meat proces 7

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Precooked-cooked meat products 169 final product. For this purpose, the mix is filled either in synthetic casings(Fig. 208) and pasteurized (cooked below +100°C to core temperaturesof +74°C) or filled in cans and sterilized (Fig. 209) (e.g. as fully

preserved products, see page 288).

There are high quality products on the market with lean beef only asraw material (Fig. 208, 209). For lower price products beef or buffalo

meat trimmings are used with higher fat and connective tissue content,some also contain meat extenders (red coloured TVP, approx. 5%) (Fig.105, 211, 212).

Classical Corned beef

The classical corned beef was originally a by-product of meat extract

production. More than one century ago, before refrigeration wasavailable, the only way of utilizing the surplus beef from Latin-America

and other regions of the Southern hemisphere for shipments to Europe,was to produce meat extract. Meatextract is a viscose concentrated

protein-mineral paste obtained byevaporating the process water(cooking broth) of beef. Meatextract is shelf-stable and can be

shipped over long periods atambient temperatures. It is auseful ingredient for seasoning and

protein enrichment of meat dishes.

The remaining product of the meat

extract production was the cookedbeef , where part of the proteinsand minerals had been extracted,

Fig. 208: Corned beef with jelly, incasing (Europe)

Fig. 209: Corned beef with jelly (highamounts of jelly)

Fig. 210: Classical corned beef intypically shaped cans. Right: open

can showing product



170 Precooked-cooked meat products

but which still was a valuable food in terms of protein content. With thedevelopment of the food canning technology, this cooked beef was filledinto cans and heat sterilized. The result is the classical corned beef .

Thus, besides the meat extract, another shelf-stable and attractive meatproduct was obtained, that could also be shipped without refrigeration to

consumers in Europe. Canned classical corned beef is still a popularproduct worldwide.

The manufacture of classical corned beef is simple. The raw material islean beef of lower grades, usually from cows. In industrial plants theprecooking of the beef takes place in continuous cooking lines. Visibleconnective and fatty tissue is separated from the precooked beef. The

remaining lean precooked meat is mixed with spices and curing salt andcoarsely minced. This mix is filled into the typically shaped corned beefcans (Fig. 210, 211) and sterilized. The product quality is not

significantly affected by high temperatures, hence the sterilized products,for safety reasons (long transport and storage at high temperatures!)should reach F-values of 12. F-value is the measurement for theintensity of the heat sterilization (see chapter “Canning” page 289).

There is one interesting feature in the manufacture of classical Cornedbeef. In industrial corned beef lines it is not possible to treat the rawbeef with curing substances before cooking, as it would interfere in the

meat extract production. Nitrite curing salt is only added to the final

precooked mix before filling it in cans, and one would expect a greyproduct after sterilization. Nevertheless, the final products achieve aslight pink colour. Obviously there is still some myoglobin available that

was not destroyed by the precooking and reacts with the nitrite.

Fig. 211: Classical corned beef (left)and low cost corned beef (right)

Fig. 212: Low cost corned beef uponremoval from the can



Cured meat cuts 171

CURED MEAT CUTS

Entire pieces of muscle meat and reconstituted products

Curing is the treatment of muscle meat with common salt (NaCl) andsodium nitrite1 (NaNO2). It is applied in the manufacture of sausages orsimilar products, but also for larger pieces of meat selected for curedmeat specialities. In the past, when refrigeration was not commonlyavailable, curing was mainly applied to extend the storage life of entire

pieces of muscle meat byusing the preserving effectsof common salt (in high

concentrations) and to alesser extent sodium nitrite.

In modern meat processing,

this aspect is less importantas more efficient meatpreservation methods, in

particular cooling andfreezing, are available.Curing is now mainlyapplied to achieve a pink-

red colour as well as a

typical flavour and taste inprocessed meat products

(see page 36, 68).

Cured meat cuts made of entire pieces of muscle meat, constitute aspecific group of meat products. The opposite are comminuted curedmeat products, to which sausages and similar preparations belong (see

relevant chapters page 115, 127, 149). In principle, the cured meat cutscan be sub-divided into two groups, cured-raw meats and cured-cooked meats (Fig. 213).

For cu r e d - r a w m e a t s , usually entire muscle groups in their anatomicalconnection are used. Typical examples are whole pork hind legs or partsof hind legs (topside, silverside, round), pork loins and bellies, beefbriskets and/or cuts from beef hindquarter. In some regions mutton legs,

ostrich breasts and game meat cuts are also produced as cured meatcuts.

__________1) Sodium or potassium nitrate (NaNO3 /KNO3) are alternative curing substances but generally

not needed and not recommended for the usual processing methods, if sodium nitrite isavailable (see page 35, 119).

Fig. 213: Cured-raw pork loin (“coppa”), left,

and cured-cooked pork loin (“smoked loin”),right



172 Cured meat cuts For c u r e d - c o o k e d meats, similar meat cuts as mentioned above andsmaller meat pieces can be used as raw material. These pieces vary insize and can be much smaller than individual muscles. After curing (in

most cases combined with tumbling, see page 28), the pieces are joinedtogether in special containers (moulds) and/or casings prior to cooking to

“reconstituted meat” (see page 178).

The curing for both groups, cured-raw and cured-cooked, is inprinciple similar: Small amounts of nitrite, either as dry salt or as saltsolution in water, have to be brought in close contact with the muscletissue in order to effect the curing reaction with the muscle pigment

myoglobin (for details on curing techniques see page 37).

The decisive difference between the two groups of cured meats is:

Cured-raw meats do not undergo any heat treatment during themanufacturing process and need to be kept in controlled climatizedconditions during their entire processing period which comprises

curing, fermentation and ripening. During this period a decrease ofthe moisture content is achieved resulting in a moderate dryingeffect of the meat. Fermentation and ripening processes take placesimultaneously with the drying and make the products palatable.

Cured-cooked meats, after the curing process of the raw muscle

meat, always undergo heat treatment , either at pasteurization orsterilization temperatures, to achieve the desired palatability.Moisture losses would make the products dry and are therefore not

desirable.

Cured-raw meat

For cured-raw meat, fresh meat of good hygienic quality should beused, as this aspect has a crucial impact on the long shelf-life and typical

flavour of the final products. The fresh meat selected for cured-rawproducts should have a low pH, as lower pH-values result in lowerwater binding capacity, thus allowing for adequate release of water

(drying) during the fermentation and ripening phase. If the meat remainsin the high pH range and retains high moisture content, it would spoilduring the prolonged ripening phase. pH-values below 5.6 in the selected

fresh lean pork and even lower for beef are recommended. Meat fromolder animals is equally suitable due to its decreased water holdingcapacity.



Cured meat cuts 173 Raw-cured meat cuts are not submitted to any heat treatment andconsumed raw. The exception is Jinhua ham (page 174), which Chineseconsumers prefer to boil in soups or similar, but it can equally be eaten

raw.

Curing and ripening

Products under this category are manufactured by applying curing salt (combination of 99.5% common salt and 0.5% sodium nitrite) either dryor in solution or in a combination of both (see page 173, 174). After thecuring, specific processes of fermentation, drying and ripening take

place in the meat. The duration depends on the size of the meat piecesand the type of products, but lasts usually between three to six months.For some raw ham specialties the process can take up to 24 months.

a) Dry curing

Dry-salting is the traditional

favoured method for raw-curedmeat. Meat cuts (entire pieces ofmuscle meat) are rubbed withcuring salt (see Fig. 63, 64,214). Thereafter these meat

pieces are packed in curing

tanks and piled on top of eachother with layers of curing saltbetween them and stored at low

temperatures (0 to +4oC). Thecuring salt infiltrates the meattissue and at the same time liquidfrom the meat tissue isextracted by the salt surrounding the meat. The liquid accumulates at

the bottom of the curing container. Sometimes, this liquid covers thelower piles of meat pieces and contributes an additional curing and

flavouring effect, in other cases this liquid is drained out. Due to theweight of therubbed meat cuts,the pressure within

the pile is higher atthe bottom of thecontainer. Thisresults in fasterliquid loss and salt

infiltration. Forequal distribution

(uniform exchange

Fig. 214: Rubbing with salt for dry curing

Fig. 215: Dry-salting. Periodic re-arrangement of meatpiles



174 Cured meat cuts process) re-piling and adding of dry curing salt should be carried outevery seven days with the lower piles up and the upper ones down (seeFig. 215).

Depending on the size of the meat cuts, the curing process alone can

last up to several weeks for equal penetration of the meat cuts withcuring salt. At temperatures of about +4oC, a pork shoulder takes about

two weeks, a leg of pork about four weeks. The same curing periodsapply to beef cuts of comparable size. In all dry-curing methods themeat should be covered to protect it from the air. The liquid, which maydevelop in the first few days, when the salt extracts the juice from the

meat, can be removed, but additional smaller amounts of dry curing mixmust than be sprinkled over the meat cuts. If the liquid is left at thebottom of the container, care should be taken that re-piling is done morefrequently (see Fig. 215).

In combination with the dry curing salt, also spices and sugars forflavouring and sodium ascorbate for enhancement of a typical curing

colour (pickling-red) are used simultaneously. The use of ascorbic acid(instead of sodium ascorbate) in curing mixes and/or brines isdiscouraged as it could lead to a violent chemical reaction with the nitrite,especially when dissolved in water together with nitrite. The result wouldbe fast nitrite breakdown and loss of its functional property.

As exception to the common technology of using curing salt (containingnitrite or nitrate, or a mixture of both, see also page 119), some well-known traditional cured-raw ham products (e.g. “Parma Ham” and “San

Daniele Ham” in Italy, “Jinhua Ham” in China “Jamon Serrano” in Spain,“Jambon Savoie” in France, or “Virginia Ham” in US) are fabricatedwithout nitrite using common salt only. For these products carefullyselected pork hind legs with bone are used. Although no nitrite is used, astable red colour is achieved in these cured-raw ham products. This red

colour derives from the natural meat colour intensified by the drying andripening process, in some instances traces of nitrite and nitrate in salt

and spices may also contribute.

b) Dry-Wet curing

This method is also sometimes practiced in order to facilitate astandardized curing process in bigger meat cuts of slightly differentsize in one curing container. The meat cuts are dry-salted as usual andpiled up layer by layer in the curing containers. The liquid extracted fromthe meat tissue by salt accumulates at the bottom of the curing

container and is topped up to reach to upper piles by separatelyprepared brine, usually with 15-20% curing salt concentration. The brine

must be checked periodically for density and salt concentration and



Cured meat cuts 175 replenished as necessary to assure even curing. The curing brine canalso contain spices for enhanced flavour and sodium ascorbate to furtherstabilize the curing colour. After 5-7 days the meat cuts are re-piled and

covered again by the curing brine. As a rule of the thumb, the curingtime for the biggest meat cut is 2 days per kg of its weight at a

brine/meat ratio of 1:2. This is followed by a drying/ripening phase.

Fast curing with additional brine injectionFor some raw-cured products smaller amounts of curing brine areinjected directly into the muscle tissue to accelerate the curing process.This technique significantly shortens curing periods, as curing substances

migrate in both directions, from outside to inside and from central to lesscentral parts. But because of the accelerated process, the curing flavourremains less intensive and texture of these products remains softer thenin products applying dry

or dry-wet curing. Theshelf life is also reducedsignificantly and most

products are keptrefrigerated. Typicalproducts of this fast-cured type arecured/smoked pork

loin and breakfast ham

(low price raw ham). Fastcuring with injection ofcuring brine will therefore

remain the method ofchoice for rapidturnover cured-cookedmeat products only.

c) Ripening andfermentation of

cured-raw meatproducts

After the curing period, a ripening (maturing) and fermentation

period is required for the full development of the typical flavour of raw-cured meat products. At the start of the ripening period, all curing salt isremoved from the meat surfaces and the meat cuts are either spread ontrays or hung on sticks in refrigerated rooms at initial temperaturesbetween +2 and +5°C (Fig. 217). During this phase the cured meat cuts

develop the typical flavour, colour and texture. In the course of theripening period, temperatures are gradually increased, but should notexceed +12°C. Ripening is a very slow process and can take up to

Fig. 216: Quick cured-raw breakfast hamVacuum packed to stop weight loss



176 Cured meat cuts several months for specific products. Throughout the entire process(curing, ripening, fermentation) the meat looses a significant portion ofits water content. This process starts during curing, when salt penetrates

the meat in exchange for moisture, and is continued during ripening,when moisture from the meat evaporates and dry partially. At the end

of the ripening phase the saltconcentration should reach≥4.5% (aW 0.96) as this

ensures a microbiologicallystable product. Hams dried

and fermented in natural orclimatized air are called “air

dried hams” (Fig. 218, 219).

Air dried beef is a verytasty product and attracts

high prices (Fig. 221)

For “Parma Ham”, “SanDaniele Ham” and “ JamonSerrano” , the whole process

including curing, drying,fermentation and ripeningleading to the product ready

for consumption can take up

to 24 months. Processperiods (curing, drying,fermentation and ripening)

for other raw-cured productssee table 9.

d) Smoking

For many of the larger raw-cured meat cuts and depending on the regionit is common to apply short sequences of cold smoke (around 20°C)

(see page 41) during the ripening stage, especially in regions with wetand/or cold climate. The high air humidity in these regions increases the

risk of mould growth on the meat surfaces, which can be prevented bythe antimicrobial effect of smoke. This category of products is called“smoked raw hams” (Fig. 220).

Fig. 217: Drying and ripening stage ofcured-raw hams (suspended in ripeningroom after completion of curing)



Cured meat cuts 177 Table 9: Treatment for raw fermented products

Curingperiodtemp

Post-curingperiod

Optionalcold

smoke

Ripening,

fermentation, drying

Pork leg(Ham)

dry cured

15-30days

4-8oC

3-5 days

8-12oC

5-30days

12-18oC

Normally up to 9 months(Parma etc. up to 24 months)

(water content in muscletissue ~62%); +2 to +5oC,later higher

Smaller

meatpiecesdry cured

4-10

days

4-10oC

1-3 days

8-12oC

Few days to few weeks (water

content in muscle tissue 67%and above); +4 to +10oC,later higher

Cured-cooked meat products (recipes page 422 – 423)

Raw meat material used for cured-cooked meat products is mainly pork

derived from hind leg, shoulder or loin. In some regions, lean musclemeat from other species (here mainly from beef carcasses, Fig. 231)

may also be processed to local cured-cooked specialties. In some regions

Fig. 219: Well ripened ham, bone-in, air-dried

Fig. 220: Raw ham, heavily smokedFig. 218: Well ripened ham,bone-in, air dried

Fig. 221: Beef, dry cured, rectangularshaped through pressure duringcuring and fermentation, ripeningperiod several months, surface layeredible yeasts



178 Cured meat cuts cured-cooked beef tongue is a delicacy. Meat from younger animals withhigher pH values is preferred (for pork pH above 5.6, preferably 5.8-6.0). Higher pH values are associated with better water binding capacity.

Contrary to cured-raw products, where low pH-values are desirable toboost moisture decrease, high pH-values are desirable for cured-cooked

products to retain the full moisture content.

For high quality products and regional delicacies, entire pieces ofmuscle meat (Fig. 226, 230) are cured and cooked. These meat piecesmay consist of defined muscle groups, such as ham or large back muscle.Medium quality cured-cooked meat products are normally reconstituted

(Fig. 228, 231) from smaller size lean muscle parts, which are cured andtumbled (see page 184), tightly filled in special containers and cooked(Fig. 413, 414). For the low-cost market so-called “re-formed” productshave become popular. For

these products, small musclepieces and lean trimmingsare mixed with brine (water,

salt, binders, extenders, etc.,see page 180). The mixtureis tumbled, stuffed intocasings or cans and heattreated. The individual

processes are described

below. The meattemperature should ideallybe kept below +4°C during

the curing process.

Processing Technology

There are slight differences in the processing technology of cured-cooked

products, mainly depending on the size of the meat parts used for

product manufacture. Curing brine is administered in all products. This is

usually done by brine injection.

Even distribution of the injected brine is achieved by treating the injectedmeat pieces in a meat tumbler (Fig. 28, 228). When no tumbler isavailable, “resting periods” (see page 182, 185) for the meat pieces areneeded.

When meat pieces are too small for brine injection, they are transferreduntreated into the tumbler together with an adequate amount of curing

brine, which will be absorbed into the meat tissue through the massagingeffect of the tumbling.

Fig. 222: pH – measurement in ham



Cured meat cuts 179 Preparation and application of curing brines

An essential part of cured-cooked meat processing is the use of curing

brine. For some products, curing brine is partly injected directly into themeat tissue and partly used in solution in which the injected meat cuts

are submerged prior to cooking. In re-constituted cured-cooked meatproducts, a mixture of meat pieces, trimmings and curing brine (often

enriched with additives for increased binding) is subjected to tumbling.All these curing brines have different compositions and saltconcentrations.

Table 10: Injection of curing brine

Cooked cured

Concentration % (curing salt) Volume % (injected brine)

8-14 15-20

All curing brines contain nitrite curing salt dissolved in potable water.The recommended s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n in brines for cured-cooked meat

pieces is 8-14%. Seasonings are also often added to a brine to impart auniform flavour in the final product. Here liquid spice extracts (page 84)are best suited as solid spice particles can cause blockage of injectionneedles. Other common additives in the curing brine solution are cure

accelerators and phosphates. The common cure accelerator used incured-cooked meat products is s o d i u m a s c o r b a t e . The use of ascorbic

acid must be avoided (page 174). Sodium ascorbate (0.1-0.2%) shouldonly be added to the curing brine immediately before application, as

otherwise the substance could initiate a premature breakdown of thenitrite.

Other additives used in small amounts include sugars. In only mildlypasteurized products sugar might cause undesirable acidity during

prolonged product storage, due to active Lactobacillus bacteria. Theaddition of p h o s p h a t e s , especially in combination with salt, increasesthe water binding capacity of raw meat and contributes to improved

texture in the final product after heat treatment (see Fig. 230). In low-cost products with increased yield (reconstituted hams), additional non-meat additives can be used, such as isolated soy protein, andmodified starches. In these rather complicated curing brines, care

must be taken that all additives are completely dissolved and evenlydistributed.



180 Cured meat cuts Table 11: Approximate addition to curing brines for injection1

(referring to 15-25% brine injection)

Additives % in brine

Curing salt 8 - 14

Phosphate 1 - 3

Sodium ascorbate 0.15 - 0.20

Isolated soy protein 4 - 6

Sugar 1 - 4

Gelatine 1 - 2

Carrageenan 0.5 - 2

Modified starches 1.5 - 3

Glutamate 0.2 - 0.3

The following sequence is commonly recommended for the successful

preparation of curing brines (Fig. 223, 224, 225):

Firstly phosphates are dissolved by continuous stirring

Secondly isolated soy protein is added and dissolved

Then salt is added and dissolved followed by carbohydrates(sugars), gelatine and carrageenan

Lastly modified starches and cure accelerators are dissolved

___________1) There may be variations involving a wider range than indicated in table 11 depending on

local processing techniques and national regulations.

Fig. 223: Preparation of common curing brine (containing curing salt and phosphate) Correct order of dissolving components1 = Add phosphates first, 2 = Stir and dissolve, 3 = Add nitrite curing salt,4 = Stir and dissolve, spice extracts can be added at this stage,5 = Brine ready for application



Cured meat cuts 181

To reduce bacterial contamination of the cured meat, particularly through

injection, curing brines must be hygienically prepared and handled. Forexample in case of poor hygienic water quality, the water used for thecuring brines should be boiled and thoroughly chilled again before

application. This can be achieved by either cooling the potable water inthe cold room, or by direct addition of ice (use of ice water). When usingice, care must be taken that it has completely melted prior to injection ofthe curing brine. Large portions of remaining solid ice, into which no salt

penetrates, would result in too high a salt concentration in the liquid partof the brine. The temperature of meat and brine should not exceed +4°C.

One important additional benefit of such low temperatures is theincreased amount of protein going into solution, thus contributing to

improved water holding and reduced cooking loss of the final products.

Fig. 224: Wrong order of dissolving components for curing brine (leads toclotted phosphate) (phosphate must be dissolved first!)

Fig. 225: Correct order of dissolving ingredients in complex brines1 = phosphate, 2 = isolated soy protein, 3 = curing salt, sugar, gelatine andcarrageenan, 4 = modified starches and sodium ascorbate



Cured meat cuts 183

Fig. 227: Filling meat pieces in casing andputting in mould before cooking

If tumbling equipment (see page 28, 184) is available, the immersion ofthe meat in brine (“resting period”) is not necessary. In this case, thedrip-off of brine lost during injection is added to the tumbler and will be

reabsorbed by the muscle tissue during tumbling.

The curing colour is furtherstabilized during the first phase

of the subsequent heattreatment, while passingthrough the temperature rangeof 30-50°C. Large cured meat

cuts (e.g. boned pork legs) can

be kept in the desired shape by

tightly binding them with layersof string. In recent years this

labour-intensive method hasbeen increasingly replaced byusing expandable nets. Thesemore traditional products areoften hot-smoked prior to

cooking in steam. Alternatively,the meat cuts can also be tightly pressed into ham moulds, round orsquare (Fig. 414), or stuffed into heat resistant plastic bags or casings

and cooked (Fig. 227).

Reconstituted meat products of the cured-cooked type

Cured-cooked meat products can also be produced from smallermuscles or muscle parts (Fig. 228, 229). These smaller size meatpieces are usually derived from meat cutting and grading operations. Themain purpose of these procedures is cost reduction, as carcass parts canbe more profitably utilized. The most common source is pork meat,

mainly hind legs, shoulders or loins are de-boned and dissected. The

dissection enables grading according to lean and fat, dark or bright meat

colour and even according to the pH of individual muscle tissues.

The selected smaller muscles or muscle parts undergo preparatorytreatments. Care must be taken that all fat and connective tissue layersare removed from the meat surface. These undesired tissues are eitherremoved manually or by using electrical “skinning” machines. The lean

surfaces of the muscle pieces should be incised by knife, as this, incombination with the application of curing brine, facilitates the release ofliquefied muscle protein, which in turn coagulates during heat treatment

and makes the meat pieces stick firmly together.



184 Cured meat cuts In the next step, the smaller muscles or muscle parts are injected withcuring brine and subjected to a resting phase of 24-48 hours. Cureaccelerators, phosphates, and spices are added to the curing brine as

described in sub-chapter “Whole muscle products” (page 182). The curedmeat pieces are then tightly pressed into ham moulds and cooked. To

facilitate the necessary firm coherence of the meat pieces, some meatprocessors sprinkle small quantities of gelatine powder onto the meat

surfaces to be bonded together.

The release of liquefied muscle protein in particular on the surfaces ofmeat pieces can be further enhanced by subjecting the brine-injected or

brine-infiltrated meat pieces to tumbling. Tumbling is the mechanicaltreatment in special equipment, either in rotating drums with fixedmassaging humps or in fixed drums with rotating massaging arms (seealso page 28 and Fig. 228). Tumbling takes place at temperatures of

<4°C (-5 to -8°C is best) for several hours (up to 24 hours) (Fig. 229).Tumbling or massaging followed by heat treatment allows the meat

processor to reconstitute larger and uniformly shaped cured-cookedmeat products from smaller meat pieces of different sizes and shapes. Atthe industrial scale large quantities of such products are manufactured.

Apart from the above processed goods the use of a tumbler enablesproduction of low-cost cured-cooked products. Lean meat pieces andtrimmings from all parts of the carcass are coarsely ground, placed in thetumbler together with the desired quantity of curing brine andtumbled/mixed. Such products very often contain non-meat additives for

cost reduction and improvement of the binding and water holdingcapacity of the mixture, such as soy protein (isolate), hydrocolloids (carrageenan), gelatine, transglutaminase, etc. (see page 71, 80).

Fig. 228: Tumbling of pork pieces,brine added to tumbler

Fig. 229: Pieces of pork aftertumbling



Cured meat cuts 185 In general, in order to facilitate a timely and uniform tumbling/curingprocess, larger meat pieces are brine-injected prior to tumbling, whilesmaller pieces can go uncured directly into the tumbler. Care must be

taken that the correct quantity and concentration of curing brine isadded. Amounts and concentrations of brines must be carefully balanced

in order to maintain the targeted salt content of the final product, whichshould be in the range of 2% (see also table 12).

Table 12: Treatment for cooked cured products

Brine injectionTreatment after

injection

Heat treatment of

products incontainers (moulds,

foils, etc.)

Entire meatpieces

Brine 15-20 %by volume with aa salt conc. of10-14%Temperature 0oC

Resting period forpenetration ofcuring salts (12-26 hours, 0-4oC),with or withouttumbling

Water/steamTemperature 70-75oCInternal temp 70(72) alternatively:hot smoke for bacon,pork chops

Small piecesto be

reconstituted

Brine by 15-20volume %

with a a saltconc.. of 10-16%

Temperature 0oC

Tumbling for equaldistribution of all

ingredients, 8-12hours (15 min.tumbling, 15

minutes rest) (0-4oC or below)

Water/steamTemperature 70-75oC

Internal temperature70oC (72)

Fig. 231: Beef ham as acured-cooked product,made of one entire piece ofmuscle

Fig. 230: Entire cooked ham (left) andtumbled reconstituted cooked ham (right)



186 Cured meat cuts



Processed products made of chicken meat 187

PROCESSED PRODUCTS MADE OF CHICKEN MEAT

Chicken sausages

Sausages containing meat mixes including chicken meat

Chicken meat is often used to partly substitute the more expensive redmeats in meat products especially of the raw-cooked type such as

luncheon meat, bologna or hotdogs. In such cases the chicken meatpercentage can vary substantially. As a good manufacturing practice, thepercentage of chicken meat should be indicated for consumer

information, as such products are normally perceived as pork or beefproducts, not containing chicken meat. Also some liver sausages can

contain larger quantities of chicken meat. These products are commonly

labelled as “Chicken Liver Sausage”, although in many cases the liverand animal fats derive from pork.

Sausages and other products with 100% chicken meat

Besides the use of chicken meat in mixed red meat products, there aremany well established and popular products which contain chicken meat

only. When processed chicken and turkey meat products were introduced

on a broader scale a few decades ago, traditional red meat recipes wheresimply modified and red muscle meat was replaced by poultry meat and

pork fat by fat rich chicken skin. For these poultry products such aschicken frankfurter, chicken bologna etc., non-meat ingredients and theprocessing technologies remain basically the same as for thecorresponding processed red meat products. Manufacturers evenendeavour to make chicken and turkey sausages similar to red meat

sausages in taste and flavour, but point out the health benefits of poultryproducts (low fat, low cholesterol, see table 1 on page 2).

Chicken frankfurter and chicken bologna are finely comminuted products, which can be considered as raw-cooked products (see page127). Lean chicken meat provides the proteins and chicken skin replacesthe fat to be finely dispersed in the sausage batter. Filled in small casings(18-22mm), this typical raw-cooked sausage mix is the basis for chicken

frankfurters (Fig. 232), when filled in larger casings (40-60mm), forchicken bologna (Fig. 233). The mix also serves as the basis for productswhere coarse chicken meat (either diced or ground) is blended withbatter and filled in casings of 60-80mm or cans. These products may be

named chicken or turkey ham sausage, chicken or turkey roll etc. (Fig.236). Chicken meat balls, a product in high demand in the Asian



188 Processed products made of chicken meat region, are also of the same category. They are manufactured based onthe method used for traditional meat balls from red meat (Fig. 237).Another chicken meat product, which resembles the cooked hams made

from pork in both manufacture and appearance is called chicken ham(raw meat material may come from all parts of the chicken carcass) or

chicken breast (in this case only chicken breast parts should be used).The meat material is tumbled together with brine containing curing salt,

phosphates and spices, and either pasteurized when filled in casings ormoulds (Fig. 234) or sterilized when filled in cans. For canned andsterilized chicken products see Fig. 238 and 239.

Fig. 232: Chicken frankfurter Fig. 233: Chicken bologna

Fig. 236: Chicken roll

Fig. 234: Chicken hamFig. 235: Turkey ham

Fig. 237: Chicken meat ballsSteamed (left) and oil fried (right)



Processed products made of chicken meat 189 Other chicken meat products

Coated / breaded products

In addition to chicken sausages, the chicken meat industry also

developed new products, which contributed significantly to meeting theglobal increase in demand for poultry meat. These can be compared to a

few examples from the red meat and fish sector, e.g. breaded and friedmeat slices of pork or mutton known as “Escalope” or “Wiener Schnitzel”and in the fish sector as “fish fingers”. The characteristic of such

products is the coating of meat surfaces with flour, fat/flour mixes and/orbreadcrumbs etc. In the poultry sector, similar products include chickennuggets (ground meat mix), chicken sticks or fingers (muscle strips)or chicken schnitzel (breast muscle slices).

After the meat or meat mix is portioned, each portion is pre-dusted byapplying a thin layer of dry flour on the meat surface. This serves to

firmly absorb the batter and the breading in the following steps of theprocessing. Battering consist of dipping the meat pieces in a semi-liquidmixture of oil, eggs, water and spices. Breading is the coating with flour,

fat/flour mixes and/or breadcrumbs. The final step in this process is heattreatment to stabilize the coatings on the meat surface. This short heattreatment in hot fat/oil (approx. +175°C) as part of the processing mustbe seen as a pre-treatment only and does not cook the product. The final

heat treatment is carried out by the consumer right before eating.

In large chicken industries, the above processes have been automated

by using continuous processing lines. This industrial level processingmainly focuses on comminuted and reconstituted meat parts, in somecases mechanically deboned meat (MDM) is used for cost reduction.

Some examples of industrially manufactured chicken products are shownin Fig. 240 to 243.

Fig. 239: Canned chicken chunks in differentraviesFig. 238: Canned chickenfrankfurters



190 Processed products made of chicken meat

Fig. 240: Chicken nuggets, small size

Fig. 241: Chicken wings with bones Fig. 242: Chicken drumsticks (below),Chicken nuggets, large size (above)

Fig. 243: Chicken ‘tocino’ raw (left) and fried (right).Philippines delicacies with high sugar content



Processed products made of chicken meat 191 Even though the large poultry firms dominate the markets, there is stillscope for small manufacturers to produce and successfully market similarproducts of high quality standards using manual processing methods.

Examples of technologies and products suitable for the small-scale sectorare:

Chicken burgers, chicken longganisa

These two products are easily made from spiced ground chicken / poultrymeat mixes. The mixture for the burgers is portioned into the desiredweight and shaped using a hand-held moulding device (Fig. 245). The

longganisas are also portioned and rolled into plastic wrapping.

Fig. 244: Raw material (groundchicken meat)

Fig. 245: Moulding chickenburgers

Fig. 246: Chicken burgers, left fresh,right fried

Fig. 247: Skinless chickenlongganisa, made of ground meat,left frozen/fresh, right fried



192 Processed products made of chicken meat Chicken nuggets

Also chicken nuggets can be manufactured at the small-scale level and

a simple method is shown below (Fig. 248).

Fig. 248: Small-scale manufacture of chicken nuggets

(a) Ground chicken meat withsalt and spices, to be frozen forchicken nuggets manufacture

(b) Raw chicken nuggets cut-outfrom frozen block

(c) Materials for pre-dusting (left)and coating with egg batter (right)

(d) Coated for frying

(e) Arrangement for coating andfrying of nuggets



Processed products made of chicken meat 193 The meat selected for the chicken nuggets is mixed with spices, salt andherbs and ground to the desired particle size (1-5 mm). The groundmixture is spread in a tray to the desired thickness covered with plastic

foil and frozen. After freezing the nuggets are cut out and breaded (Fig.248 a-e).

Methods of processing chicken filets (to chicken fingers) and of

chicken wings (to spicy marinated products) are shown in Fig. 249 and250.

Fig. 249: Method for pre-dusting,battering and breading of chickenfilets

Fig. 250: Marinating chicken wingsfor fried products



194 Processed products made of chicken meat

meat proces 7

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