentcouldbeidentifiedinaparentinginterview,butnotasclearlyasintheAAIitself(Crittenden,Partridge,&Claussen,1991),suggestingthatfurtherthoughtneededtobedoneinrelationtotheunderstandingthedifferencesbetweenthementalrepresentationsparentsholdoftheirchildrencomparedwiththoseoftheirownchildhood.

Aber,Slade,andcolleaguesdevelopedtheParentDevelopmentInterview(PDI:Aber,Slade,Berger,Bresgi,&Kaplan,1985)forsuchapurpose.TheirbreakthroughcamewhenSladeandhercolleaguesadaptedtheReflectiveFunctioning(RF)Scale,originallydevelopedfortheAAIbyFonagyandhiscolleages,tocodethePDI(Fonagy,Target,Steele,&Steele,1998;Slade,Bernbach,Grienenberger,Levy,&Locker,2005).Shiftingthefocusawayfromattachmentpatterns,tolookingatthecapacityofamothertorepresentherchildashavingthoughtsandfeelingsandintentions,andabilitytomakeuseofthisinunderstandingherownrelationshipwithherchild(alsocalledmentalising)openedarichveinofresearch(e.g.Slade,Grienenberger,Bernbach,Levy,&Locker,2005a;Suchman,DeCoste,Leigh,&Borelli,2010).Otherapproachesassessedessentiallythesameconceptinadifferentway,forexample,Meinsandhercolleagues(Meinsetal.,2003)examinedthe‘mindmindedness’ofparents,throughanalysingtheirmentalisingspeechinfreeplayinteractionswiththeirchild.OppenheimandKohen-Karie,usedaninterviewtoexamineamother’s‘insight’intothementalstatesofbothherselfandherchild,uponwatchingavideooffree-playinteractionbetweenthem(InsightfulnessInterview:Oppenheim&Koren-Karie,2009).

Theweaknessofthesemeasuresistheydonotadequatelyidentifythedifferencesthatexistbetweenparticularparent-childrelationships,especiallythosethoughttobe‘atrisk’.Bymeasuringthecapacityoftheparenttomentalise,theRFscaleinthePDIhasbeenusefulinidentifyingwhereparentsmaystruggletoparentthroughlackofmentalising,butislessusefulinidentifyingandunderstandingdifferencesbetweenparentswithalowmentalisingcapacity,orthedifferenceinrelationshipswithdifferentchildrenthataparentwhostrugglestomentalisemighthave.Forexample,whilstlowRFintheparentwasfoundtobepredictiveofinsecureattachmentinthechildgenerally,childdisorganisedattachment(themost‘atrisk’pattern)andavoidantattachment(wherechildreninhibitattachmentresponses)wasfoundhardtoidentify(Sladeetal.,2005a).

Otherresearchers,perhapsmindfulofthis,tookadifferenttackintryingtopreservealinkintheirunderstandingofparentingrepresentationswiththeattachmentclassificationsand


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patterns.SolomonandGeorge,forexample,adaptedthePDIintotheirCaregivingInterview,andwithitdevelopedfourpatternsofcaregivingtheoretically(andintheirresearch,empirically)linkedtothefourbasicattachmentpatternsidentifiedinMainandGoldwyn’ssystemofclassifyingtheAAI(George&Solomon,2008;Solomon&George,2011).However,byvirtueoffocussingonoverallpatternsofcaregivinglinkedtooridentifiedwithadultpatternsofattachment,theircodingsystemisequallyunableabletoshedlightondifferencesintherelationshipsaparentmighthavewithdifferentchildren.Inaddition,byhavingonlyone‘atrisk’category(‘helpless’parents,whoabdicateparentalresponsibility,linkedtoattachmentdisorganisation),GeorgeandSolomon’sconstructssimilarlycannotbeusedtosystematicallydistinguishdifferentkindsof‘atrisk’relationships.

Thesedifficultiesraisethewiderquestionofwhetherconstructsusedtounderstandparentingrepresentationsthatarelinkedeithertoadultattachmentdirectly,ortoacapacityoftheparent(suchastheirreflectivecapacity),cansufficientlycapturethedynamicanddevelopingwayaparentandchildinteract.Theparentissimultaneouslyrespondingtooutsidedanger,andherownmaturingchild,andthechildisrespondingtoherparentwithcontinuallynewpossibilitiesopenedupbyherowndevelopment.Forexample,pregnancyandmaternityitselfhasbeenseentohavethepotentialtoleadtoreorganisationandchange(Slade,Cohen,Sadler,&Miller,2009).Inotherwords,theparent’scurrentrelationshipwiththechildandthemeaningshe(orhe)derivesfromitstandsatthefulcrumofatwo-wayprocess.Notonlydoesaparent’spastexperienceinfluenceinteractionwiththechild,butthatsameinteractioniscapableofchangingtheparent’srepresentationofthepast:“Thepastisfixed,butitsmeaningisre-writteneverytimeitisrecalled”(Crittenden,2003p.357).

Thepointisnowwellknownandacknowledgedbytheresearchersdiscussedabove,butdoesnotyetappeartobefullyintegratedintoasystemofclassifyingparentinginterviews.EventheWorkingModeloftheChildInterview(WMCI:Zeanah,Benoit,Hirshberg,&Barton,1986;Benoit,Zeanah,Parker,Nicholson,&Coolbear,1997)whichmakesexplicituseoftheideainitsbasicunderstandingofparent-childrelationships,doesnotquitecapturethisdynamicanddyadicqualityinitscodingsystem,andalsoencounterssomeoftheproblemsalreadyoutlinedinbothdeliniatingriskyrelationshipsanddifferentiatingbetweenthem.SomeofthemostfruitfulworkwiththeWMCIhasbeeninclinicalstudies(Zeanah,2007)thatdonotmakeexplicituseofthecodingsystem,perhapssuggestingthatthereismoretothe‘captured’fromthisinterviewthantheexisitingcodingsystemidentifies.

TheMotCSystemofClassifyingParentingInterviews

TheMeaningoftheChildisanattempttotakethissamedyadicfocusandmakeitcentraltoitsunderstandingoftheparent-childrelationship.Itcombinesconstructsdrawnfromanassessmentofface-to-faceparent-childinteraction(theCARE-Index:Crittenden2010;CrittendenandBonvillian1984),withthemethodofdiscourseanalysisusedtoclassifythe


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AdultAttachmentInterview(CrittendenandLandini2011).Tounderstandhowparentalrepresentationsoftheirchildandtheirownparentingactuallytranslateintobehaviourandrelationshipwiththechild,asystemisneededthatisdyadicandrelationalinfocus,concentratingonaspectsthatconnectwithwhatisspecifictoaparticularparentandchild,ratherthanwhatissharedbyallchildreninthesamefamily.ThepatternsofCrittenden’sCARE-Index(classifiedfromshortvideosoffree-playinteraction)arederivedfromhowtheparentisassumedtoexperiencetheparticularchild(andvice-versa);howtheoneconnectstotheother.Byusingthesamepatterns,theMotCisabletounderstandaparent’srepresentationsoftheirchildinawaythatdirectlyreflectsthisconnection(seealsobelow).

Atthesametime,theintegrationofdiscourseanalysisderivedfromtheAAIpreservesthelinkbetweencoherenceofspeechandcoherenceofmindthatwasthepremiseuponwhichtheAAI’ssuccessinpredictinginfantsecuritywasbuilt.Inparticular,theMotCcodingsystemmakesuseofCrittenden’sapproachtotheAdultAttachmentInterviewofferedbyherDynamicMaturationalModelofAttachment(DMM:Crittenden2008,CrittendenandLandini2011).Crittenden’sDMMexpandsAinsworth’soriginalpatternsofAttachment(Ainsworthetal.1978)toincludemodificationsofthebasicpatternsofavoidance(TypeA)andambivalence(TypeC)underconditionsofextremethreat.Indoingso,theDMMavoidsrelianceuponthecannotclassifyorDisorganisedcategory(TypeD)usedbythemorecommonlyused,andmoreextensivelyresearched,MainandGoldwynsystemofclassifyingtheAAI.ThereisnonethelessadevelopingbodyofresearchsurroundingtheDMM-AAI,aswellasahistoryofclinicaluse(Farnfield,Hautamäki,Nørbech,&Sahhar,2010;Sahhar,2014).

WhilsttheMotCmakesuseoftheDMM-AAIinitsmethodology,itdoesnotseektoreplicateCrittenden’s(oranyother)patternsofadultattachment(seealsothediscussionofFigure1below).ItisCrittenden’sunderstandingofconsciousandunconsciousdefensiveinformationprocessingunderconditionsofthreat,andherintegrationofthiswithMemorySystemstheory(SchacterandTulving1994),thattheMotCmakesparticularuseof.Thedifferentiationofdifferent‘MemorySystems’orpathwaysbywhichthebrain‘re-presents’(reinterprets)experience,andtheelucidationofhowtheseprocessesmaybetransformedinconditionsofdangerdescribedbyCrittenden’stheory,haveopeneduppotentialtounderstandparent-childdiscourseinwaysthathadnotpreviouslyreceivedattention.Inmanyways,theworkindevelopingtheMotCcodingsystemechoedSolomonandGeorge’suseofBowlby’sunderstandingofdefensiveinformationprocessingintheirworkoncaregiving(George&Solomon,2008;Solomon&George,2011),butwithanexplicitefforttoachieveamoredyadicfocus,aswellasmakeuseofthedevelopmentsofferedbyCrittenden’sthinkingontheAAI.

Morerecentworkonreflectivefunctioning(e.g.LuytenandFonagy2014)hasextendedtheconcepttoinclude‘dimensionsofmentalising’namely:‘automatic/controlled’mentalising(looselytranslatedasconscious/unconsciousreflection),‘selfvs.other’(thesubjectof


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mentalising),‘internalvs.external’(derivedfrominternalknowledgeofownmentalstates,orinferredfromexternalbehaviour),and‘cognitive/affective’(understoodorfelt).ThesedimensionsarenothowevermadeuseofintheparentalReflectiveFunctioningScaleitself,butaspectsofthem,ifnotall,areintegraltoCrittenden’smethodofanalysingdiscoursebymemorysystems.Inparticular,themethodenablesconsciousandunconsciousprocessestobedifferentiated,andexamineshowaffectandcognitionaretransformedinthewayparentsspeak.Makinguseofthesetheoreticaldevelopmentshasofferedapracticalmethodologyfordevelopingasystemofclassifyingthemeaningaparentgivestotheirchildandtheparentingrelationship.Atthesametime,thesehavebeenrelatedtoconstructsderivedfromaprocedureusedtounderstandobservedparent-childinteractioninordertomoreeasily‘capture’theinterrelatednatureoftheparent-childrelationship.

Whilstithasbeencalled‘theMeaningoftheChildInterview’,soastomakeclearthemeansusedtoassessparent-childrelationships,theMotCisasystemofanalysingparentinginterviewsratherthantheinterviewprocedureitself.Forthemostpart,theMotChasemployedamodifiedversionofthePDI,butthesystemofanalysishasbeenusedclinicallywithotherinterviews,asithasnotheoreticalorpracticalrelianceonanyparticularinterviewprotocol.Similarly,whilstthefocusoftheMotC’svalidationstudy(Grey2014a&b;GreyandFarnfieldsubmitted)wasparents(mothersandfathers)ofchildrenaged0-3years,becauseofthemethod’soriginallinkwiththeCARE-Index,theinterviewhasbeenusedwithparentsofchildrenofallages,includinggrandparentsinrelationtoboththeiradultchildrenandtheirgrandchildren.Whilstfurtherworkaroundvalidityoftheseotherusesisneeded,inindividualclinicalcaseswherethereissupportfromestablishedprocedures,theuseoftheinterviewhasprovedfruitful.

TheMotCPatternsofCaregivingTheheartoftheMotChasbeentoseethedevelopmentofchildattachmentinamoredynamicway,onethatrecognisesthatthechildisanactiveparticipantintherelationship(eveniftheparenthassignificantlymorepower),andtomakethisinsightcentraltoasystemofclassifyingparent-childinterviews.Themeaningsthatboththechildandtheparenthaveinrelationtoeachother,arebothderivedfromthenatureoftheinteractionsbetweenthem,whichatthesametimeshapethatinteraction.Whilstalltheparentandchild‘see’ofeachotheristheother’sbehaviour,thisbehaviouristheoutworkingofaninternalprocess,wherebothparentandchildareconstantlygivingmeaningtoeachother’sactions.Hence,the‘meeting’ofparentandchildcanbeseenasacollaborative(ornon-collaborative)dialogue,aseriesofconversationsbetweenparentandchild(Lyons-Ruth,1999)inwhichthemeaningthateachhasoftheotherisconstructed;whatBeebeandhercolleagues(Beebe,Lachmann,Markese,Buck,etal.,2012;Beebe,Lachmann,Markese,&Bahrick,2012)callthe‘inter-subjective’space.

Ofcourse,thispicturedoesnotacknowledgethedevelopmentaldifferencesbetweenparentandchild.Theparentgivesmeaningtothechildpriortobirth(andfromawider


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socialcontextthatthechildisnotimmediatelyawareof).Asthechildgetsolders/hebecomesamoreactive,intentionalparticipantinthedialogue.Attachmenttherefore,isbetterseenas‘co-constructed’ratherthan‘transmitted’fromparenttochild(Beebe,etal.,2012;Beebe,etal.2012).

Withthisinmind,theMotCpatternsarebaseduponacontinuumbetweendistanced,psychologicallyunavailablecaregivingononeside(calledUnresponsive),andintrusive,overlyclose,psychologicallyenmeshedcaregivingontheother(calledControlling),withSensitivecaregivingbeingacooperative,mutualdialoguethatoccupiesthebalancebetweenthesetwoextremes.ThesepatternshavebeenderivedfromCrittenden’sCARE-Index,buthavebeengivenameaningherethatlinksmorecloselytohowparentsthinkabouttheirchild(seealsoFigure1).

SensitiveCaregivingThe‘Sensitive’parentenablesthedevelopment,protectionandnurtureofthechildthroughfacilitatingacollaborative‘inter-subjectivity’betweenthem.Suchparentswaitforthechild’sresponses,andinvestpositiveandappropriatemeaningstothechild’sinitiatives.Asinanycollaborativeconversation,eachpartyofferssomethingofthemselves,whilstlisteningandeagerlyattendingtoboththeresponsesandinitiativesoftheother.Such‘dialogues’areapleasuretolistento,asthereisebbandflow,morethanoneperspective,andafullrangeofmoderate(non-coercive)emotionalexpression.Thisistrueofallcollaborativerelationships,notjustparent-childones,buttheparentfacilitatesthiswiththeirchild,byactinginthechild’sZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD:Vygotsky,1967).Thiscanonlybedoneiftheparenttrulyknowstheirchild;generalisedknowledgeofchilddevelopmentisnotenough,asitmayobscureormisleadtheintentionsandunderstandingofthespecificchild.However,thechild’sinvolvementintheconversationisnotfearedbytheparent,sotheparentfeelsfreetoletthechildcontributetotheinter-subjectivedialogue,whilstalsobeingpresentherself.

Sensitiveparentsareabletousetheparentinginterviewtoexploreopenlyandhonestlytheirrelationshipwiththeirchild.Theoveralltoneofsuchinterviewsislikelytobeaffectionateandpositive,buttheparentisalsoopentodiscussingandthinkingaboutfrustrationsandproblems.Theseinterviewsarepersonalandlively–theycontainincidents,andimagesthatarepersonaltotherelationship,andcouldn’tbeborrowedfromTV,socialclichésorprofessionalprescriptionsofhowthings‘ought’tobe.Theparentisabletoconveytheirknowledgeofthechild.Theiraccountofthechildandtheirownparentingiscredible,andtheexpressionofaffectisappropriatetowhatisbeingdiscussed.Inthisway,Sensitiveinterviewstellastorythatisbuilttogetherbyparentandchildcooperatively,ratherthanimposedbyoneontheother,andwithoutbeingsomethingofafantasytoavoidlookingatwhatisreallygoingon.


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ControllingCaregiving

Forparentingclassifiedas‘Controlling’,theinter-subjectivespaceinthe‘dialogue’betweenparentandchild,canbere-envisagedasparentaldominanceofthemeaningmakingprocessThechildisrequiredtotakeonameaningtothedialoguethatechoestheparent’sown.Theintrusiveparentperceivesthechild’sautonomy,andabilitytomakemeaningoftherelationshipasathreat,andso‘movesinto’thespacethatisotherwisejointlyconstructedinhealthyrelationships.Thecontrollingparentrespondstothethreattheyperceivefromthechildbyattemptingtomaketherelationshipwhattheywantorneedittobe,ratherthanfeelingsecureenoughtoallowtherelationshiptodevelopinawaythatrespectsthechild’ssubjectivityandpersonality.Theparentneedstocontrolthedialogue(havethe‘firstandthelastword’)becausetoletthechildshapeitistoothreatening,asthechildwillineffectbeshapingthemalso.Theparentconstructsthemeaningofthechildinsuchawayastonecessitatedirectingthechildontoadifferentpathfromthatwhichheorshemightchooseonhisorherown.

Thecontrollingparent(mis)perceivesthechild’sZPDsuchastonecessitatetheparent’sconstantintervention.Inthemindoftheparent,problemsintherelationshiparetheresultofthechild’sattemptstocontributesomethingdifferentandpotentiallydamagingtothedialogue(whichiswhycontrollingparentscommonlyperceivetheirchildrenascontrolling).Theparent’sfearofthechildcontrollingthem,leadsthemtotryandcontrolthechild.

Someoftheseinterviewsshowapatternofcovertoroverthostility(seeFigure1below,andforallpatternshighlighted):thechildpresentsaproblem,ordifficultyfortheparent,andthechildistoblameforthenegativeexperiencesoftheparent(andthemselves).Sometimessomepositivesemantic(generalised)conclusionsaboutthechildortheparent’srelationshipwiththechildaregiven.However,theseareunderminedormadevacuousbynegativeimagesofthechild(orthechild’sfeelings)andbyrelatingepisodesthatemphasisethedifficultiesinvolvedinparentingthischild,.Thelanguageusedaboutthechildandtheirrelationshipoftenevokesnegativefeelingsaboutthechildinthelistener,andsoengenderingsympathytowardstheparent.Oftenthereisasubtleundercurrentofhostility,expressedinhumourthattrivialisesthechildorhisorherneeds,belittlesthem,orexaggeratestheirangerandaggression.Inextremecasesthehostilitymaybeovertinactivelyderogatorystatementsandlanguage,althoughthisisrare.Whatismorecommonlyseen,aredescriptionsofthechild’smentalising(thinking,feeling,believingetc.)thatmakethechildouttobemorehostileorrejectingthaniseitherlikelyordevelopmentallycredible.Theinterviewjustifiesaggressivethinking,feelingandsometimesevenactionstowardsthechild(andexoneratestheparent’snegativebehaviourtowardsthechild).

Enmeshedinterviewsmistakethechild’sperspectivefortheparent’s.Theyaremorepositiveintonethanthemorehostileinterviews,buttheparent’sneedsanddesiresarereadintothechild.Theyareoftenmistakenlyperceivedassensitive,becausetheyare


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generallypositive,andhighlyimaged.However,unlikesensitiveinterviews,theseinterviewshaveahighlyarousedtonethroughout,tothepointofdesperation.Ultimatelytheparentisdescribingtheirownneeds,andthechildremainsunseen(andunvalued)asapersoninher(orhis)ownright.Thetranscriptsarethereforecharacterisedbyaconfusionoftheparent’sperspectivewiththatofthechild.Atthesametimethereremainsanunacknowledgedundercurrentofhostilityintheseinterviews,reflectingtheparent’sangerat(orfearof)thechildmakingameaningfulcontributiontotherelationship,andthefactthatultimatelythechildcannotliveuptotheburdenofexpectationplaceduponhimorher.Inlessseriouscases(suchasthosecharacterisedasFrustratedorNeedy),controllingthinkingservestohighlightanddrawattentiontoproblemsintherelationship,andtoelicitsupportfortheparentinresolvingthem.Ultimately,theparentstillrecognisestheirparentalroleandissearchingforasolution.Also,keepingtheproblemalivemayfunctiontokeepothersinvolvedinsupportingtheparent,andenabletheparenttofeelbetterabouttheirroledespitethedifficulties.

UnresponsiveCaregiving

Thedefenceofparentsclassifiedas‘Unresponsive’totheperceivedthreatofthechild’sabilitytoshapethemistowithdrawfromthedialogue.Theunresponsiveparentconstructsameaningofthechildthatjustifiestheirownlackofgenuineparticipationintheconversation.Usuallythechildisidealised,theparentunderstandingthechild’sZPDinsuchawaythatunderestimatestheinvolvementthechildneeds,andfacilitatesparentalabsence.Inthecaseofdepressedparents,theirowninvolvementispathologisedandseenasineffectiveorunhelpful;soexoneratingpsychologicalandoftenphysicalwithdrawal.However,assumingthattheunresponsivenessstopsshortofactualphysicalabandonment,thechildisstillphysicallythere,andsothereis,bynecessity,somekindofdialogue.Thechildmustfillthevacuumforhisorherownsurvival,andbecomethedrivingforceinthe‘conversation’.Thefearoftheunresponsiveandwithdrawingparentappearstobenotsomuchwhatthechildwilldoifgivenautonomyintherelationship,butwhattheparentwillfeeliffully‘present’.Whatisparticularlystrikingintheseinterviews,istheemotionalabsenceoftheparents,asmuchastheirlackofknowledgeofthechild.

TheidealisationofinterviewsclassifiedasUnresponsiveisseenintheparent’sinabilitytodescribegenuineexperiencethatmightgivetheirstatementspersonalrelevance.Thereisanabsenceofimages,descriptionsofmentalising,and‘fresh’livelydiscourse.SuchAbsentparentsstruggletogivemeaningtothechild’ssignalsandbehaviour,sotheyareunabletorepresentitinaninterviewinameaningfulway.ThisalsocharacteriseswhatareheretermedDepressedparents,notasaproxydiagnosis,butrathertoidentifyparentswhohaveinsomewaygivenupontherelationshipandperceiveitasinsomeway‘lost’orhopeless.


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Somepsychologicallydistancingparentsappeartobedoingmore,butwhattheydoislargelyunrelatedtothechildinfrontofthem.Theseparentsaremorelikelytodescribeafantasychildandafantasisedrelationship.Oftenthechildisidolised–placedonapedestaltobeadmired,ratherthanparented.Suchchildrenarepresentedas‘morethan’children,whichbyextensionmeansthattheyrequiresomething‘lessthan’parentingfromtheircaregiver.Theparentspeaksasiftheyaresomethingofaspectator(asiftheywereinaweofthechild)ratherthanactivelyinvolvedinrelatingtothem.Lackingagenuineconnectiontothechild,inextremecasesthisisimagined;analmostmagicalcommunicationisdescribed,orthechildisattributedwithmentalisingthatheorsheisdevelopmentallyincapableof.

Inlessthreatenedrelationships,theparentmayoverlookthechild’slesscriticalneeds,throughamildlyidealisedaccountoftheirexperiences(whichminimisethechild’sneedforcomfortandreassurancewhennotseriouslythreatened).Similarly,somewhatbusiness-likeparentstendtofocusonthetasksinvolvedinparenting,attheexpenseoffullybeing‘present’totheirchildasaperson;theirefficiencyandundoubteddedicationmakingupforalackofjoyintherelationship.

UnresponsiveandControllingCaregiving

Someparentsbothintrudeonthechildanddistancethemselvesatdifferenttimesandinrelationtodifferentdangers,orlevelofthreat.Thisiseasiesttounderstandinrelationtothedifferentformsittakes.ItismostclassicallyseeninRole-Reversedrelationships:these,unlikepurelyUnresponsiveorpurelyControllingpatternsarereciprocal(insomewaymutual),butunlikeSensitiverelationships,functiontoprotectandevennurturetheparent,ratherthanthechild.ThedepictionthereforemirrorsthatoftheSensitiveparent,butthenatureofthecooperationinvolveddoesnotsupportthechild’sdevelopment.

TheUnresponsivenesscomesfromthewayinwhichRolereversingtranscriptsidealisethechild,inordertofacilitatewithdrawalfromtheparentalrole.Suchadistortiontherefore,functionstosupporttheparent’sleaninguponthechild,whose‘childlikeness’isignoredorminimisedtoemphasisethechildasasourceofsupporttothem.However,mostRoleReversingrelationshipsalsohaveastrongcontrollingelementtothem.Thisislikelytheresultoftheburdenofexpectationuponthechildtobecomewhattheparentneedsthemtobe.Therole-reversedparentcannotaffordtotruly‘see’thechild’sneedinessandvulnerability,whichisoftendismissed,feared,orpathologised.Thereisonlyroomfortheparenttobetheneedyoneintherelationship.Bothrejectionandidealisationarepresentinthetranscripttherefore,butnotintegratedorreflectedupon.

Some,moretrulyunresponsiveparents(inthesenseofwantingdistancefromthechild)findthatthechild’snegativeaffectthreatenstheirequilibrium,andthefantasisedoridealised,‘safe’worldtheyseektoinhabitpsychologically.Thechild’snegativeaffectin


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theserelationshipsthreatensthefantasy,andsotheparentmustsuppressitordismissitintrusively.ThesetranscriptsareseenasUnresponsive-Rejecting,astheparent’sphysicallyintrusivebehaviourandoccasionalelementsofrejectingthought,ultimatelyservestomaintainthedistanceintherelationshipratherthankeepthechildclose.Oftenthesetranscriptscombineastronglyidealisedviewoftheparent-childrelationshipandthechildherorhimself,withanundercurrentoffearofthechild’snegativeaffect(andtheparent’sownabilitytomanageit).Anger,fearorsadnesscantakeonthequalityof‘theelephantintheroom’.

Ontheotherhand,insomeseeminglyControllingrelationships,hostilitytowardsthechildfunctionstoexoneratetheparentwithdrawingfromthechild,abdicatingtheparentingrole(becausethechildisperceivedasimpossibletohelporcareforinsomeway).ThiscategoryislabelledControlling-Withdrawal,asinthesecasestheparentisattemptingtointrudeandchangethechild,buttheirdisappointmentandfrustrationattheirinabilitytodosoissogreatthattheyhavetosomedegree‘givenup’onthechild.Theirbehaviourmaybeneglectingratherovertlypunitivetowardsthechild,butanintensestrugglewiththechildisstillgoingintheparent’smind.

Figure1:TheMeaningoftheChild–DyadicPatternsofCaregiving

Sensi&ve(

Frustrated(/(Needy(

Hos&le(/(Enmeshed(

Controlling(Withdrawal(

Role=Reversal(

Unresponsive(Rejec&ng(

Absent((Depressed)(/(Fantasised(

Business=like(/(Idealising(

Unresponsive(PaKerns(–((Psychological(Withdrawal(

Controlling(PaKerns(–(Psychological(Intrusion(

Sensi&ve(PaKerns((Co=constructed(rela&onship(with(Adult(as(Psychological(Parent(

Unresponsive(and(Controlling(PaKerns(Co=constructed(Rela&onship(with(Child(as(Psychological(Parent(

Meaning'of'the'Child'(Dyadic(PaKerns(of(Paren&ng(


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Thesedifferentpatternscanbevisualisedasacircle,withthehorizontalaxisdepictingthereciprocityandmutualityoftherelationship:theabsentparentontheleft(Unresponsive),andthedominatingparentontheright(Controlling).Inthemiddle,arethemutuallynegotiatedrelationships(Sensitive,andRole-reversed):thesearedifferentiatedvertically,accordingtothedegreeinwhichtheparentisabletoactastheprotectiveandnurturingoneintherelationship(the‘Psychologicalparent’).TheconceptualisationoftheMeaningoftheChildpatternsintheformofacircleowesmuchtoCrittenden’spresentationofherDMMpatternsofattachmentinadulthood(CrittendenandLandini2011),buttheMotCpatternsdonotcorrespondwithCrittenden’s,whicharearrangedinrespecttoinformationprocessingaxesofcognition/affect,andfalsityofinformation,ratherthanthedyadiconesofintrusion/absence,andparent/childroledepictedhere.ThisreflectstheMeaningoftheChild’sconceptualisationasinter-subjectiveandultimatelymoresystemicwayoflookingatattachmentrelationships(inthesensethatthepatternsareorganisedbythe‘position’and‘role’thattheparticipantsinarelationshiptaketoeachother).

LeanneandJohn:CaseStudies

ThediscourseofLeanne(motherofLizzie,whoisaged22months),amotherwhoseMeaningoftheChildwasclassifiedsensitive,isfullofwarmandaffectionateimages,andrichdiscourseaboutherchild’sexperiencethatshowthepositiveimpactshehasuponhermother.Lizziewasverymuch‘there’intheinteractiondescribed;herpersonalityandlikesanddislikeswerevividlydescribed.Leannewasbeingassessedaspartofcourtproceedingsfollowingtheremovalofherdaughteroverayearpreviously.Leannecamefromasociallyandmateriallywell-offfamily,andmarriedamanwithawell-respectedjob,whowaswellregardedbyherfamily.Somemonthsaftertheyweremarriedandtheir(only)childwasborn,Leannehadagreedtoreturntoworkafterhermaternityleave,butonanearlyvisittoherworkplace,Lizziewasthrownbyherfatherwhowaslookingafterher,andseriouslyinjured.Leanneinitiallysupportedherhusbandandcoveredforhim,whichresultedinherseparationfromLizzie.However,bythetimeoftheassessment,LeannehadseparatedfromLizzie’sfatherandwasdoingallshecouldtohaveherdaughterreturnedtohercare.

Leanne’sseparationfromLizzieisintenselyfelt,butthisisnotexaggeratedorcoerciveoftheinterviewer;itishergenuineexperience:

WhatdoyoulikemostaboutLizzie?

Um...that’squiteadifficultquestiontoanswer(softlaugh).

Itisadifficultquestion,haveago,haveashot.

(7-8secondssilence-thinking)


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Wellit’sdifficulttoputmyfingerononething,there’sacoupleofthingsthatIreallyloveaboutLizzie...um(pause)oneofthemisum(pause)Ireallylovehersmile,she’sgot,shesmilesateverybodybutshe’sgotaparticularsmilethatsheturnsaroundandgrinsforyou,forsomebodyspecialinherlifeumm(pause)she’sgotaveryinfectiouslaugh,shelovestolaughumm(pause),reallylikethataboutherumm(pause)Sorryit’sverystrange,thewayshesmellscosshe’smychildandit’safunnyparentthingIknow,maybeonlyI’vegotbutthere’sthesmellofLizzieandIcanstillgointoherroomandeventhoughshe’snotbeenthereforavery,verylongtime,itsmellslikeLizzieinthatroom(pause)it’saverystrangething.

It’snotastrangething.

Andeventhoughshe’sbeenwithherfostermother,shestillsmellslikeLizzie(pause)umsothat’squiteimportanttomeum(pause)andum(pause)butwhenshecallsmummyevenifshe’supsetorshe’s(pause)umhappyoryouknowwhenshecallsformethatreallymeltsmyheartevenifit’s,evenifshe’sannoyedwithme(laughs)....

Thisisapowerfullyemotivepassage,butitissobecauseofthesadnessofthesituation,notbecausethelisteneriscoercedthroughdistortedinformationorone-sidedpresentation.ItisLeanne’sintimateandpersonalknowledgeofandconnectionwithherdaughterthatmakesthepassagesoaffecting.Smellisamongthemostintimateofsenses,anditsappearanceininterviewstendstoevidenceeitherthemostpositiveorthemostnegative(oftentraumatised)affectiveresponses.ItisclearthatLizzieasapersonhashadaspowerfuleffectuponLeanne,ashermotherhasuponher,buttheinfluenceismutuallypleasurableandaffirming(evenifitalsoentailsloss,giventherealityoftheirsituation).

InSensitiveinterviews,the‘co-constructed’inter-subjectivityisshownintheinterviewitselfaswellastheparent’srelationshipwiththeirchild.Withoutlosingawarenessofherownfeelingsandpointofview,Leannealsotooktheinterviewer’sperspective,andwasopenandcooperativeinherdiscussionofherdaughter.Attimesshemoderatedtheintensityofherfeelingsbydistancinglanguage,butfarfromdistancingherselffromthechild,orbeingoverlyintense,shewasinfactregulatingherself(andprotectingtheinterviewer)inthefaceofherverystrongemotions.TheinterviewerhasaccesstoLeanne’sfeelingsaboutherchildandherloss,buttheyarenotpusheduponher.

Thisabilitytoallowthelistenertoformherownconclusions,tomaketheinterviewajointprocesswherebothparticipantsareactiveinderivingmeaningfromit,wasabsentintheinterviewsofmoreendangeredparents.Theseeitherretreatedfromtheinterviewprocess,


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contributingjustenoughto‘getthrough’,orsoughttocontroltheinterview,desperatetoensurethattheoneandonlymeaningacceptabletotheparentisallowedtodominate.ForJohn,afathertryingtoreformhimselfafteraperiodinprison,his15-month-oldsonTommywaspresentedasthesolemotivationandsourceofJohn’sreformationfromhisviolentpast,andhisreasonforliving:

If[Tommyisnotreturnedtomycare],IdreadtothinkwhatI’mgoingtodo,honestly,Ithink,IthinkI’mgonnaget–‘bout15year’sjailorsomethingstupidhonestlyifIdon’tgetmyboy,Idreadtothinkcos–likeIsaidtoyou,that’smylife–inthatlittleboy’shands.Heholdsthekeytomyheart.

TheproblemiswhatJohnseesinTommy,andhimselfasaparent,islargelywhatheneedstosee.Tommywascastintotheroleof‘saviour’,whichbothplacedanunfairburdenona1-year-oldchild,andnecessarilydistortedJohn’sdiscussionoftheirrelationship.JohncouldnotaffordtotrustTommytocontributefreelyinhisownrighttotheinter-subjectivespacebetweenthem,becausethiswouldhaveriskedhimgivingadifferentmeaningtotherelationshipthantheonethatJohnsodesperatelyneedstobelievein.

Therefore,John’sdescriptionsoftheirrelationshipwereextremelyexaggeratedandintense.Manyofhisimagesweresimplynotcredible.Johnregularlyconfusedhimselfwithhischild,andtheirperspectivewasenmeshedandnotdistinguished.ItwasclearthatwhetherTommy’sbehaviourisaffectionateordistancing,Johngivesameaningtoitthatfitshispredeterminedscript:

Thelove,theuniquenessofmysonandourrelationship,cosit’soneofakind,youwon’tgetonelikemeandmysonhasgot,Idon’tcarewhoyougot,whatevertheythink.….

...canyoutellmeaboutjustaparticularmoment,describeatimewithhimwhere,where,thathasshowedthelovethereisbetweenyou..

EverytimeIopenthatdoortowalkin,toseehim,everytime,youcanjustfeeltheloveintheroom.Its,Idon’tknowifthatsoundsstrangebut,youjustcan,Iwalkinandassoonashisarmscomeup,andhejustwrapshimselfandsqueezessotightthat,thatjustshowsmehelovesmeandthatIdothesameback,IshowhimIlovehim,butwhenIputhiminthecar,hewon’tkissme,hewon’twavegoodbye–nothing,ithurts,butIthinkIknowwhy,coshe’shavingtogoback,whichhedoesn’twanttodo,youcanseeit,hedoesn’twannadoit,butthat’smyopinion,otherpeoplemighthavetheirownoutlookonthatwhentheyseeit,andseehowheis,butthat’smypersonalopinionashisfather.


15

ThereappearsnothingthatTommycandotoinfluencethemeaningthatJohnconstructsaroundtheirrelationship,andJohn’sneedtoinsistonthisinthefaceofwhatheperceivesashostileattemptsbyotherssoseethingsdifferently,isbothpalpableanddesperate.

Conclusion:TheParticularContributionoftheMeaningoftheChild

Itisthemoresystemic,inter-subjectiveapproachtoclassifyingparentingrepresentationsthatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionoftheMeaningoftheChildInterview.ThisapproachallowstheMeaningoftheChildtobealivetothewayinwhichoutsiderelationships,suchascouple,familyandwidersocialrelationshipshelpshapethemeaningoftherelationshipforbothparentandchild,inadditiontotheinfluenceoftheparent’schildhoodattachmentexperiences.ItalsoenablestheMotCtoexplaindifferencesinchildrenwhosharethesamecarer,givingattentiontothewayinwhichmeaningis‘co-constructed’inaspecificrelationship.Finally,theMeaningoftheChildInterviewavoidslumpingall‘atrisk’relationshipswithina‘catch-all’category(usuallyrelatinginsomewayto‘disorganised’attachment),orsimplyscoringthelevelofrisk,andsocanmakemeaningfuldistinctionsbetweendifferentlyfunctioningstrugglingrelationships.Thisextendsitsclinicalandforensicpotential,throughitsabilitytoidentifydyadsandfamilieswhoserelationshipsworkverydifferentlyfromeachother,resultingdifferingdevelopmentalpathwaysforthechild.Wehopethatbydifferentiatingdifferentpatternsofthinkingassociatedwithproblematicandattimesdangerouscaregiving,theMotCcanmakeafruitfulcontributiontobothpracticeandfutureresearch.

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