means-ends chain model

8/13/2019 Means-Ends Chain Model

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L S V I R Intern. J. o f R esearch in M arketing 12 (1995) 227-244

means end chain approach to consumer goal structures

R i k P i e te r s a , , H a n s B a u m g a r t n e r b, D o u g A l ie n b

a T dburg Univer si ty , P .O . Bo x 90153, 5 000 L E T dburg, The N e ther lands

b The Pennsyluania Sta te Universi ty , University Park , PA 16802, US A

Accepted May 1995

Abs t rac t

T h i s p ap e r p re s en t s a co n cept u a li z a ti o n o f g o a l -d ir ec t ed co n s u m er b eh av io r in t e rm s o f a h ie r a r ch i ca l s t ~ u r e o i

increas ing ly m ore abs t rac t goals which are conn ected to one an o the r th rough m eans-e nd re la t/onsh ips . The g ~ |

s t ruc tu re inc orpora tes bo th the re la tive ly con cre te l eve l o f spec i f ic ac t ion p lans , which i s concerne d wi th the how of

behav io r , and the m ore abs t rac t l eve l o f va lues and mot ives , which p rov ide the u l t imate reasons fo r t~Jrsu ing a

course o f ac t ion and thus cons t i tu te the why o f behav io r . We a l so d i scuss how goal s t ruc tu res can he assessed

empir ica l ly , and we i l lus t ra te the p rocedure th rough an exp lo ra to ry s tudy o f the h igher- level goals under~mg

consum ers ' weigh t loss behav io rs. To dem ons t ra te the va lue o f t ak ing a s t ruc tu ra l p erspect ive on goals , we p rovk te

ev i d en ce t h a t k n o wl ed g e o f t h e m ean s -en d co n n ec ti o n s b e t ween g o a ls y i e ld s i m p o r t an t i nfo rm a t i on ~ co n -sum ers ' invo lvement wi th w eigh t loss, and tha t th is i_n_fo..rm..at~n_ can_.rm_t ~ g a in e d f ro m a k._n~.:w ed~eof the ~oa .~

alone .

Keywords Goa l di rected behavior; Mean s end chain theory; Ladde ring

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

C o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r i s o f t e n d e p i c t e d a s p u r -

p o s e f u l a n d g o a l - o r i e n t e d , y e t s u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e

r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n d e v o t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f g o a l s .

M o d e l s p u r p o r t i n g t o e x p la i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f

c o n s u m e r s u s u a ll y m a k e s c a n t m e n t i o n o f t h e

n o t i o n o f g o a l s ( f o r a n e x c e p t i o n s e e B e t t m a n ,

1 97 9) , a n d t h e n e g l e c t o f g o a l c o n c e p t s i n c o n -

s u m e r r e s e a r c h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d

t r e a t m e n t a c c o r d e d t o t h is t o p ic in m o s t c o n -

s u m e r b e h a v i o r t e x t b o o k s .

T h e r e a r e s i g n s , h o w e v e r , t h a t m o t i v a t i o n a l

• C orresponding author. Tel. +31.13-663043, Fax : +31-13-6 6 2 8 7 5 .

r e s ea r c h m a y be e x p e r ie n c in g a r e n a ~ a n c e i n

m a r k e t i n g a n d c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r ( B a u m g a r t n e r ,

1 9 94 ). A f t e r a p e r i o d o f a l m o s t e x c l u s b ~ f o c u s © n

t h e c o g ni ti v e a s p e c t s o f c o n s u m e r r u i n g

t h e m o r e r e c e n t e m p h a s is o n e m o ~ o n a l p h e n o m -

e n a ( K a s s a r ji a n , 1 9 9 4 ), c o n s u m e r r e s e a r c h e r s a r e

b e g in n i ng t o t u rn t h ei r a t t en t io n t o m c ~ - ~ i ~ t ~

i s s u e s i n g e n e r a l ( e . g . , C e l s i a n d O l s o n , 1 9 8 8 )

c o n s u m e r s ' g o a l s in p a r t i c u l a r ( e .g . , B a g o z z i

W a r s h a w , 1 99 0;, H u f f m a n a n d ~ t ~ - l , 1 9 93 ).

I m p o r t a n t f o u n d a t i o n a l w o r k o n g o a ls h a s b e e n

c o n d u c t e d b y r e s e a r : h e r s i n p s yc h o lo g y ( s ee , f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e c o l l e c t i o n s o f a r t i cl e s i n F r e s e a n d

S a b i n i , 1 9 8 5 , a n d P e r v i n , 1 9 8 9) , a n d t h e t i m e

s e e m s r i p e t o m o r e e x p l ic i tl y i n c o r p o r a t e g o a l s

i n to m o d e l s o f c o n s u m e r b e h a v io r .

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h is a r ti c le i s t h r e e f o ~ : ( a ) t o

0 1 6 7 - 8 1 6 / 9 5 / $ g 9 . 5 0 © 1 9 9 5 E l . ~ v i e r S c i e n c e B . V . A l l r i g h ts e s e r v e d

SS I 0 1 6 7 - 8 1 1 6 ( 9 5 ) 0 0 0 2 3 - 2



228 K Pieters et al. / bztern. J . of Research bl Markethtg 12 1995) 227 -24 4

o f f e r a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f g o a l - d i r e c t e d c o n -

s u m e r b e h a v i o r in t e r m s o f a h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c -

t u r e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e a b s t r a c t g o a l s ; ( b ) t o

o u t l i n e a m e t h o d o l o g y f o r a s s e s s i n g g o a l s t r u c -

t u r e s e m p i r i c a l l y ; a n d ( c ) t o p r o v i d e p r e l i m i n a r ye v / d e n c e o n t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t a k i n g a s t r u c t u r a l

p e r s p e c t i v e o n g o a l s b y r e l a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m

t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e t o o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s o f i n t e r e s t .

O u r c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k d r a w s m o s t h e a v i ly o n

p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r / e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e l f - r e g u -

l a t i o n o f b e h a v / o r ( e .g . , P o w e r s , 1 97 3; C a r v e r a n d

S che i e r , 1981 ) and ac t i on i den t i f i ca t i on (Va l -

l a c h e r a r id W e g n e r , 1 9 8 5) . F u r t h e r , w e e x t e n d t h e

n o t i o n o f m e a n s - e n d c h a i n t h e o ry . ( G u t m a n , 1 98 2;

O l s o n a r i d R e y n o l d s , 1 9 8 3 ) t h a t t h e c o n s u m p t i o n

o f p r o d u c t s i s u l t i m a t e l y a m e a n s t o a c h i e v i n g

i m p o r t a n t v a l u e s t o t h e d o m a i n o f g o a l - o ri e n t e d

c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r . W e d e s c r ib e a v a r i a n t o f t h e

i a d d e r i n g m e t h o d o l o g y , w h i c h i s u s e d t o c o n -

s t r u c t m e a n s - e n d c h a i n s ( R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n ,

t 9 88 ) , a s a p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h t o m o d e l i n g c o n -

s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s , a n d w e i l lu s t r a t e t h e p o -

t e n t i a l o f th i s te c h n i q u e w i t h a n e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d y

o f t h e h i g h e r - l e v e l g o a l s u n d e r l y i n g c o n s u m e r s '

w e i g h t l o s s b e h a v i o r s . W e a n a l y z e t h e i n f o r m a -

t m n c o n t a i n e d i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e a n d r e l a t e i t

t o i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o w e i g h t l o ss . T h e

p a p e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h a d i s c u ss i on o f c o n s u m e rg o a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u t u r e

r e s e a r c h .

2 . C o n s u m e r g o a l s a n d g o a l s tr u c t u r e s

A g o a l is th e a i m o r e n d o f a n a c t i o n ( L o c k e

a n d L a t h a m , 1 9 90 ). M o r e s p e c i fi c a ll y , i t c a n b e

d e f i n e d a s ' a m e n t a l im a g e o r o t h e r e n d p o i n t

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a f f e c t t o w a r d

w h i c h a c t i o n m a y b e d i r e c t e d ( P e r v i n , 19 89 , p .

474 ) . As s t a t ed ha t h i s de f i n i t i on , goa l s s e rve t wo

rnof ivat ior ,a l func t i ons . F i r s t , t hey i n f l uence t he

d i r e c ti o n o f b e h a v i o r b y e x p r e s s i n g w h a t p e o p l e

a r e t r y i n g t o a c c o m p l i s h , a n d i n a b r o a d e r s e n s e

h o w t h e y a r e p l a n n i n g t o a t t a i n t h e g o a l i n q u e s -

tk~n and w h y t h e y a r e p u r s u i n g t h e c h o s e n c o u r s e

o f a c t i o n i n t h e f i rs t p l a c e . S e c o n d , t h e y i n f l u e n c e

t h e i n t e n s i t y o f b e h a v i o r b y d e t e r m i n i n g h o w v i g -

o r o u s l y a p e r s o n w i l l p u r s u e a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n

d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e d e s i r a b i li t y o f t h e f o c a l g o a l .

S i n c e m a n y b e h a v i o r s t h a t a r e o f i n t e r e s t t o m a r -

k e t e r s a r e g o a l - d i r e c t e d a n d s i n c e g o a l s a r e t h e

e s s e n t i a l r e g u l a t o r s o f s u c h b e h a v i o r s ( C a r v e r a n d

S c h e i e r , 1 9 8 1 ) , i t s e e m s i m p o r t a n t t o s t u d y c o n -s u m e r s ' g o a l s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o b e h a v i o r .

G o a l s a r e o f t e n s t u d i e d i n i s o l a t i o n . T o c i t e

t w o r e c e n t e x a m p l e s , H u f f m a n a n d H o u s t o n

( 1 9 93 ) e x a m i n e d t h e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s -

i n g g o a l s o n i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i s i t io n , a n d B a g o z z i

a n d W a r s h a w ( 19 9 0) i n v e s ti g a te d c o n s u m e r s ' p u r -

s u i t o f t h e g o a l o f lo s i ng w e i g h t a s a f u n c t i o n o f

t h e i r w e i g h t l o s s i n t e n t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d

s u c c e s s f u l o r u n s u c c e s s f u l g o a l a t t a i n m e n t . H o w -

e v e r , w e t a k e t h e p o s i t io n t h a t m u c h c a n b e

g a i n e d f r o m t a k i n g a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t iv e b y c o n -

s i de r i ng t he o t he r goa l s i n wh i ch t he foca l goa l i s

e m b e d d e d . W e r e f e r t o s u c h a n e t w o r k o f i n t e rr e -

l a t e d g o a l s a s a g o a l s t r u c t u r e . A g o a l s t r u c t u r e

c o m p r i s e s t h e s e t o f g o a l s t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t t o a

g i v e n b e h a v i o r , a n d i t s p e c i f i e s h o w t h e s e g o a l s

a r e o r g a n i z e d . U s u a l l y , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t g o a l s

a r e o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h i c a l l y , s u c h t h a t a g o a l a t

s o m e l e v e l i n t h e g o a l h i e r a r c h y c a n b e b r o k e n

d o w n i n t o a s e r ie s o f s u b g o a l s w h i c h h a v e t o b e

a t t a i n e d i n o r d e r t o r e a c h g o a l s a t h i g h e r l e v e l s

(e . g . , B andu ra , 1989 ; B each , 1990 ; C arve r and

S c h e i e r , 1 9 8 1 ; E m m o n s , 1 9 8 9 ; V a l l a c h e r a n dW e g n e r , 1 98 5) . G o a l s a t l o w e r l e v e l s i n t h e h i e r -

a r c h y s e r v e a s m e a n s t o a c h i e v e h i g h e r - l e v e l g o a l s

a s e n d s , a n d t h u s a g o a l h i e r a r c h y c a n b e t h o u g h t

o f a s a m e a n s - e n d s t r u c t u r e o f s e q u e n c e s o f s u b -

o r d i n a t e a n d s u p e r o r d h a a t e g o a l s (c f . B e t t m a n ,

1979 ; Newel l and S i m on , 1972 ) .

S e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o s p e c if y t h e

d i f f e r e n t l e v e ls i n t h e g o a l h i e r a r c h y . B u i l d i n g o n

t h e e a r l i e r w o r k o f P o w e r s ( 1 9 7 3 ) , C a r v e r a v d

S c h e i e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e p r o g r a m ,

t h e p r i n c i p le , a n d t h e s y s t e m l e v e l, i n i n c r e a s i n g

o r d e r o f a b s t r a c t n e s s . P r o g r a m s a r e i n e s s e n c e

w h a t S c h a n k a n d A b e l s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) c a ll sc r i p t s ( s e e

a l s o A b e l s o n , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e y r e p r e s e n t p r o t o t y p i c a l

s e q u e n c e s o f e v e n t s f o r s i t u a t io n s s u c h a s b u y i n g

a p r e s e n t f o r a sp o u s e . T h e i r i m p o r t a n c e f o r

g o a l - d ir e c t e d b e h a v i o r c o m e s f r o m t h e f a c t th a t

b y s p e c i f y in g a c t i o n r u l e s a n d s t a n d a r d s o f a p p r o -

p r i a t e b e h a v i o r , s c r i p t s s e r v e a s b l u e p r i n t s o r

g u i d e s t o b e h a v i o r i n g i v e n s i t u a t i o n s . P r o g r a m s



R. Pie ters e t al . / Intern. J . o f Research in Marke t ing 12 1995) 2 27 -24 4

a re i n t u rn regu la t ed by principles which a re

under ly ing qua l i t i e s o f spec i f i c ac t s and wh ich

prov ide genera l no rms fo r behav io r . An example

o f a p r inc ip l e i s be in g cons ide ra t e a s t he un -

de r ly ing mot ive fo r buy ing a p resen t fo r one ' sspous e. F inal ly , am the h ighest level of se l f-regu -

la t ion , system concepts c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

such th ings a s one ' s i dea l ized se l f -image o r sen se

o f re l a t i onsh ips , and the se cons t i t u t e t he u l t ima te

goa l s o r s t and ards fo r behav io r . I f va lues a re

unde rs tood as abs t rac t goa l s o r mo t iva t iona l con -

ce rns (Schwar t z , 1992) , t hen the p r inc ip l e and

sys t em l eve l s e ssen t i a l l y spec i fy t he va lues t ha t

under l i e and gu ide a pe rson ' s behav io r i n g iven

s i tua t ions .

A s imi l a r accou n t o f t he h i e ra rch i ca l o rgan iza -

t i on o f goa l s and behav io rs i s p rov ided by Va l -

l ache r and Wegner ' s (1985) ac t i on iden t i f i ca t i on

theo ry . Th i s t heo ry s t a t e s t ha t a g iven behav io r

can be i den t i f i ed a t va r ious l eve ls o f abs t rac t i on ,

rangi~ ,g from very concrete levels in the behav-

io ra l h i e ra rc hy (e .g . , desc r ib ing ea t ing as ch ewing

and swa l lowing) t o ra the r abs t rac t i n t e rp re t a t i ons

2 2 9 i

o f t h e s a m e a c t ( e . g . , t r e a t i n g e a t i n g a s g e t t i n g

n u t r it i on ) . A t a n y g i v en m o m e n t , s o m e g o a l i n

h ie ra rc hy is lik eiy t o re gu la te o ng oi ng b e ~

T h i s i s c a ll e d t he p r e p o t e n t k l e n t i f i c a t ~ o f t h e

a c ti on . T h e p r e p o t e n t i d e n t i f i c a t ~ s p e d fu e st h e p e r s o n t h i n k s s / h e i s d o i n g , o r i n t h e t e r m b

n o l o g y o f g o a l - o r i e n te d b e h a v i o r , w h a t t h e f o c a l

goa l is t ha t t he p e rson i s pu rsu ing . Va l l ache r an~ [

W egn er (1987) a rgu e tha t t he c on tex t i n wh ich

a c t io n t a k e s p l a c e , t h e d i f f ic u l ty o f t h e ~ c t ~ ,

a n d a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e a c t i o n d e , r -

mine the l eve l a t wh ich an ac t ion wi l l be ~ rJ t i -

f l e d. I n g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , b e h a v i o rs a r e k ~ n t i f i e d

a t an i n t e rmed ia t e l eve l , a t wh ich a goa | can be

pursu ed mo s t e f fec t i ve ly and e f f i c ien t ly . Th i s i dea

i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w o r k o n h u m a n c a t e g o ~ S z a t ~

in genera l (Rosch , 1978) and re sea rch on even t

t axonomies i n pa r t i cu l a r (R i fk in , 1985) , wh ich

ind ica t es t ha t t he re ex i s t s a p re fe r red o r bas i c

l eve l o f ca t egor i za t i on in t he pe rcep t ion o f ob -

j ec t s and even t s . Goa l s be low the bas i c l eve l dea l

m o s t l y w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a s p e c ts o f a t t a i n i ~

the basic- level goal ( the h o w of behav io r ) , wh i l e

[ f ~ e ~ n g g o o d l

[ abou toneself ]

sul~r- lordinate ] long and [goals healthy life

(why?)

focal goal(what?) I losing we ight [

s u b - f

(how?)

\ \I I I I Iating avoiding snacks [ participating in ] avokling long

l ighte r mea ls be tween mea ls [ spor ts reg u le x ly ]per iods o f i aa c~ i ty

F i g . I . I l y p o t h e t i c a l p a r t i a l g o a l s t r u c t u r e f o r l o s i n g w e ig h ~ .



2 3 0 R . P i e t e rs e t a t / I n t e r n . J . o f R e s e a r c h i n M a r k e t i n g 1 2 1 9 9 5 ) 2 2 7 - 2 4 4

g o a l s a b o v e t h e b a s i c l e v e l p r o v i d e t h e m o t i v e s o r

r e a s o n s f o r p u r s u i n g a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n ( th e whyo f b e h a v i o r ).

Preview,s m o d e l s o f g o a l - d i r e c te d c o n s u m e r b e -

h a v m r , i f t h e y h a v e f o c u s e d o n g o a l s a t a ll , h a v et e n d e d t o e m p h a s i z e t h e l o w e r le v e ls o f t h e g o a l

h i e r a r c h y ( i . e . , t h e p r o g r a m l e v e l ) . F o r e x a m p l e ,

B e t t m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) c o n c e p r , , a l i z e s c h o i c e a s a p e r -

s o n ' s m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h a g o a l h ie r a r c hy , i n t h e

s e n s e t h a t a c o n s u m e r h a s t o d e v e l o p a p l a n o f

a c t i o n f o r b r i n g i n g a b o u t a d e s i r e d s t a t e o f a f fa i r s

s u c h a s t h e p u r c h a s e o f a p r o d u c t ( e .g ., a c o n -

s u m e r h a s t o l o o k a t onsumer Reports b e f o r e

s h e c a n c a l l S t o r e Y a n d s o f o r t h ) . I n c o n t r a s t , w e

s u g g e s t t h a t t o g a in a m o r e c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d -

~ ag o f a c o n s u m e r ' s g o a l - d i r e c t e d b e h a v i o r , i t is

n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e e n t i r e g o a l s t r u c tu r e ,

w h i c h s p e c i f i e s t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -

t w e e n g o a l s a t al l l e v e ls o f a b s t r a c t i o n - r a n g i n g

f r o m f a i r l y c o n c r e t e g o a l s t h a t g u i d e s p e c i f i c a c t s

t o r a t h e r a b s t r a c t g o a ls i n t h e f o r m o f b a s ic

v a l u e s t h a t r e g u l a t e b e h a v i o r .

A n e x a m p l e a d a p t e d f r o m P i e t e r s ( 1 9 9 3 ) i l l u s -

t r a t e s t h e s e i d e a s ( s e e F i g . 1 ) . A s s u m e t h a t a

c o n s u m e r h a s d e c i d e d t h a t s / h e w a n t s t o l o s e

w e i g h t . A s s u m e f u r t h e r t h a t t h e d e s i r e t o l o s e

w e i g h t r e p r e ~ n t s t h e f o c a l g o a l f o r ~h,_'sc o n s u m e r

( t h e b a s i c l e v e l a t w h i c h t h e b e h a v i o r i s i d e n t i -f i e d ) . T h i s g o a l t h e n r e g u l a t e s t h e p u r s u i t o f

s u b g o a l s s u c h a s th e n e e d t o d ie t a n d t h e n e e d t o

e x e r c is e , a n d e v e n m o r e s p e c if i c s u b o r d i n a t e g o a l s

s u c h a s e a t i n g l i g h t e r m e a l s a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n

s p o r t s o n a r e g u l a r b a s is . T h e s e b e h a v i o r s a r e t h e

o p e r a t i o n s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n s u m e r , a r e

i n s t r u m e n t a l i n a t t a i n i n g t h e g o a l . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , t h e d e s i r e t o l o s e w e i g h t i s m o t i v a t e d b y ,

a n d u l t i m a t e l y i t s e lf a m e a n s t o a c h i e v i n g ,

h i g h e r -l e v e l s u p e r o r d i n a t e g o a l s su c h a s b e i n g

a t t ra c t i v e t o o t h e r s o r f e e l i n g g o o d a b o u t o n e s e lf .

A t th e m o s t a b s t ra c t l e v e l , t h e s e s u p e r o r d i n a t e

g o a l s a r e t h e m o s t b a s i c v a l u e s t h a t d e f i n e w h o

t h e p e r s o n t h i n k s s / h e i s o r w a n t s t o be .

O u r c o n c e p t u a l iz a t i o n o f c o n s u m e r g o a l h ie r -

a r c h i ~ h e a r s a c l o s e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e n o t i o n o f

m e a n s - e n d c h a i n s tr u c t u r e s o f c o n s u m e r s ' p r o d -

u c t k n o w l e d g e ( G u t m a n , 1 9 82 ; O l s o n a n d

R e y n o l d s , 1 98 3) . T h e o b j e c t i v e o f m e a n s - e n d

c h a i n t h eo r y ' is to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t m a k e s p r o d -

u c t s p e r s o n a l l y r e l e v a n t t o c o n s u m e r s b y m o d e l -

i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a p r o d u c t

( d e f i n e d a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f a t t r i b u t e s ) a n d a c o n -

s u m e r ( r e g a r d e d a s a h o l d e r o f v a l u e s ). A t t r i b u t e s

o f p r o d u c t s a r e a s s u m e d t o l e a d t o v a r i o u s c o n s e -q u e n c e s o f p r o d u c t u s e w h i c h i n tu r n s a t is f y c o n -

s u m e r s ' v a l u e s . T h e r e s u l t o f a m e a n s - e n d c h a i n

a n a l y s i s i s a h i e r a r c h i c a l v a l u e m a p ( R e y n o l d s

a n d G u t m a n , 1 98 8) o r c o n s u m e r d e c i si o n m a p

(R eyno l ds e t a l . , 1994 ) s howi ng t he s a l i en t l i nk -

a g e s b e t w e e n a t t r i b u t e s , c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d v a l -

u e s f o r a g r o u p o f c o n s u m e r s in s o m e p r o d u c t

c la s s. T h e m a p i n d i c a t es w h i c h v a lu e s m a k e p r o d -

u c t s p e r s o n a l l y r e l e v a n t , a n d t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s

u s e f u l i n d e v e l o p i n g p o s i t i o n i n g c o n c e p t s a n d a d -

v e r t i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s ( R e y n o l d s a n d C r a d d o c k ,

1 9 8 8 ; R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n , 1 9 8 4 ; R e y n o l d s e t

al., 1994).

A g o a l s tr u c t u r e a n d a c o n s u m e r d e c i s io n m a p

s h a r e a s a d e f in i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t ic t h e i d e a t h a t t h e

e l e m e n t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a r e o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h i-

c a l l y , w i t h l o w e r - l e v e l e l e m e n t s s e r v i n g a s m e a n s

t o a c h i e v e h i g h e r - le v e l e l e m e n t s a s e n d s . F u r t h e r -

m o r e , t h e e l e m e n t s a t m o r e a b s t r a c t l e v e l s a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t . G o a l s a t t h e p r i n c i p l e a n d

s y s t e m l e v e l s s p e c i f y n o r m s f o r d e s i r a b l e c o n d u c t

a n d b e i n g ~ a , h .. o p e r f o ~ a tU II ,.U O IIs i m i l a r t o

va l ues . In f ac t , s om e au t ho r s ( e . g . , S chwar t z , 1992 )r e g a r d v a l u e s a s a b s t r a c t g o a l s o r e n d u r i n g m o t i -

v a t i o n a l c o n c e r n s . A t l o w e r l e v e l s i n t h e h i e r a r -

c h y , h o w e v e r , i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e m e r g e , o w -

i n g t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n f o c u s o f t h e t w o p e r s p e c -

t iv e s . I n t h e c a s e o f g o a l s t r u c t u r e s , t h e i n t e r e s t i s

i n e x p l a in i n g c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r i n t e r m s o f g o a l s

a n d a c t i o n k n o w l e d g e a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c -

t i o n ( C a r v e r a n d S c h e i e r , 1 9 8 6 ) . B e h a v i o r i s a s -

s u m e d t o b e c o n t r o l l e d b y g o a l s a t i n t e r m e d i a t e

l e v e l s i n a h i e r a r c h y o f g o a l s . M o r e a b s t r a c t g o a l s

( o r v a l u e s ) p r o v i d e t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r p u r s u i n g

t h e f o c a l g o a l , w h i l e g o a l s a t l o w e r l e v e l s i n t h e

s t r u c t u r e d e a l w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f

h o w t h e f o c a l g o a l c a n b e a t t a i n e d ( V a l l a e h e r a n d

W e g u e r , 1 98 5) . I n t h e e a s e o f c o n s u m e r d e c i s io n

m a p s , t h e i n te r e s t i s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w p r o d -

u c t s d e r i v e p e r s o n a l r e l e v a n c e ( R e y n o l d s e t a i . ,

1 99 4) . V a l u e s a r e a s s u m e d t o p r o v i d e th e m o t i v a -

t i o n f o r c h o o s i n g a p r o d u c t w i t h c e r t a i n a t -

t r i b u t e s , a n d t h e a i m i s t o r e l a t e p r o d u c t a t -



R. Pieters et aL / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 12 1995) 227-244

t r i b u t e s t o t h e s e l f v i a c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p r o d u c t

u s e ( W a l k e r a n d O l s o n , 1 99 1) .

3 G o a l s tr u c tu r e s a n d c o n s u m e r i n v o lv e m e n t

A l t h o u g h a d e s c r i p t io n o f t h e g o a l s tr u c t u r e o f

c o n s u m e r s i n a p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n i s i n h e r e n t l y

i n t e r e s t i n g , w e b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

s h o w t h a t t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e i s r e l a t e d t o o t h e r

a s p e c t s o f c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r t h a t a r e e x p e c t e d

t o e i t h e r i n f l u e n c e t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e o r b e i n f l u -

e n c e d b y it . T h e n o m o l o g i e a l v a l i d it y o f g o a l

s t r u c t u re s is s u p p o r t e d i f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e

g o a l s t r u c t u r e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o t h e r v a r i a b l e s .

I n v o l v e m e n t pl a ys a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n m o d e l s o f

c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r , a n d a s s h o w n b e l o w , i t i s

c o n c e p t u a l l y r e l a t e d t o c o n s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s .

W e t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

g o a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t .

I n v o l v e m e n t re f e r s t o t h e p e r c e i v e d p e r s o n a l

r e l ev a n c e o f a n o b j e c t o r e v e n t t o a c o n s u m e r

(e .g . , Za i chkows k i , 1985 ) . I t exp res s es t he i n t en -

s it y o f m o t i v a t i o n a s e x p e r i e n c e d b y a n i n d iv i d u a l

( R a t c h f o r d a n d V a u g h n , 1 98 9) . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h

h a s i n v e s ti g a te d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c o n s u m e r

i n v o l v e m e n t o n v a r i o u s c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s . F o r

e x a m p l e , c o n s u m e r s w h o a r e i n v ol v e d w i t h ap r o d u c t c a t e g o r y te n d t o d e v o t e m o r e a t t e n t i o n

t o r e l evan .* adver t i s i ng , focus t he i r a t t en t i on on

p r o d u c t - r e l a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e a d , e x e r t

g r e a t e r c o g n i ti v e e f f o rt d u r i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f

t h e a d , a n d e n g a g e i n m o r e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e

p r o d u c t i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( C e ls i

a n d O l s o n , 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e s e m o r e i n t e n s e a t t e n t i o n

a n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n p r o c e s s e s s h o u l d r e s u l t i n

i n c r e a s e d p e r s i s t e n c e o f a t t i t u d e s o v e r t i m e , i n -

c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e o f a t t i t u d e s t o p e r s u a s i v e a t -

t e m p t s , a n d i n c r e a s e d a t t i t u d e - b e h a v i o r c o n s i s -

t e n c y ( P e t t y a n d C a c i o p p o , 1 98 6) . I n a d d i t io n ,

m o r e i n v o l v e d c o n s u m e r s s e e m t o h e w i ll in g t o

e x p e n d m o r e e f f o r t t o e n a c t t h e i r b e h a v i o r a l i n -

t en t i ons (Os t rom and B rock 1968 ; Mi t che l l , 1981 ;

S tone, 1984) .

I n v i e w o f t h e p e r v a s i v e e f f e c t s o f i n v o l v e m e n t

o n c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r , r e s e a r c h o n t h e a n -

t e c e d e n t s o f c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t is r e l e v a n t ,

p a r t i c u l a r ly w o r k o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h o s e a n -

t e ce d e n ts . T h e r e is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t f f ~ t c o n -

s u m e r s e x p e r i e n c e i n v o l v e m e n t w h e n a n o b j e c t

e v e n t is c on n e c t e d t o i m p o r t a n t g o a l s ( M i e n ,

1981 ; Mi t t a l , 1989 ), cen t r a l l y begd w~ dues ( O s t r o m

a n d B r o ck , 19 68 ; H o u s t o n a n d ~ h s c h i ~ , 1 ~ )o r t h e s e l f c o n c e p t ( B i o c h, 1 9 8 1) . H e n c e , w e

e x p e c t t h a t g o a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e s i g ~ i f ~ n t l y r e -

l a te d t o th e i n v o l ve m e n t t h a t c o n f i n e r s e x p e r i -

e n c e i n a p a r t ic u l a r d o m a i n . T h e q r a e ~ i s

w h i c h a s p e c t s o f a g o a l s t r u c t u r e a f f e c t t h e ~ |

o f i n v o l v e m e n t t h a t c o n s u m e r s e x l ~ e r i e a c e ? A

g o a l s t r u c t u r e c o n t a i n s g oa ds a n d c o n n e c t k m s b e -

t w e e n g o a l s , a n d g o a l s t r u c t u r e s o f c o n s m m e r s

m a y d i f f e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e g o a l s, t h e c o n n e c -

t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s, o r b o t h .

C o n s u m e r s w h o h a v e d i f f e r e n t g o a l s i n a p a r -

t i c u l a r d o m a i n a l s o h a v e d i f f e r e n t g o a l s t r u c t u r e s .

I n a n e x t r e m e s i t u a t i o n , c o n s u m e r s w o u l d ~ v e

n o g o a ls in c o m m o n . A s s u m e , f o r e x a m e , t h a t

t w o c o n s u m e r s e a c h h a v e f o u r g o a ls a n d t h a t t ~

h a v e t w o g o a ls in c o m m o n ( g o a ls A a n d B ) . O ~

t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i le c o n s u m e r 1 h a s g o a ls C a n d

D, cons um er 2 has goa l s E and F . Obv i ous l -y ,

t h e s e t w o c o n s u m e r s h a v e d i f f e r e n t g o a l s t r - ~ e -

t u re s . H o w e v e r , c o n s u m e r s w h o h a v e t h e s a m e

g o a ls in a p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n , b u t w h o c o n n e c t t h e

o ,~ l~ d i f ferent ly , a l so h~ , , ,~ i f f~rpnt ~t ~tnw-.

tU re S. A s s u m e , f o r e x a m p l e , th a t c o n s u m e r s 34 have t he s am e goa l s i n t he i r goa l s t rb~ ' , ' t m ' e

( g o a ls A t o D ) a n d t h a t b o t h h a v e t h e s a m e

n u m b e r o f c o n n e c ti o n s b e t w e e n t h e g o a l s . H o w -

e v e r , i f c o n s u m e r 3 c o n n e c t s A t o B , A t o C ,

B t o D , w h i l e c o n s u m e r 4 c o n n e c t s A t o C , B t o

C , a n d C t o D , t h e n t h e t w o g o a l s t r t m m r e s

d i f f e r, e v e n th o u g h t h e g o a l s a r e t h e s a m e . I n a n

e x t r e m e s i t u a ti o n , c o n s u m e r s c o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e

g o a l s i n th e i r r e s p e c t i v e g o a l s t r u c t u r e s , b u t t h e s e

g o a l s c o u l d a l l b e c o n n e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y . A s g o a |

s t r u c t u r e s c a n d i f f e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e g o a l s o r

c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s , d i f f e r e n c e s h e t v t e c n

c o n s u m e r s i n t h e i r l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t ~ h e

d u e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e g o a l s , d i f f e r e n c e s m t h e

c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s , o r b o t h .

T h e r e i s r e a s o n t o e x p e c t t h a t a s i g o i f r . a m

p o r t io n o f t h e v a r ia t io n i n c o n s u m e r i n v o ~ e m e m

i s d u e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e D

g o a l s , a n d t h a t c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a c -

c o u n t f o r v a r ia t i o n i n t h e l e v e l o f c o n s u m e r i R -



K Pieters et al. / intern. £ of Research

s u i t a b l e m e t h o d f o r c o l l ec t i n g d a t a o n t h e m e a n s -

e n d r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a t d i f f e r e n t l e ve l s o f

a b s t r a c t n e s s . A l t h o u g h l a d d e r i n g c o u l d i n p r i n c i -

p l e b e u s e d t o m o d e l t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e s o f i n d i -

v i d u a l c o n s u m e r s , w e b e l i e v e t h a t i n p r a c t i c e t h eo b j e c t i v e w i l l m o s t o f t e n b e t o d e r i v e a g g r e g a t e

g o a l m a p s f o r g r o u p s o f c o n s u m e r s . B e lo w , w e

p r e s e n t a n i ll u s tr a t iv e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e m e t h o d -

o l o g y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n s u m e r s ' w e i g h t l o s s

g o a l s . I n t h i s e x a m p l e , w e d e s c r i b e h o w o n e c a n

a n a l y z e t h e d a t a f r o m t h e l a d d e r i n g i n t e r v i e w s t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s i n t h e

g o a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d h o w o n e c a n c o n s t r u c t g r o u p -

l e v e l s u m m a r i e s o f p e o p l e ' s g o a l s t r u c t u r e s i n a

g i v e n d o m a i n . F i n a l l y , w e a l s o r e l a t e i n f o r m a t i o n

f r o m t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e s t o c o n s u m e r s ' i n v o l v e -

m e n t w i t h w e i g h t l o ss .

5 M e t h o d

T o i l lu s t r a te t h e p r o c e s s o f d e r i v i n g g r o u p - l e v e l

g o a l h i e r a r c h i e s , w e c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y w i t h 51

u n d e r g r a d u a t e m a r k e t i n g s t u d e n t s ( 3 2 f e m a l e s

a n d 1 9 m a l e s ) a t a l a r g e A m e r i c a n u n i v er s it y . T h e

c o n t e x t o f t h e s t u d y w a s w e i g h t l o ss . R e s p o n d e m s

w e r e n o t s c r e e n e d o n t h e b a s i s o f w h e t h e r o r n o tt h e y w a n t e d t o l o s e w e i g h t . T h i s a l l o w e d u s t o

r e l a t e s u b j e c t s ' g o a l s t r u c t u r e s t o n a t u r a l l y o c c u r -

r i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e l e v e l o f c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e -

m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o w e i g h t l o s s . T h e r e s e a r c h

w a s d e s c r i b e d t o s u b j e c t s a s a s t u d y i n v e s t i g a t i n g

p e o p l e ' s t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , a n d i d e a s a b o u t l o s -

i n g w e i g h t, a n d r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a s k e d t o c o m -

p l e t e a q n e s t i o n n a i r e q u e r y i n g t h e m o n v a r i o u s

i s s ues r e l a t ed t o we i gh t l o s s .

C o n s i s t e n t w i t h p r e v i o u s w o r k i n t h e a r e a ( e .g . ,

S e j wacz e t a l . , i 980 ; B agozz i and W ars haw , 1990) ,

w e s p e c i f i e d ' l o s in g w e i g h t ' a s t h e f o c a l g o a l . O u r

i l lu s t r a t io n i s o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h i e r a r c h i -

c a l s t r u c t u r e o f g o a l s a b o v e t h e b a s i c l e v e l , a n d

t h u s o u r c o n c l u s i o n s a r e r e s t r i c te d t o f a i rl y h i g h -

l e v e l , s u p e r o r d i n a t e g o a l s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e q u e s -

t i o n o f w h y s o m e o n e w a n t s t o a t t a i n t h e f o c a l

g o a l . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l h a v e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e

p o t e n t i a l o f o u r t e c h n i q u e f o r d e r iv i n g g o a l s t r u c -

t u r e s a t t h e s u b o r d i n a t e l e v el , w h i c h d e a l s w i t h

in Marketing 12 1995) 227-244 233

t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w t h e c h o s e n g o a l c a n b e

a c h i e v e d .

A s d i sc u s se d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t ~ , w e f i rs t

a s k e d r e s p o n d e n t s f o r t h e i r a i m s o r r e a s o n s f o r

w a n t i n g t o l o s e w e ig h t. S u b j e c ts c o u ~ s p e c ~ y a sm a n y a s f o u r r e a s o n s . F o r e a c h r e a s o n g ;w e n, t ~

w e r e a s k e d w h y i t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m , a n d i f

t h e y p r o v i d e d a n a n s w e r , t h e y w e r e a g a i n a s k e d

w h y t h a t r e a so n w a s i m p o r ta n t . O n t h e q u e s t ~ -

n a i r e t h e r e w e r e f o u r se q u e n c e s o f t h r e e b o x e s

c o n n e c t e d b y a r r o w s , a n d s u b j e c t s h a d t o f i l l h i

t h e b o x e s . R e s p o n d e n t s w e r e t o t d t h a t t h e y c o u l d

l e a v e a b o x b l a n k i f t h e y c o u l d n o t t h i n k o f a n y

f u r t h e r r e a s o n s, b u t t h e y w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o b e

a s c o m p l e t e a s p o s s i b l e .

S u b j e c t s w e r e a l s o a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r l e v e |

o f i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h l o s i n g w e i g h t o n f o u r s e v e n -

p o i n t s e m a n t i c - d i f f e r e n t i a l i t e m s s e l e c t e d f r o m

Z a i c h k o w s k y ' s ( 1 98 5 ) i n v o l v e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t .

T h e i t e m s h a d t h e f o l lo w i n g e n d - p o l e s : i m p o r -

t a n t - u n i m p o r t a n t , r e l e v a n t - i r r e l e v a n t , o f c o n -

c e rn t o m e - o f n o c o n c e r n t o m e , a n d

s i g n i f i c a n t - i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e c o e f f i c i e n t a l p h a o f

t h e s c a l e w a s . 9 5 , s o s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s w e r e

a v e r a g e d . M e a n i n v o l v e m e n t w a s 4 . 3, w i t h a s ta n -

da rd dev i a t i on o f 2 . 0 .

6 R e s u l t s

W e n o w d e s c r i b e h o w t h e d a t a f r o m t h e l a d -

d e r i n g i n te r v ie w s c a n b e u s e d t o u n d e r s t a o d

g r o u p - l e v e l g o a l s t r u c t u r e s . O u r a n a l y s i s a p # i e s

m a n y o f t h e c o n c e p t s u s e d i n c o n v e n ti o n a l l a d -

d e r i n g m e t h o d o l o g y ( R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n ,

1988 ), b u r- we a l s o s ug ges t s ev e ra l e x t ens i on s b as ed

o n n e t w o r k a n a l y s i s ( S c o t t , 1 9 9 1 ) t o d e a l w i t h

i s s u e s t h a t a r i s e w h e n m o d e l i n g g o a l h i e r a r c h i e s .

7 . C o n t e n t a n a l y s i s o f s u b j e c t s ' w e i g h t lo s s g a a i s

B e c a u s e t h e r e s p o n s e s o b t a i n e d i n a l a d d e r i n g

i n t e rv i ew a re t yp i ca l l y r a t he r i d i o s yncra t i c , i t i s

n e c e s s a r y t o p e r f o r m a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s a n d c M s -

s if y t h e r a w d a t a i n t o a l im i t e d n u m b e r o f r e -

s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s ( R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n , 1 98 8) .

I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e t h i s m e a n t a s s ig n i n g s u b je c t s



R. Pieters et al. / Intern. .1. of R~vearch in Marketing 12 1995) 227-2 44

r e s p o n s e s i n t h e l a d d e r i n g i n t e r v i e w t o a s m a l l

y e t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s e t o f g o a l c a t e g o r i e s . T h r e e

i n d e p e n d e n t j u d g e s c o d e d t h e 5 1 l a d d e r i n g p r o -

t o c o l s ( e a c h j u d g e c l a s s i f i e d a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f

t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ) . B a s e d o n t h e l i t e r a t u r e( S e j w a c z , A j z e n a n d F i s h b e i n , 1 9 8 0 ) a n d a n i n -

s p e c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t f e w o r o t o c o l s , t h e r e s p o n s e s

w e r e g r o u p e d i n t o 1 2 c a t e g o r i e s o f g o a l s : g e t t i n g

s l i m m e r ( a tt a i n in g a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e b o d y

w e i g h t ) ; h e a l t h ( b e i n g i n g o o d h e a l t h ) ; p h y s i c a l

a p p e a r a n c e ( h a v i n g a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e b o d y

w e i g h 0 ; h e a l t h ( b e i n g i n g o o d h e a l t h ) ; p h y s i c a l

a p p e a r a n c e ( l o o k i n g g o o d f o r o n e s e l f ) ; p h y s i c a l

c o n d i t i o n ( l e a d i n g a n a c t i v e a n d e n e r g e t i c l i f e ) ;

s o c i a l a p p e a r a n c e ( b e i n g a t t r a c t i v e t o o t h e r s ) ;

s e l f - e s t e e m ( f e e l i n g g o o d a b o u t o n e s e l f ) ; a v o i d i n g

c o s t s ( a v o i d i n g t h e c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e i n g

o v e r w e i g h t ) ; c o n f i d e n c e ( f e e l i n g c o n f i d e n t ) ; s o c i a l

a c c e p t a n c e ( b e in g l i k e d b y o th e r s ) ; a c h i e v e m e n t

(ge t t i ng t h i ngs done) ; l ong l i f e ( l i v i ng a l ong l i f e ) ;

a n d h a p p i n e s s ( l e a d i n g a h a p p y l i f e ) , l n t e r j u d g e

a g r e e m e n t w a s 8 6 p e r c e n t , a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t s

w e r e r e s o l v e d b y d i s c u s si o n s o t h a t a l l r e s p o n s e s

w e r e c l a s s i f i e d . F o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s , t w o

a d j u s t m e n t s w e r e m a d e t o s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s .

F i rs t, w h e n a p e r s o n g a v e t w o r e s p o n s e s i n i m m e -

d i a t e s u c c e ss i on t h a t w e r e j u d g e d t o b e l o n g t o t h e

s a m e g o a l c a t e g o ~ , t h e g o a l w a s c o u n t e d o n l yo n c e . S e c o n d , w h e n a p e r s o n r e t u r n e d t o t h e

i n i t i a l g o a i a f t e r o n e i n t e r m e d i a r y g o a l , t h e l a s t

g o a l w a s e l i m i n a t e d .

I n t o t a l , t h e 5 1 s u b j e c t s m e n t i o n e d 3 4 2 g o a l s ,

f o r a n a v e r a g e o f a b o u t 7 g o a l s p e r s u b j e c t. T h e

n u m b e r o f g o a l s m e n t i o n e d b y s u b j e ct s r a n g e d

f r o m 2 t o 1 2 . S e l f - e s t e e m w a s m e n t i o n e d m o s t

o f t e n ( n = 5 1 ) , w i t h p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e ( n = 4 6 ) ,

s o c i a l a p p e a r a n c e ( n = 4 5 ) , a n d h e a l t h ( n = 3 8 )

p l a c i n g s e c o n d , t h i r d , a n d f o u r t h . A v o i d i n g c o s t s

(n = 6)~ ge t t i ng s l i m m er (n = 16) , and l ong l i fe

( n = 1 6) w e r e m e n t i o n e d l e a s t o f te n .

8 P o s i t i o n o f g o a l s i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e

N e x t , a 1 2 × 1 2 im p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x ( R e y n o l d s

a n d G u t m a n , 1 98 8) w a s c o n s t r u c t e d , i n w h i c h t h e

t w e l v e w e i g h t l o s s g o a l s a c t e d a s t h e r o w a n d

c o l u m n e l e m e n t s . E a c h c e l l i n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n

m a t r i x c o n t a i n s t h e f r e q u e n c y , t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r

r o w g o a l i s f o l l o w e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r c o ~ ¢ m n ~ ,

a g g r e g a te d a c ro s s s u bj ec ts a n d ~ r s . T h e d ~ g -

o n a l o f t h e im p li ca ti on m a t ri x /s e ~ a s

p a r t i c u l a r g o a l c a n n o t b e f o I k ~ e d b y i t s e ~ .

i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b ~ 1 .T w o t y p e s o f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o c l s a r e

p o s s ib l e . A d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o p a ~ c -

u l a r g o a ls ex i st s w h e n o n e g o a l is m e n t i o c e d

d ir ec tly a ft er an o th e r go al in th e s a m e ~ ,

w i t h o u t a n y i n t e r m e d i a r y g o a l s . A n i n d g c ¢ c t c ~

n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o g o a l s e x / s ts w h e n t h e

g o a ls a re m e n t i o n e d i n th e s a m e | a ~ c r ,

s e p a r a t e d b y o n e o r m o r e i n t e rm n d i a ry ~ ¢ ~ .

T h e c e l l s o f t h e i m p l i c a t io n m a t r i x c o n t a i n t h e

n u m b e r o f d i re c t c o n n e c ti o n s b e t w e e ~ ~ ~ z -

s i de p a r e n t h e s e s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f d ~ e c t p ~ a s

i n di re c t c o nn e c ti o n s be t w e e n g o a ls i ~ / d e p a r e ~

t h e s e s . A s i n r e g u l a r l a d d e r i n g , t h e a n a l y s t ~ t o

d e c i d e ( 1 ) w h e t h e r t o c o n s i d e r o n l y d i re c t c ~

n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s o r b o t h d i r e c t a n d

r e c t c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d ( 2 ) h o w o f t e n t o ~ n t

g i ven d , ; r ec t o r i nd i r ec t r e l a t i on be t ween t wo goa l s

i f t h e a s s o c ia t io n is m a d e m o r e t h a n o n c e ~ t h e

s a m e p e r s o n ( c f. R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n , 1 98 8) . | u

t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , su b j e c t s l i s te d a t o t a | o f 1 ~ g o a |

l a d d e r s , f o r a n a v e r a g e o f 2 .9 l a d d e r s p e r

( r a ng e o [ i t o 4 ). T h e a v e r ag e . . . . . . ae~+g~h v~ ~ g

wa s 2 .3 goa l s ( r ange o f 1 t o 3 ) . S ince t h e dah~T a b l e 1 s h o w t h a t d ir e c t r e l a t io n s a c c o u n ~ d f o r

t h e m a j o r i t y o f a l l ( d i r e c t p l u s i n d i r e c t ) r e l a ~

a m o n g g o a l s ( 7 8 p e r c e n t ), a ll s u b s c q u e m a ~ - s

w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r d i r e c t r e l a ti o n s o ~ ( s e e

V a l e t t e - F l o r e n c e a n d R a p a c c h / , 1 9 91 , a ~

R n e h r i c h a n d V a l e t t e - F l o r e n c e , + [ 99 1, f o r i ~ a s

o n h o w t o d e a l w i t h i n d i r e c t c o n t g ' c t i o n s ) . F u r -

t h e r m o r e , s in c e o n l y t h r e e s u b j ec t s m e n ~ d

t h e s a m e d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t w i c e ( i n d i f f e r e n t

d e r s ), n o c o r r e c t io n f o r m u l t i p le ~ n t ~ w a s

m a d e .

T o p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n t h ~ i n d / -

v / d u a l g o a l s h a v e i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e , w e c a n

d e r i v e s e v e r a l i n d i c e s u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b c ~ t ~ he :

o u t - d e g r e e s a n d i n - d e g r e e s o f g o a ls a s / n d / c n t e d

i n Ta b l e 1 ( c f . S co t t , 1991 ) ~ . Th e o u t -d eg ree o [

I In network analysis , the term po6it /on has a p a tf i¢ ~m ean ing in t he con text o f analy ses o f stroc t~ , ~ ~ ¢ .We use the term ix~Rkm in a nomec hn/c~ sem~¢ o refe~ tothe location of a goal in the ov era|| g~m|~rm:~ure.



236 R Pieters et at / Intern. J . of Research m Marketing 12 1995) 227 -24d

p a r t i c u l a r g o a l i s t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h a t t h e

g o a l i s t h e s o u r c e o r o r ig i n o f a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

o t h e r g o a l s , a g g r e g a t e d a c r o s s su b j e c ts a n d l a d -

d e r s . O u t - d e g r e e i s t h e r o w s u m o f a g o a l in t h e

i m p t i c a f i o n m a t ri x . T h e i n - d e g r e e o f a g o a l i s th en u m b e r o f ti m e s t h a t t h e g o a l is t h e d e s t i n a t i o n

o r r e c e i v e r o f a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o t h e r g o a l s,

a g g r e g a t e d a c r o s s s u b j e c ts a n d l a d d e r s . I n - d e g r e e

o f a g o a l i s t h e c o l u m n s u m o f t h e g o a l in t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n m a t ri x . T a b l e 1 s h o w s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h a t " s oc ia l a c c e p t a n c e ' h a s a n i n - d e g r e e o f 24

( f o r d k e c t c o n n e c t io n s ) , a n d a n o u t - d e g r e e o f 8.

W e v d l t e x a m i n e t h r e e k e y in d i c e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n

o f i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s in t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e f o r w e i g h t

l o s s , a n d t h e r e l e v a n t s t a t i s t i c s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n

T a b l e 2 .

A b s t r a c m e s s o f a g o a l is d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f

i n - d e g r e e s o v e r i n - d e g r e e s p l u s o u t - d e g r e e s o f

t h e g o a l . A b s t r a c t n e s s r a n g e s f r o m 0 t o 1 ; t h e

h i g h e r t h e i n d e x , th e l a r g e r t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a

g o a l ' s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r g o a l s in w h i c h t h e

g o a l i s t h e d e s t i n a t i c m r a t h e r t h a n t h e s o , a r c e .

G o a l s w i th a h i g h a b s tr a c t n e s s s c o r e a r e p r e d o m i -

n a n t l y e n d s , w h i l e g o a l s w i t h l o w a b s t r a c t n e s s

~ o r e s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y m e a n s. G o a l s i n T a b l e

2 a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f t h e i r a b -

s ~ a c i n e s ~ : ~ o r e . C l e ar l y, t h e m o s t c o n c r e t e - - - ' -

i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e b e c o m i n g s l i m m e r , h e a l t h ,

a n d p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , w h i l e t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t

g o a l s a r e l o n g l i f e a n d h a p p i n e s s .

C e n t r a l i t y o f a g o a l is d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f

i n - d e g r e e s p l u s o u t - d e g r e e s o f a p a r t ic u l a r g o a l

o v e r t h e s u m o f a ll c e l l- e n t r i e s i n t h e i m p l i c a t i o nm a t r i x ( c f . K n o k e a n d B u t t , 1 9 8 2 ) . C e n t r a l i t y

r a n g e s f r o m 0 t o 1 ; t h e h i g h e r t h e i n d e x , t h e

l a r g e r t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f . c o n n e c ti o n s i n t h e g o a l

s t r u c t u r e t h a n r u n t h r o u g h t h e p a r t i c u l a r g o a l .

T h e c e n t r a l i ty o f a g o a l w o u l d b e 1 i f a ll c o n n e c -

t i o n s i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v e d t h e g o a l i n

q u e s t i o n . I n s p e c t i o n o f T a b l e 2 s h o w s t h a t s e l f -

e s t e e m i s t h e m o s t c e n t r a l g o a l i n t h e g o a l s t r u c -

t u r e , f o l l o w e d b y p h ys i ca l a p p e a r a n c e a n d s o c ia l

a p p e a r a n c e .

P r e s t i g e o f a g o a l i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f

i n - d e g r e e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r g o a l o v e r t h e s u m o f a ll

c e l l - e n t r i e s i n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x ( c f . K n o k e

a n d B u r t , 1 9 8 2 ) . P r e s t i g e r a n g e s f r o m 0 t o 1 ; t h e

h i g h e r t h e r a t i o , t h e m o r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r g o a l i s

t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f c o n n e c t i o n s w i th o t h e r g o a l s .

T h e p r e s t ig e o f a g o a l w o u l d b e 1 if t h e g o a l w e r e

i n v o l v e d i n a l l c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t o n l y a s a d e s t i n a -

t i o n , n o t a s a s o u r c e . I n t h e p r e s e n t g o a l s t r u c -

t u r e , s e l f - e s t e e m h a s t h e h i g h e s t p r e s t i g e s c o r e

f o l lo w e d b y c o n f i d e n c e , a c h i e v e m e n t , a n d s o c ia l

a c c e p t a n c e .

C e n t r a l i t y a n d p r e s t i g e a r e i n d i c e s o f th e i m -

Table 2Information about the position of goals in the goal structure and correlations among positional indices

(1) Abstractne ss (2) Cen trality (3) Prestige

Ge tting slhrumer 0.08 0.07 0.01Hea lth 0.16 0.19 0.03Physh:al appeara nce 0.26 0.26 0.07Ph~ic al condition 0.37 0.14 0.05S c c ~ appearance 0.44 0.28 0.13$*tf--e.~eem 0.53 0.30 0-16

Av ~d iog cosLs 0.57 0.04 0.02C o, faience 0.62 0.22 0.14Socia a~e ptan ce 0.75 0.17 0.13Ach~vem ent 0.77 0.I 6 0. i2Long life 0.88 0.09 0.08Havp iness 0.89 0.09 0.08

(1) l.oo~2) -0.20 1.00(3) 0.51 t, 0.68 a 1.00

Note:~ p < 0.05," p < 0.10.



K Pieters et aL / b~tern. Z of Research in Marketing 12 i 995) 227-244

p o r t a n c e , p r o m i n e n c e , o r s a l i e n c e ( K n o k e a n d

B ur t , 1982 ) o f i nd i v i dua l goa l s i n t he goa l s t ruc -

t u r e ; t h e h i g h e r t h e s c o r e o n t h e s e i n d i c e s , t h e

m o r e o f t e n t h e g o a l i s i n v o l v e d i n c o n n e c t i o n s

w i t h o t h e r g o a l s i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e , e i t h e r a s as o u r c e o r d e s t i n a t i o n ( c e n t r a l i t y ) o r a s a d e s t i n a -

t i o n o n l y ( p r e s t ig e ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a b s t r a c t -

h e s s i s a n i n d e x o f t h e ' l e v e l ' o f in d i v i d u a l g o a l s

i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e ( l o w t o h i g h ) , n o t o f t h e i r

i m p o r t a n c e . T h e a b s t r a c t n e s s o f a g o a l m a y b e

h i g h a l t h o u g h t h e g o a l i s i n v o l v e d i n o n l y a f e w

c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r g o a l s , a n d t h e a b s t r a c t -

n e s s m a y b e l o w d e s p it e m a n y c o n n e c t i o n s w i th

o t h e r g o a l s . C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e i n -

d i c es a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b o t t o m h a l f o f T a b l e 2 .

T h e y i n d ic a t e t h a t t h e i n d ic e s p r o v i d e s o m e w h a t

d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t g o a l p o si ti o n . C o r r e -

l a t i o n s o f t h e a b s t r a c t n e s s i n d e x w i t h t h e c e n t r a l -

i t y i n d e x a r e n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t , a n d o n l y m a r g i n a l l y

s i g n if i c a n t w i t h t h e p r e s t i g e i n d e x ( p < 0 . 1 0 ) ,

w h i l e t h e c e n t r a l i t y a n d p r e s t i g e i n d i c e s a r e s i g -

n i f ic a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d ( p < 0 . 05 ) . I n t e r e s t in g l y , t h e

m o s t c e n t r a l g o a l s ( s e l f - e s t e e m , s o c i a l a p p e a r -

a n c e , p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e ) a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e i n

a b s t r a c t n e s s , w h i l e t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t g o a l s a r e

l ow i n cen t r a l i t y ( l ong l i f e , happ i nes s ) .

9 M ap ping the goa l s t ructure

I n c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f m e a n s - e n d

c h a i n t h e o r y , t h e a p r i o r i c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f e l e -

237 i

m e n t s i nt o a tt ri bu te s , c o ns e qu e nc e s, a n d v ~

( G u t m a n , 1982; O l so n a n d R e y n o ~ , I 9 8 3 ) i ,

u s e d t o o r d e r t h e r o w s a n d c ~ u m n s o f t h e i r a g -

c a ti on m a tr ix , w ith a t t ri b ut es c o m i n g f ir st , ~ -

q u e n c e s s e c o n d , a n d v a l u e s la s t. W h e n t h e o b j e c -t i ve i s t o m ode l goa l s t ruc t u res , an a p r / f , r i h / e r ~ -

ch ic al o r de rin g o f g oa ls m a y no t b e a s ~ .

T h e s c o r e s o f t h e g o a ls o n t h e a b s t r a ~ r m s s i n d e x

c a n b e u se d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r d e r ~ r o w s a n d

c o l u m n s i n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x , w i t h t h e m o s t

c o n c r e t e g o a l s c o m i n g f ir s t i n th e i m / c a t m

m a t r i x a n d t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t g o a ls c o m i n g | a t .

A f t e r r e - a rr a n g in g r o w s a n d c o l u m n s in t h e i m p -

c a t i o n m a t r i x o n t h e b a s i s o f a b s t r a c t n e s s , a s

b e e n d o n e i n T a b l e 1 , t h e s t r o n g l y h / e r a r c h i e a i

n a t u r e o f t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s i m m e d / a t e i y

a p p a r e n t . T h e r e a r e s i g n if ic a n tl y m o r e c e | | e n -

t r i e s a b o v e t h e d i a g o n a l t h a n b e l o w t h e d i a g ~ m a |

( X 2 f o r s y m m e t r y i s 8 0 . 0 8 w i t h o n e d e g r e e o f

f r e e d o m , p < 0 .0 01 ). T h u s , a n i m p l /c a t io n m a t ~

i n w h ic h t h e g o a l s a r e a r r a n g e d i n t e r m s o f th e i r

l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t n e s s c a n b e u s e d t o a s s e s s w h e t h e r

a g o a l s t r u c t u r e i s h i e r a r c h i c a l , a s h a s o f t e n b e e n

h y p o t h e s i z e d ( e . g . , B a n d u r a , 1 9 8 9 ; B e a c h , I 9 9 ~ ,

C a r v e r a n d S c h e i e r , 19 81 ; E m m o n s , I 9 8 9 , V a b

l a c h e r a n d W e g n e r , 1 9 8 5 ) .

T o r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s i n

a g r a p h i c a l f o r m , w e c o n s id e r t h e n o n - z e r o c e ~o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x . W h e n t h e o b j e c t i v e i s

t o p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e -

s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e , a l l n o n - z e r o c e l l s

c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e g r a p h / c a l d i sp l a y , w h i c h

T a b l e 3

S t a t i s t i c s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a c u t o f f l e v e l

C u t - o f f

(1)N u m b e r o f

ac t ive ce l l s

(2) (3) (4) (5)Number of Number of Number of Number ofactive cells active cells active linkages active linkag~as a proportion as a proportion as a ~'opordo aof all ceils of all cells of all I/nkagcs

mentioned atle~-.~to n e

1 49 0 .37 1 .00 192- L0 8

2 32 0 .24 0 .65 175 0 .9 t

3 23 0 .17 0 .47 157 0 .82

4 17 0 .13 0 .35 139 0 .72

5 ~ ) 0 .08 0 .20 11 0 .58

6 7 0 .05 {) .14 96 0 .05



238 R. P ie te r s e t a l . / In te rn . Z o f Research b z Ma rke t ing 12 1995 ) 227 -24 4

may be called a goal map. In the implication

matrix of the present study, 49 cells are non-zero,

and the resulting goal map would contain 49

c~me ctio ns between the 12 goals. While compre-

hensive, this approach may lead to a clutteredgoal map which is difficult to interpret, particu-

larly if many cells in the implication matrix are

non-zero. When the objective is to represent the

key or dominant orientations in the goal struc-

ture, only connections between goals above some

cutoff level are considered. Connec tions in the

goal structure below the cutoff level are consid-

ered idios2cncratic and ignored in further analy-

ses.

Here, we focus on the dominant orientations

in the goal structure. In choosing a cutoff level,

we tried to account for a large percentage of the

total number of connections that subjects made

between goals with a relatively small number of

cells in the implication matrix. The informationnecessary to make this decision is presented in

Table 3. In the table, cells with entries at or

above the chosen cutoff level are referred to as

active cells. Table 3 lists the number of active

cells in the implication matrix for cutoff levels of

1 through 6 (column 1). For example, with a

cutoff level of 4, a total of 17 cells are active.

Table 3 also expresses the raamber of active cells

at each cutoff level as a proportion of tbe number

of all possible (non-diagonal) cells in the implica-

HappinessLife

A ~ N ] l I Avoiding

T I T

1 4 l l IP : C o n d n \ \ \ [ I

I / \ \ \ I . . ) I'

H--//6 Physipi'ranee ~Getting Slimmer

W h y d o y o n w a n t t o l o se w e ig h t

Fig. 2. Upl~r-level goal structure for losing weight.



K Pie te r s e t a l . / In t e rn . I . o f Research in Marke t ing 12 1995) 227-2 44 39

t io n m a t r i x ( c o l u m n 2 ) a n d a s a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e

n u m b e r o f a c t i v e c e l l s f o r a c u t o f f l e v e l o f o n e

(co l um n 3 ) . C e i l s t ha t a r e ac t i ve a t a cu t o f f l eve l

o f o n e r e p r e s e n t a c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n t w o g o a ls

t h a t i s m e n t i o n e d a t l e a s t o n c e , a c r o s s a l l s u b je c t sa n d l a d d e r s . I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t i f c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n g o a l s w h i c h a r e m e n t i o n e d v e r y i n f r e -

q u e n t l y ( sa y , o n e , t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s ) a r e i g n o r e d ,

on l y 13 pe rcen t o f a l l pos s i b l e ce l l s and 35 pe r -

c e n t o f t h e c e ll s t h a t a r e m e n t i o n e d a t l e a s t o n c e

a r e a c t iv e . C o l u m n 4 o f T a b l e 3 s h o w s h o w m a n y

c o n n e c t io n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a r e r e t a i n e d w h e n

n o n - a c t i v e c e l l s a r e i g n o r e d . C o l u m n 5 i n d i c a t e s

w h i ch p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o ta l n u m b e r o f c o n n e c -

t i o n s a c t u a l l y m a d e b y r e s p o n d e n t s i s a c c o u n t e d

f o r a t c u t o f f l ev e l s o f 1 t h r o u g h 6 .

R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r o p o s e t w o

heu r i s t i c s fo r choo s i ng a cu t o f f leve l . F i r s t, t hey

s u g g e s t t ry i n g m u l t i p l e c u t o f f l e v e ls a n d c h o o s i n g

t h e o n e t h a t l e a d s t o t h e m o s t i n f o r m a t i v e a n d

i n t e r p r e t a b l e s o l u ti o n . T h i s r u l e i s s i m i l a r t o t h e

o n e o f t e n u s e d i n m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l s c a l i n g . S e c -

o n d , t h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l c o n -

n e c t i o n s t h a t o n e c a n a c c o u n t f o r w h e n r e l a t i o n s

be l ow t he cu t o f f a r e i gno red ( co l um n 5 i n " ,C ab l e

3 ) s e r v e s a s a u s e f u l i n d e x o f t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f

t h e m a p . T h i s l a s t c r i te r i o n i s e s s e n t i a ll y a m e a -

s u r e o f t h e g o o d n e s s o f f it o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n o f g o al s . R e y n o l d s a n d G u t m a n ( 1 9 8 8 ,

p . 2 0 ) s t a t e t h a t " a c u t o f f o f 4 r e l a t i o n s w i t h 5 0

res p on de n t s and 125 l adde r s w i ll [ t yp ica l l y ] ac -

c o u n t f o r a s m a n y a s t w o - t h i r d s o f a l l r e l a t i o n s

a m o n g e l e m e n t s . "

T w o a d d i t i o n a l h e u r i s t ic s f o r c h o o s i n g a c u t o f f

l e v el m i g h t b e m e n t i o n e d . F i rs t , o n e c a n g r a p h

t h e n u m b e r ( o r p e r c e n t a g e ) o f c o n n e c t i o n s a c -

c o u n t e d f o r a t a g i v e n c u t o f f a g a i n s t d i f f e r e n t

c u t o f f l e v e ls a n d l o o k f o r a n e l b o w ( s i m i l a r t o a

s c r e e n t e s t i n f a c t o r a n a l y s i s ) . S e c o n d , o n e m a y

c o m p a r e t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a c t i v e c e l ls in t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x ( c o l u m n s 2 a n d 3 i n T a b l e 3 )

t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s

a c c o u n t e d f o r a t a g iv e n c u t o f f ( c o l u m n 5 ) . T h e

l a t t e r r u l e o f t h u m b m o s t d i r e c tl y r e f le c t s t h e g o a l

o f a c c o u n g in g f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l

n u m b e r o f g o a l c o n n e c t i o n s m a d e b y r e s p o n d e n t s

w i t h a s m aJ ~ n u m b e r o f d i st in c t r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n

goa l s .

U s i n g p r i m a r i l y t h e l a s t c h o i c e h e u r ~ / c , a

c u t o ff le v el o f 4 w a s d e e m e d m o s t a p ~ o p r i a t e i n

t h e p r e s e n t c a s e . A t t h i s c u t o f f [ e v e| , w e c a n

a c c o u nt f o r 7 2 p e r c e n t o f a l c o n n e c ~ b e t w e e n

g o a l s m a d e b y s u b j e c t s ( c o l u m n 5 ) u s i n g o n l y 1 3p e r c e n t o f a l l p o s s i b l e c e | l s i n t h e i m p h e a t / o n

m a t r i x ( c o l u m n 2 ) a n d o n l y 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e c etL ~

t h a t c o n t a in a n o n - z e r o e n t r y ( c e 4 ~ n 3 ; s e e

T a b l e 3 ) . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e i n c t o s e a g r e e m e n t

w i th t h e r u l e o f t h u m b g i v e n b y R e y n o k ~ a n d

Gu t m an (1988 ) .

O n c e a n a p p r o p r i a t e c u t o f f l e v e l h a s b e e n

c h o s e n , t h e g o a l h i e r a r c h y c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d

g r a p h i c a l ly ( s e e F i g. 2 ). T h e g o a ) r n a p w a s c o ~ -

s t r u t t e d f r o m t h e i m p l ic a t i o n m a t r ~ i n T a b k : 2 b y

g r a p h i n g a l l r e l a t i o n s t h a t m e t o r e x c e e d e d t h e

c h o s e n c u t o f f l e v e l o f 4 . T h e v e r t i c a l o r d e r i n g o f

t he 12 goa l s i n F i g . 2 i s a fun c t i on o f t he i r l eve l o f

abs t r a c t nes s a s d i s cus s ed p revi oush¢ ; t he h i gh e r

t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t io n o f a g o a l, t h e g r e a t e r t h e

p r o p o r t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s i n w h i c h a g o a l w a s i n -

v o l v e d a s t h e d e s t i n a t i o n ( e n d ) , r a t h e r t h a n t h e

s o u r c e ( m e a n s ) , o f a r e la t io n . T h e a r r o w h e a d s

s h o w t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n

g o a l s , a n d t h e n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e h o w o f t e n a

g i ve n c o n n e c ti o n b e t w e e n g o a l s w a s m a d e .

F ig . 2 r e v e a ls f o u r m a j o r g o a l o r i e n t a t i o n s t ~ t

m o t i v a t e p e o p l e ' s a t t e m p t s t o l o s e w e i g h t . O n eo r i e n t a t i o n i n v o lv e s t h e d e s i r e t o b e h e a l t h y , t o

b e i n g o o d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n , a n d t o l e a d a l o n g

a n d h a p p y l if e . A s e c o n d o r i e n t a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e

r e c o g n i t io n t h a t b e i n g o v e r w e i g h t e n t a i l s c e r t a i n

c o s t s t h a t c o u l d b e a v o i d e d . A t l ~ r d o r i e n t a t ~

c o n c e r n s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o o k i n g g o o d

b e i n g a t t r a c t i v e t o o t h e r s s o t h a t o n e w i ll b e I / k e d

b y o t h e r s. A n d f i n al ly , a f o u r th o r i e n t a t ~ e x -

p r e s s e s t h e e f f e c t s o f p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l a p p e a r -

a n c e o n s e l f - e s t e e m , c o n f i d e n c e , a c h i e v e m e n t ,

a n d h a p p i n e s s . T h e s e f o u r o r i e n ta ~ / o n s a r e i r ~ -n e -

d i a te l y a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n i n F i g . 2 . T h e y a r e m u c h h a r d e r t o d i s c e r n i n

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a t r i x i n T a b l e 1 .

1 0 . G o a l s , c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a | s a n d c o n

s u m e r i n v o l v em e n t

S o f a r o u r f o c u s h a s b e e n o n d e t e r m i n i n g ~ h e

p o s i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s i n t h e g o a l s t r u c t u r e ,



240 K Pieters e t al . / h~tern. J . o f Research b~ Ma rket ing 12 1995) 22 7-2 44

a n d o n g r a p h i c a ll y r e p r e s e n t in g t h e g o a l s tr u c -

t u r e . A s e x p l a i n e d h a t h e t h e o r y s e c t i o n , s u b j e c t s

m a y d i f f e r in t h e k i n d s o f g o a l s t h a t t h e y s t r i v e

f o r i n a p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n , i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e g o a l s , o r b o t h . B o t h d i f f e r e n c e s ing o a l s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o n n e c t i o n s m a y a f f e c t

t h e l e ve l o f c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

t h e g o a l t o l o s e w e i g h t . B a s e d o n t h e a v a i l a b l e

l i t e r a t u r e , w e e x p e c t n o t o n l y t h a t c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n g o a l s a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f

t h e v a r i a t i o n i n i n v o l v e m e n t , b u t a l s o t h a t d i f f e r -

e n c e s / n c o n n e c t i o n s a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t

p o r t i o n o f t h e v a r i a ti o n i n i n v o l v e m e n t w h e n t h e

v a r i a t i o n d u e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n g o a l s i s a l r e a d y

t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I f th i s h y p o t h e si s w e r e c o n -

f i r m e d , it w o u l d u n d e r l i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

k n o w i n g n o t o n l y w h i c h g o a l s c o n s u m e r s h a v e ,

b u t a l s o o r in p a r ti c u l a r ) h o w c o n s u m e r s p e r -

c e i v e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i r g o a l s . N o t e

t h a t w e a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d in t h e e f f e c t s o f s p e -

e / t ic g o a l s o r s p e c i f i c c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s

o n t h e l ev e l o f c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t , b u t i n t h e

e f f e c t s o f t h e s e t o f g o a ls a n d t h e s e t o f c o n n e c -

t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a s a w h o l e .

A n a l y s e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d u s i n g m u l ti p le r e -

g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s . S i n c e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e

g o a l s /s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e

c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a ls a c o n n e c t i o n c o m -p r / s ~ t w o g o a l s ) , t h e p r o c e d u r e o r i g i n a l l y s u g -

g e s te d b y A p p e l b a u m a n d C r a m e r 1 97 4) f o r th e

e v a l u a t i o n o f n o n - o r t h o g o n a l d e s i g n s w a s u s e d .

T h e p r o c e d u r e i n v e lv e s c o m p a r i n g a r e g re s s i o n

m o d e l w h i c h c o n t a h a s o n l y g o a l s M o d e l 1 ), o r

o n l y c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s M o d e l 2 ) , w i t h

t h e f u ll m o d e l w h i c h c o n t a i n s b o t h t h e g o a l s a n d

t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g o a l s M o d e l 3 ). A s

M o d e l s I a n d 2 a r e n e s t e d i n M o O e l 3 , i t i s s i m p l e

t o d e t e r m / n e i f a d d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s t o a m o d e l

a l r e a d y c o n t a i n i n g t h e g o a l s im p r o v e s t h e f i t s i g-

n i fi c a nt ly M o d e l 3 - M o d e l 1 ), a n d i f a d d i n g

g o a l s t o a m o d e l a l r e a d y c o n t a i n i n g t h e c o n n e c -

t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s i m p r o v e s t h e f i t s i g n i f i c a n t l y

M o d e l 3 - M o d e l 2 ). T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n F - v a l u e s

o f n e s t e d m o d e l s i s it s e lf a n F - v a l u e , w h i c h c a n

b e t e s t e d f o r s i g n if i c a n c e . I f d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o n -

n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a d d t o t h e p r e d i c ti o n o f

c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t e v e n a f t e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n

g o a l s h a v e b e e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t, t h e F - v a l u e

f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n M o d e l 3 a n d M o d e l 1

i s s ta t i s t i ca l ly s igni f icanL

I n p e r f o r m i n g t h e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s f o r

M o d e l 1 g o a l s ) a n d M o d e l 2 c o n n e c t i o n s b e -

t w e e n g o a l s ) , v a r i a b l e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c yw i t h w h i c h a g i v e n g o a l o r c o n n e c t i o n w a s m e n -

t i o n e d b y a p e r s o n w e r e e n t e r e d i n a s t e p w i se

f a s h i o n , u n t i l t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e l a s t v a r i r b l e d i d

n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e t h e f i t . I n M o d e l 3 , t h e

v a r i a b l e s t h a t w e r e s i g n if i c a n t i n M o d e l 1 o r

M o d e l 2 w e r e e n t e r e d i n a d i r e c t f a s h i o n . B e -

c a u s e o f t h e m o d e s t s a m p l e s iz e , a o n e - s i d e d

s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l o f 0 . 1 0 w a s u s e d i n t h e r e g r e s -

s i o n a n a l y s e s . T h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t f i v e g o a l s

a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a ti o n i n c o n -

s um er i nvo l vem en t M ode l 1 ; F 5 ,43= 3 .11, p <

0 . 0 5 ) , a n d 4 c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a c c o u n t e d

f o r 38 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a t i o n i n i n v o l v e m e n t

M ode l 2 ; F4 .44 = 6.82, p < 0 .001). C le ar ly , co n-

n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a c c o u n t f o r m o r e v a r i a -

t i o n i n c o n s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t t h a n g o a l s . M o d e l

3 , wh i ch i nc l udes t he f i ve s i gn i f i can t goa l s and

t h e f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s ,

a c c o u n t e d f o r 4 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a ti o n i n c o n -

s u m e r i n v o l v e m e n t F 9 , 3 9 = 3.31 , p < 0 .01) . T he

m o d e l c o m p a r i s o n t e s t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t , a s e x -

p e c t e d , c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s a d d e d s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y t o a m o d e l a l r e a d y c o n t a i n i n g g o a l s / 7 4 , 3 9= 2 .87 , p < 0 .05 ) , wh i l e goa l s d i d no t add s i gn i f i -

c a n t ly t o a m o d e l a l r e a d y c o n t a i n i n g c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n g o a ls F 5 , 3 9 - - 0.69, n.s .) .

1 1 D i s c u s s i o n

T h e p u r p o s e o f t hi s a r ti c le w a s t o o f f e r b o t h a

c o n c e p t u a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r in -

v e s t ig a t in g c o n s u m e r g o a l s tr u c t u r e s a n d t o p r e -

s e n t e v i d e n c e o n t h e u s e f u ln e s s o f s u ch a p e r -

s p e c t i v e . B a s e d o n p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r a n d a c t i o n

i d e n t i fi c a t io n a n d t h e w o r k in m a r k e t i n g o n

m e a n s - e n d c h a i n s t r u c tu r e s o f c o n s u m e r p r o d u c t

k n o w l e d g e , w e d e v e l o p e d a h i e r a r c h i c al m o d e l o f

c o n s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s , i n w h i c h l o w e r - l e v e l

g o a l s s e r v e a s m e a n s t o a t t a i n h i g h e r - l e v e l g o a l s

a s e n d s. W e a r g u e d t h a t a c o m p l e t e g o a l s t r u c -

t u r e i n c o r p o r a t e s b o t h t h e r e l a t i v e ly c o n c r e t e l e v e l



R. Pieters et aL / Intern. J . of Research in Marketing 12 1995) 227- 244

o f s p e c i f i c z c t i o n p l a n s , w h i c h i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h

t h e h o w o f b e h a v i o r , a n d t h e m o r e a b s t r a c t l e ve l

o f v a l u e s a n d m o t i v e s , w h i c h p r o v i d e t h e u l t i m a t e

r e a s o n s f o r p u r s u i n g a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n a n d t h u s

r e f l e c t t h e w h y o f b e h a v i o r . W e d i s c u s s e d h o wg o a l s tr u c t u r e s o f c o n s u m e r s c a n b e a s s e ss e d e m -

p i r i c a l l y , u s i n g i d e a s f r o m l a d d e r i n g a n d n e t w o r k

a n a l y s i s , a n d w e p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f a s t u d y

w h i c h i l l u s t r a t e d t h e m o d e l i n g o f h i g h e r -l e v e l

g o a l s u n d e r l y in g c o n s u m e r s ' a t t e m p t s t o l o s e

w e i g h t . F i n a l l y , w e p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e f o r t h e

va l u e o f t ak i ng a s t ruc t u ra l l ~ e r s pec t ive on g oa l s

b y sh o w i n g t h a t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m e a n s - e n d

c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g o a l s y i e ld s i m p o r t a n t i n f o r -

m a t i o n a b o u t c o n s u m e r s ' i n v o lv e m e n t w it h w e i g h t

l o s s , a n d t h a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n n o t b e g a i n e d

f r o m a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g o a l s a l o n e .

A s a r g u e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f th i s p a p e r , t h e r e

h a s b e e n a s c a r ci ty o f r e s e a r c h o n c o n s u m e r

g o a l s , a n d t h i s p a p e r r e p r e s e n t s o n l y a n e a r l y

a t t e m p t t o r e d i r e c t t h e f o c u s o f c o n s u m e r r e -

s e a r c h e r s . H o w e v e r , w e b e l i e v e th a t t h e c o n c e p t

o f a g o a l s t r u c t u r e i s o f c r u c ia l i m p o r t a n c e t o

w o r k o n m o t i v a t i o n a l i s s u e s, a n d s e v e r a l p r o m i s -

i n g d i r e c t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h a r e s u g g e s t e d

b y t h e f r a m e w o r k p r o p o s e d i n t h is p a p e r . P e r

h a p s t h e m o s t o b v io u s a n d s t r a i g h t fo r w a r d e x t e n -

s i o n o f t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h eh i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f g o a l s w o u l d b e t o

e x t e n d t h i s a n a l y s i s i n t o t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n s o f

c o n s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y ,

w e u s e d a n i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l, a t w h i c h a b e h a v -

i o r is m o s t c o m m o n l y i d e n ti f i e d , a s t h e s t a r t i n g

p o i n t f o r o u r a n a l y s i s ( i n o u r c a s e i t w a s l o s i n g

w e i g h t ) . F r o m t h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t , w e d e v e l o p e d

t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n o f t h e g o a l s t r u c t u re b y as k i n g

w h y c o n s u m e r s w o u l d w a n t t o l o s e w e i g h t . A s

m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , p r o b i n g t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f

g o a l s t r u c t u r e s w o u l d e n t a i l a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t

p r o c e s s. I n s t e a d o f f o c u si n g o n w h y a c o n s u m e r

w a n t s t o p u r s u e t h e g o a l o f i n t e r e s t , w e w o u l d

f o c u s o n h o w a c o n s u m e r e x p e c t s t o a c h i e v e t h e

g o a l . P r e s u m a b l y , t h i s l i n e o f i a v e s t i g a t i o n w o u l d

e l i c i t t h e m o r e b e h a v i o r a l s u b g o a l s w h i c h c o n -

s u m e r s d e e m n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h i n g t h e f o c a l go ~_ '.

T h u s , i n s te a d o f u s in g w h y q u e s t io n s t o p r o b e

t h e m o r e a b s t r a c t g o a l s a n d v a l u e s li n k e d t o t h e

b a s i c -l e v e l g o a l , w e w o u l d u s e h o w q u e s t i o n s t o

ilil

a s c e rt a in t h e m o r e c o n c r e te g o a ls a n d b c h ~ s

w h i c h s e r v e a s t h e m e a n s t o a c h / e v i n g t h e

g o a l. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h a t , j u s t a s t r a i t S |

m e a n s - e n d s c h a i n a n a l y s is r e a c h e s a l e v e | a t

t h e s u b je c t c a n n o t s u g g e s t a n y m o r e a b s t r a ~ y a hues , t he p rob i i ~ g o f t he l ower t i e r s o f t he

s t r u c tu r e w o u l d c u l m i n a t e in th e m o s t ~ r e t ¢

l ev e l o f g o a ls , b e l o w w h i ch t h e c o n s u n m r c a n ~

i d e n t i f y m o r e m i n u t e g o a l s .

T h e r e su lt in g c o n s u m e r g oa l s tr u ct ur e s ~

y i e l d i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o c o n s u m e r b e h a v / o r .

F o r e x a m p l e , b y i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e e n t i r e g o a J

s tr u c tu r e , a c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r r e s e a rc h e r w o u ~

b e a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w c o n s u m e r s p I a n t o

a c h i e v e t h e f o c a l g o a l , a n d w h y t h i s f o c a l g o a l i s

p e r s o n a l l y r e l e v a n t t o c o n s u m e r s . I n e s s e n c e ,

s t r u c tu r e s s h o u l d h e a b l e t o e l u c i d a te t h e a b s ~ a c t

m o t i v a t io n s b e h i n d v e r y c o n c r e te g o a l s . I n ~ [ -

t i o n , t h e y s h o u l d c o n v e y t h e i m p o r t a n t b r k t g in g

r o l e t h a t b a s i c - le v e l g o a l s p l a y in l i n k i n g a b s t r a c t

g o a l s t o c o n c r e t e g o a l s a n d e v e n t u a ll y h e h a v i o r ~

s c r ip t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v e r y c o n c r e t e g o a t o f

u s i n g t h e N o r d i c T r a c k 3 t i m e s p e r w e e k f ~

m i n u t e s c o u l d b e s e e n a s l in k e d to a r a t h e r

a b s t r a c t g o a l s u c h a s s e l f - e s t e e m v i a t h e fo c a l

g o a l o f l o s i n g w e i g h t .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h i s l a s t p o i n t , r e s e a r c h o ~

c o n s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n s e r v e a s a f r a m e -w o r k f o r f o c u s in g m o r e a t t e n t io n o n t h e b e V y / o r

o f c o n s u m e r s . W h i l e t r a d i ti o n a l m e a n s - e n d s c h a i n

a n a l y s i s f o c u s e s o n e x p l o r i n g t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n

c o n c r e t e p r o d u c t a t t r ib u t e s a n d t e r m i n a l v a l u e s ,

c o n s u m e r g o a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n l in k s p e 6 d ic b e h a v -

i o rs a n d a c t io n p l a n s to a b s tr a c t v a l u e s a ~ m o -

t i v e s . P i e t e r s ( 1 9 9 3 ) e l u c i d a t e s t h e i n t e g r a l c o n -

n e c t i o n b e t w e e n g o a l s a n d b e h a v i o r . H e p o i n t s

o u t t h a t m a n y m o d e l s o f c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r t a k e

b e h a v i o r f o r g r a n t e d , p o r t ra y i n g it a s t h e o b v : ~

a n d m u n d a n e e m i s s io n w h ic h r e s u lt s fr o m c o m -

p l e x c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e -

d o m i n a n t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t io n o f c o n s m n c r b e h a v -

i o r w h i c h d i c h o t o m i z e s c o g n i t i o n a n d b e h a v i o r ,

P i e t e r s a r g u e s f o r a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f c o R -

~ u m e r b e h a v i o r w h i c h i n t e g ra t e s t h e w h a t ,

h o w , a n d w h y o f b e h a v / or i n to a s in g ie s t a -

t u r e . C e n t r a l t o t h i s a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t p a r s i n g u p

c o g n i ti o n a n d b e h a v i o r i s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n th a i t h e

i d e n t i fi c a t io n o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r s is o f t e n u n d e r -



242 g Pteters e t aL / ln ten : . Z o f Research in Marke t ing 12 1995) 227-24 4

determ/ncd by the overt, observable actions of

actors. Determining w h a t a consumer is doing is

inex~ cably intertwined with the consumer 's phe-

nomenok~g/cal identific ation of an action, an d a

complete u nders tandi ng of goal-directed behaviorinvolves an accou nt of why a person pu rsues

a course of action and how s/he goes about

attaining the focal goal.

Knowledge of the complete goal structure as-

sociated with a focal goal such as losing weight

should also facilitate attempts to change con-

sumer behavior. There is evidence that the activa-

tion of behavioral scripts influences people's in-

tention to engage in behavior and ultimately ac-

tual behav ior (cf. Ander son , 1983). Since the lo wer

portion of a goal structure represents script-like

action plans for attainin g the goal in question,

this information can be used to formulate influ-

ence strategies aimed at inviting consumers to

enter into the script (Abelson, 1981) and enact

the se quence of behaviors necessary to reach the

desired goal. Furtherm ore, the goals in the upper

portion of the goal hierarchy can be used to

imb ue the lower-level goals with incentiv e value,

thus further increasing the probability that con-...Ill u~uavltJt~ ~t ulL ~t~ tu~ -t a wua cnac[, the k~t, .- .. . ¢ ;-* .. . •

(Markus and Ru~io, i989). Such a perspective

on behavioral change is quite different from tra-ditional views such as expectancy-value attitude

theory, where changes in behavior depend upon

changes in attitudes and beliefs about conse-

quence s of behavior. However, by focusing more

directly on sequences of behaviors instrumental

to reaching the focal goal and on the values and

abstract goals that make the focal goal self-rele-

vant,, it is likely that influ ence strategies based on

knowing consumers" goal structures will be more

successful in bringing about desired behavioral

changes thau traditional approaches.

The forego/rig suggestion s are only some of the

ways in which the concept of consumer goal

structures could be put to profitable use in future

research. The potential for further work on goal-

directed consumer behavior seems great, and we

hope that ot her researchers will join us in work-

ing on some of the issues raised in this paper.

cknowledgements

The authors appreciate the helpful comments

provided by the editor and two anonymous re-

viewers.

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