DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The Department for International Development (DFID) is the UK government departmentresponsible for promoting development and the reduction of poverty. The governmentfirst elected in 1997 has increased its commitment to development by strengthening thedepartment and increasing its budget.

The central focus of the Government’s policy, set out in the 1997 White Paper onInternational Development, is a commitment to the internationally agreed target to halvethe proportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015, together with the associatedtargets including basic health care provision and universal access to primary educationby the same date. The second White Paper on International Development, published inDecember 2000, reaffirmed this commitment, while focusing specifically on how tomanage the process of globalisation to benefit poor people.

DFID seeks to work in partnership with governments which are committed to theinternational targets, and seeks to work with business, civil society and the researchcommunity to this end. We also work with multilateral institutions including the WorldBank, United Nations agencies and the European Community.

The bulk of our assistance is concentrated on the poorest countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. We are also contributing to poverty elimination and sustainabledevelopment in middle income countries in Latin America, the Caribbean and elsewhere.DFID is also helping the transition countries in central and eastern Europe to try to ensurethat the process of change brings benefits to all people and particularly to the poorest.

As well as its headquarters in London and East Kilbride, DFID has offices in manydeveloping countries. In others, DFID works through staff based in British embassies andhigh commissions.

DFID’s headquarters are located at:

DFID and at DFID94 Victoria Street Abercrombie HouseLondon SW1E 5JL Eaglesham RoadUK East Killbride

Glasgow G75 8EA

(from January 2002: 1 Palace Steet, London SW1E 5HE, UK)

Switchboard: 020 7917 7000 Fax: 020 7917 0019Website: www.dfid.gov.uk email: enquiry@dfid.gov.ukPublic enquiry point: 0845 3004100 From overseas: +44 1355 84 3132

ISBN 1 86192 377 5

Produced by Wave for DFID Information Depar tment 07/01 3K

Cover photograph: cour tesy of The British Council

DFID Department for

International

Development

issu

es

a guide to assistance

The Media inGovernance

Developing freeand effectivemedia to servethe interests ofthe poor

The M

edia

in G

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rnance: a

guid

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assista

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DFID

The media have a crucial role ingovernance, human rights and theelimination of poverty

The purpose of this guidance paper is to improve the quality and impact ofgovernment-media relations and mediaeffectiveness in serving the interestsof the poor and the disadvantaged

This document has been produced by Colin Roth for the GovernanceDepartment of the Department for International Development (DFID) and is based on a research project conducted by John Prescott Thomas,working with the Thomson Foundation. The Panos Institute hascontributed some further ideas.

Details of potential sources of expertise and funding were correct at the time of going to press but can obviously change.

Further advice and information on media-related projects can beobtained from the Governance Department of DFID. Contact Garth Glentworth: telephone 020 7917 0661; fax 020 7917 0074;e-mail:g-glentworth@dfid.gov.uk

Contents

1 Introduction1.1 What do we mean by the media?1.2 Why get involved?1.3 How can the UK help?1.4 This Guide1.5 Human rights1.6 A word of caution

2 To assist or not to assist?

3 Helping to improve government-media relations3.1 Encouraging governments to allow the media proper freedom3.2 Publication of government material3.3 Legislation and regulation

4 Helping to improve the regulatory regime4.1 Licensing:

the pressradio and television

4.2 Regulatory bodies4.3 Codes of Practice

broadcast mediaprint media

4.4 Complaints

5 Helping the media to be more effective5.1 Strategy5.2 Management and organisation5.3 Infrastructure5.4 Staffing and equipment5.5 Decentralisation5.6 Editorial policy and practice5.7 Training

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6 Campaigning and investigative journalism6.1 Campaigning

When is a campaign likely to succeed?Is the choice of media right for the particular issue and the target audience?

6.2 Investigative journalism

Annex A Accessibility of the mediaAnnex B Sources of expertiseAnnex C International sources of supportAnnex D Research sources

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1 IntroductionThe media can be a major force for improving the quality of governmentin developing and transitional countries – which is critical ifopportunities for the poor and disadvantaged are also to improve.

To fulfil this role the media need room to manoeuvre – tight governmentregulation and censorship produce media which are ineffective andlacking in credibility. Too little regulation, on the other hand, may lead tothe domination of commercial media ruled by advertising, to thedetriment of serious content and of the interests of those withoutpurchasing power – i.e. the poor. What is needed are policies thatimpose responsibilities as well as freedoms on the commercial sector,and that clarify and facilitate the role of the public service media.

Effective media also need good management, and good professionaland technical skills.

The main purpose of this Guide is to help governments anddevelopment agencies to decide whether to support the development ofthe media, and if so how.

Related DFID publications include:

Working with the Media in Conflicts and other Emergencies(Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs Department and Social DevelopmentDepartment, September 2000); and

Communications and Development: A Practical Guide (Social Development Department, March 1999) – which deals withcommunications and use of the media as a tool for development.

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1.1 What do we mean by the media?

1.1.1 The media include:

● radio, television, video and film● newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and posters ● the internet, e-mail and telephones ● theatre, dance, music and puppetry● meetings of all sorts (e.g. workshops and participatory exercises, such

as Participatory Rural Appraisal or other community-level work)

This Guide focuses mainly on radio, television and the press. These arethe media which currently have the greatest direct day-to-day impact ongovernments, although the Internet is becoming increasingly influential.The strengths and weaknesses of the different media are described insection 6.

1.2 Why get involved?

1.2.1 Because the media can make a real difference to the lives of poor anddisadvantaged people, for example by:

● making people more aware of their rights

● making people more aware of political issues and options and helpingto stimulate debate

● drawing attention to institutional failings – corruption, inefficiency,cronyism, nepotism – which are detrimental to the common good

● creating pressure for improved government performance, for example inservice delivery or in respect of human rights

1.3 How can the UK help?

1.3.1 At a political level, by encouraging governments to see the virtues – andthe practical advantages – of independent and effective media.

1.3.2 At a technical level by helping to design regulatory frameworks whichare adequate but not oppressive; by helping to ensure the existence ofmedia that are accessible to the poor and which represent theirinterests; by helping to improve the management and the professionaland technical performance of media institutions; by helping the mediato conduct targeted campaigns and investigations; and by supportingnon-governmental organisations (NGOs) concerned with media issues.

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1.4 This guide

1.4.1 This Guide seeks to point up the main problems which are likely to beencountered in support for the media, and the outcomes which mightbe expected. It does not attempt to prescribe detailed solutions to allproblems – further advice on specific cases should be sought asnecessary from outside media experts.

1.4.2 It may not always be desirable to assist: Section 2 gives someguidance on when to assist and when not. Section 3 covers advice andassistance to ministers and officials in the areas of government-mediarelations. Section 4 looks at regulation of the media. Section 5 dealswith technical assistance to media institutions, both with managementand organisation and with technical and professional matters. Section 6covers campaigning and investigative journalism. Annex A lists someaccessibility characteristics – which medium gets which messages towhich people. Annexes B and C give guidance on potential sources ofexpertise and of funding respectively. Annex D lists the principalresearch sources on which the guide is based.

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1.5 Human Rights

1.5.1 Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that:

‘Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression;this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interferenceand to seek, receive and impart information through any mediaregardless of frontiers.’

Those least likely to enjoy their human rights are the poor, theuneducated, women, and members of religious, ethnic or casteminorities. Rural people in particular are likely to have difficulty enjoyingtheir right of access to the media.

1.6 A Word of Caution

1.6.1 In applying the principles set out in this Guide, there are threeimportant caveats:

● media practice is not always easily transferable across cultures

● audiences in other countries and cultures may not react in the sameways as Western audiences

● not all the media have a productive role to play in every debate and onevery issue

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2 To assist or not to assist?2.1 Before providing specific assistance either with regulatory frameworks

or direct to the media, we need to ask ourselves some questions. Willthe assistance increase media freedom and effectiveness? Will it helpto improve the quality of governance? Will it help in the elimination ofpoverty?

2.2 A good starting point is to assess the status of the media and theirrelationship to government and the public. Some key questions are setout in the box below.

Key questions 1

(a) on the status of the media and open governmentHow pluralistic is media ownership, and how independent are the mediafrom national and foreign governments, political parties andmultinational corporations?

How representative are the media of different opinions and howaccessible are they to different sections of society, including poor andvulnerable groups and political parties?

How effective are the media and other independent bodies ininvestigating government and powerful corporations?

How far does media reporting of public and political events remainwithin acceptable bounds of accuracy and balance?

How free are journalists from restrictive laws, harassment and intimidation?

How free are private citizens from intrusion and harassment by the media?

What measures, if any, are being taken to remedy publicly identifiedproblems in this field, and what degree of political priority and publicsupport do they have?

(b) on government accountabilityHow comprehensive and effective are legislation and freedom of infor-mation provisions in giving the legislature, citizens and the mediaaccess to government information?

1 Questions are taken from DFIDs Governance Review Framework – a series of questions to assess the status of governance

2.3 Support for the media through the government is best avoided wheregovernment is restricting the freedom of the media to operate, forexample, by denying:

● local broadcasters proper legal access to frequency bands ● journalists and the public access to legislative debates ● other political parties equitable access to the media● journalists the scope to report freely and form independent associations● the media and journalists equitable allocations of material resources

(e.g. broadcasting licences, subsidised newsprint, scholarships etc.)

Where these constraints apply we would need to find other routes,such as civil society, through which to support freedom of informationand expression.

2.4 Support to the established media should be approached with cautionwhere the media:

● are owned exclusively by government● are owned by a narrow elite and manipulated to exclude other interests.

2.5 In any particular case, it is best to take a pragmatic look at the contextand problems in the media. These are not always immediate andvisible. If presentation and interpretation are distorted, this may bebecause of an underlying lack of journalistic and production skills; butwhat if it is deliberate policy? Potential supporters of the media shouldbe particularly wary of providing additional legitimacy and credibility tostate-controlled media which are effectively government propagandamachines. But nor should they encourage commercial media devoid ofcivic responsibility.

2.6 Support for the media will be most effective if developed as part ofbroader support for accountability – even independent and skilful mediawill have limited impact without the other institutions that can use newsand opinions to hold the government to account effectively, for example:

● parliaments and their committees that question and investigategovernment policy and per formance, and can vote governments out of office

● auditors general, anti-corruption bureaux, ombudsmen who investigateand expose wrongdoing in the state

● advocacy NGOs that represent the views of poor people, publiciseoppressive behaviour and campaign for freedom of expression, and arelinked together and internationally, for example through the internet.

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3 Helping to improvegovernment-mediarelations

3.1 Summary

Purpose of assistance

● to make ministers and senior officials aware of the advantages of goodrelations with the media

● to encourage greater freedom for the media where they are subject toexcessive government control or interference

● to help towards a transparent regulatory system which guarantees theright of freedom of opinion and expression in accordance with Article 19of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (see paragraph 1.5.1)

● to train ministers and senior officials in media awareness andtechniques, so that they can deal with the media confidently,understand how they work, and appreciate the advantages which freemedia bring

Method

● provide experts to:

— advise on the competence and scope of legislation— assist with the drafting of legal instruments— assist with the design of licensing systems

● provide seminars for ministers and senior officials in media awarenessand techniques

● provide more extensive training to ministry information officers

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3.1 Encouraging governments to allow the media proper freedom

3.1.1 There is always a degree of tension between governments and media,even in democracies with a long tradition of media freedom. On theone hand the government is responsible for regulating the media, andneeds to use the media to communicate with the public. On the otherhand the media have a prime responsibility to examine whatgovernment is and is not doing, and to provide the public withinformation, comment, analysis, criticism and alternative views.Tension tends to be greater in developing and transitional countries,often because of a lack of understanding: the government may have noculture of talking to the media; and ministers and politicians may haveno training in media awareness or techniques. The resulting mistrustcan lead governments to over-regulate, and to force-feed the mediawith propaganda which then has to appear as “news”. Trainingministers and senior officials in media awareness can help reducetension and increase mutual understanding, paving the way for somelightening of the regulatory hand.

3.1.2 Governments should be encouraged to allow the media propereditorial freedom. Regulation should protect and promote the publicinterest – which includes access by and inclusion of the poor, andraising standards of debate and engagement in civic and politicalmatters. Progress in removing over-regulation may have to beachieved in easy stages.

In Thailand, the privately-owned newspapers played a crucial role in thefree elections of 1991 by bringing public opinion to bear on politicianswho had previously been able to wheel and deal in secret. The statemonopoly of television ended in 1996 and the influence of pluralisticoutput is causing the state media themselves to change.

In Romania the advent of commercial competition contributeddramatically to broadcasting freedom by allowing the development ofalternative networks, access to western-style programming andproduction techniques, the rise of private, independent broadcasters,and international exchange of broadcast content.

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3.1.3 There are a number of arguments which can be deployed to helppersuade governments to give the media a freer rein:

● if the media are clearly the puppets of government, they will soon losecredibility with the public. Without credibility, government manipulationof the media may fool politicians but will not ultimately fool the people.If credibility is lost, even true messages may be disbelieved

V Pravdye nye izvestia, v Izvestia nye pravda (There’s no news inThe Truth and no truth in The News – Russian communist-era joke)

● it is becoming increasingly difficult to insulate populations from externalchannels of information such as the Internet and world broadcastingservices. If domestic media lack credibility people will turn increasinglyto outside sources; and the more conflicts they see between domesticand external reports, the more sceptical they will become about whattheir local media are serving up

When the Zambian government suppressed a copy of the Zambian Post,it remained available world-wide on the Internet long afterwards.

● governments often need to change and modify policies. This is easier ifall sides of a question have been publicly aired than if the policy hasbeen presented as having “no alternative”.

3.1.4 Credibility also requires a public perception that the media are trulyindependent. This means a separation of powers between governmentand the media; media which are formally a division of a ministry willalways be seen as an arm of government. Better to have a statutorycorporation or executive agency with an independent board.

3.2 Publication of government material

Governments need access to the media for public serviceannouncements or welfare campaigns, and in times of naturaldisasters. This is all right and proper. But governments must not abusethese facilities. The origin of the material should always be made clear– government material should always be identified as such.

3.3 Legislation and regulation

3.3.1 Where the local legal tradition permits (as it usually does, for instance,in common law countries though to a lesser extent in civil lawcountries), primary legislation governing the media should concentrateon the institutional framework and the fundamental principles, leavingdetailed application to regulatory codes of practice which are easier tomodify in response to change (the media world is a rapidly-changingone, and society’s expectations and tolerances change too).

3.3.2 Day-to-day regulation is best dealt with by independent bodies, ratherthan by government itself (see Section 4).

3.3.3 The ideal point of departure for the legislative and regulatory frameworkshould be that the media are constrained only in the same way as theprivate citizen in a liberal democracy following the rule of law – by lawsof libel, slander, contempt, trespass, copyright etc. A Freedom ofInformation Act on the pattern of Scandinavia, the USA, Australia orNew Zealand is the democratic ideal. An acceptable alternative mightbe an Official Information Act affirming the principle that officialinformation should be made available to the public – and to their mediarepresentatives – unless there are good reasons to withhold it. Somestates (such as Sweden) also provide legal protection againstjournalists being forced to disclose their sources. Such legal immunity

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is far from universal in the West, however, and is unlikely to find muchcurrency in developing countries.

“If the press were compelled to disclose their sources they would soonbe bereft of information which they ought to have. Their sources woulddry up. Wrongdoing would not be disclosed.....Unfairness would gounremedied.....Misdeeds in the corridors of power – in companies or ingovernment departments – would never be known.” Lord Denning,former Master of the Rolls.

3.3.4 The regulatory framework should ensure that local needs are adequatelyprotected and provided for. Foreign-owned media in particular will often betempted to include a high proportion of imported material – its attractionusually being its cheapness rather than its quality or local relevance.Commercial media, based on consumer advertising, will tend to cluster inurban areas, to broadcast only in majority or elite languages, and to fillairtime with light entertainment. Competition for listeners may forcepublic media to follow suit. Access by rural people and the poor is thusreduced, along with serious public interest content. Broadcasting licences(see paragraph 4.1.2 et seq) need to be properly demanding, recognisingthat it is a service that is being licensed, not just a frequency.

In Fiji, the government granted the country’s first and only televisionlicence to TV New Zealand, with a guarantee of exclusivity for 12 years.The company is committed to only 10% of locally-produced output, andis reluctant to spend money encouraging local production. Consequentlythere is a high level of bought-in programming acquired from existingTVNZ systems. In contrast, Fiji has nine radio stations providing a varieddiet in Fijian, Hindi and English.

India has recently seen a marked change in the attitude of its pressproprietors. Once highly respected for their professional ethics andcommitment to democratic principles and practice, newspapers areincreasingly treated as commercial brands, their independence madesuspect by collaborative ties with the state-owned electronic media.

In Hungary before 1989 the relatively relaxed regime allowed manydissident writers access to published outlets. More recently these samewriters have found it harder to get their work published in a free marketdriven by profit-making print-runs.

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3.3.5 The legal framework may also need to provide safeguards against theconcentration of cross-media ownership. Any trend towards monopoly –particularly if it encompasses several media – is inimical to democraticpluralism. Media freedoms can be constrained by market dynamics aswell as official suppression.

3.3.6 Governments may want help with the development of a media policy:this could involve the provision of consultants, and/or help withseminars and consultation processes.

In 1999-2000, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UNEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) supportedthe Government of Uganda in the major task of developing itsCommunications White Paper.

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4 Helping to improve theregulatory regime

Summary

Purpose of assistance

● to help produce effective regulatory bodies, preferably independent of government

● to help produce codes of practice which:

— provide the right balance between regulation and freedom

— reflect local culture

— are adaptable to an evolving society and can be modified, e.g. as attitudes to women or to ethnic or religious minorities develop

— are enforceable by effective sanctions

Method

● Provide advice on:

— legislation to establish independent regulatory bodies— the scope of regulations and codes of conduct— management, organisation and finance of regulatory bodies— ensuring compliance; penalties for non-compliance

4.1 Licensing

The press4.1.1 The simple requirement to register2 a newspaper is not an interference

with the freedom of the press. But the licensing of publications shouldnot be acceptable: a licencing authority can withdraw a licence at anytime, and this in effect gives it ultimate control over what the pressreports and how it comments. Government control of newsprintsupplies can be used to similar effect and is also unacceptable. So isthe licensing of journalists, or the requirement of a restrictivequalification to determine who may and may not work in the media.

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2 Registration implies an obligation to enter the name in a register (as with births, deaths and marriages) but confers nopower to the keeper of the register over what is registered. A licence on the other hand is a permit to do something,which the authorities may withdraw thus forbidding the activity in question to the former licence holder.

Radio and television

4.1.2 The broadcast media, on the other hand, have to be licensed, becausefrequencies are a finite and scarce resource, and a free for all wouldlead to chaos on the air. Frequencies are allocated to governmentsthrough international agreements, and governments in turn have tomake allocations to national broadcasters.

4.1.3 The process of awarding broadcasting licences should be fair andtransparent. For most developing countries, a straightforwardtendering procedure is likely to be appropriate. Licences need to beawarded by a statutory body but should preferably not be in the gift ofa single ministry.

4.1.4 The terms of broadcasting licences should include:

Duration of the licence termGeneral nature of the service to be providedCommercial ownership detailsFrequencies allocated

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Coverage to be achievedTechnical standardsMinimum hours of transmissionMaximum minutes of advertising per hourMinimum percentage of locally-produced programmingAdherence to regulatory codes of practice

Licences should also be framed with quality in mind. It is right thatthey should:

● include quantified requirements for locally-originated programming● insist on quality assurance ● provide for a respect for local culture and sensibilities

(which is not necessarily the same thing as respect for the currentgovernment’s agenda)

● insist on an adequate and widely accessible local news service

4.1.5 Radio licensing provisions should recognise the scope for greaterflexibility as compared with television: radio technology is moreaccessible and can sustain greater diversity, niche-marketing andgeographical targeting. Local and community radio can contributegreatly to an accountable and democratic society, for example by givingminority or marginalised groups a channel for expression. It can alsoprove a valuable tool for development communications. Regulatorystructures can help by allocating frequencies and granting licences tosmall radio stations and by protecting frequencies from unregulated orchaotic growth.

4.1.6 Content needs to be monitored to ensure that stations are sticking tothe rules (by not putting out too many advertisements, or too fewlocally-produced programmes; by not leaving extreme viewsunchallenged or allowing incitement to violence). In this way regulatorscan ensure that properly pluralist local broadcasting is meeting people’sneeds and is not fostering instability.

4.1.7 Media licence and registration fees should be priced realistically. The media are an industry and a balance has to be struck betweencommercial viability and a proper return to the national coffers. What issensible and fair will obviously depend on the size and nature of thelocal economy – and particularly of the advertising and sponsorshipmarkets. But countries have sometimes been persuaded to sell off theirallocated frequencies (see paragraph 4.1.2) too cheaply.

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4.2 Regulatory bodies

4.2.1 To avoid the creation of big new regulatory bureaucracies, it may beacceptable to leave the quantitative aspects of regulation – that is, theelements which can be measured objectively and are not matters ofjudgement, such as transmitter coverage, hours broadcast, advertisingminutage etc – in the hands of the relevant ministry or ministries. Butin qualitative matters – questions of content and treatment – free anddemocratic media require regulation to be applied by an independentnon-governmental body. That body’s functions should include:

● preserving the freedom and independence of the media ● ensuring that media practice is informed by public concerns● ensuring that the media operate to a common code of practice● providing for independent judgement on alleged breaches of the code

Ideally, the regulatory body should be resourced by the mediaoperators themselves, in order to preserve the principle of regulationat arm’s length from government. This need not be unduly demandingor expensive, if the regulation of quantitative issues is left ingovernment hands.

In Fiji, following a British-led consultancy, the Government adopted aregulatory structure including a Media Council with devolved powers.The Council operates only in editorial matters, leaving quantitativeregulation to the ministries. The change was achieved through extensiveconsultation and in the face of some political opposition.

4.2.2 Where in practice regulation remains with government, the ideal is topersuade the government to substitute an independent system and tooffer specialist and financial assistance to help set it up. If governmentinsists on retaining direct control it may nevertheless be possible tohelp devise a more liberal regime – for instance, by includingindependent lay advisory panels as an element in the system.

It is rarely wise to attempt to transplant Western practice directly.Nevertheless, the model of the British Independent TelevisionCommission (ITC) provides a good example of the principles of arm’slength regulation. The broad principles and parameters within whichindependent television is to work – general concepts, expressed interms of ‘balance’, ‘decency’, ‘quality’, ‘appropriate amounts’ etc – areset out in the Broadcasting Act. But the Act devolves to the ITC the jobof defining what this should mean for practitioners in terms of editorialapproach, the gaining of access, the conduct of interviews, acceptable

words, images, juxtapositions etc. The ITC embodies these rules in aseries of Codes of Practice (see section 4.3), which become theprofessional terms of reference of the industry, and monitorsbroadcasters’ compliance with them. Parliament also devolves to the ITCstatutory powers to apply sanctions for breaches of the Codes, whichrange from a reprimand, through a fine to suspension or even revocationof a licence. The scope of sanctions clearly needs to be adapted to localconditions, but a regulator must have teeth – otherwise credibility andrespect are soon lost. The system enables the Codes to be continuouslymodified and updated, without the need for new primary legislation. Andneither government nor parliament is ever directly involved in the actualcodifying of the rules or in the policing of compliance, although the ITCitself is ultimately appointed by government.

4.2.3 The system of appointment to regulatory bodies should seek to ensurethat they are representative of society at large. The media themselvesshould obviously have their place. But a workable system might, forexample, have half the lay members nominated by community interests(trade unions, religious groups, industrial and academic bodies etc.) andthe remainder appointed as individuals in their own right after a public callfor nominations. But it is probably unrealistic not to expect an insistenceon some form of government representation as of right, especially whenchanging from a state broadcasting system to an independent one.

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Wherever possible, however, government representation should beindirect, by nominees, rather than direct, by ministers or officials.

4.2.4 Regulatory bodies should be enabled to act as champions of mediafreedom, not just as consumer watchdogs. They should have a statutoryright and duty to speak out when they believe that media freedom isthreatened from any quarter.

4.3 Codes of Practice

Broadcast media

Unlike the terms of an individual licence, the editorial code of practiceneeds to be applied across all outlets, covering both factual andfictional material and advertising. It should set appropriate standards inthe light of local laws, cultural values and mores (but, again, as aservant of civil society, not as an agent of the current government)covering at least the following issues:

● duties of accuracy, balance and fair dealing (including rules for thecoverage of elections)

● impartiality (in the licensed broadcast media) as between, for exampledifferent political viewpoints

● the distinction of factual news from comment● payments to or by contributors (including bribery, the use of editorial

space for paid-for content, product placement etc.)● scheduling and display constraints (particularly when the audience is

likely to include children)● the use of strong language● the treatment and portrayal of violence● the treatment and portrayal of sexual relationships and conduct● the treatment of minorities and disadvantaged groups (ethnic groups,

women, people with disabilities etc.)● gaining access to subjects and considerations of privacy and intrusion

(including photographic intrusion)● the terms, conduct and editing of interviews● the use of covert recording and subterfuge● the use of reconstruction in factual programmes● the coverage of crime and anti-social behaviour● the treatment of religions● criteria for advertising standards● the distinction of advertising from editorial material● dealing with complaints and the publishing of corrections and apologies

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Print media

4.3.2 The print media do not need to be licensed (see paragraph 4.1.1), andcan therefore be self-regulating. This still requires a regulatoryinstitution of some sort. It should include independent layrepresentation, and its codes of ethics and practice should be in thepublic domain. Though there is common ground between thebroadcasting and print media in editorial matters, experience has shownthat it is rarely practicable to impose a single regulatory system or codeof practice upon both of them.

4.4 Complaints

4.4.1 People will sometimes feel that they have been unfairly treated by themedia, and there needs to be a fair and accessible system for dealingwith complaints. The system should be transparent, quick, andempowered to impose credible means of redress.

4.4.2 A complainant’s first recourse should be to the originator: many outletsnow employ a ‘reader’s editor’ or ombudsman figure to deal with suchcomplaints. If the response is unsatisfactory, then the complainantshould have access as of right to the regulator – desirably a self-regulatory body in the case of the print media and a statutory body inthe case of broadcasting. Both should have impartial complaintscommittees which hear the evidence and deliver judgements. Theyshould be empowered to require offending media to publishcorrections and apologies, which should be accorded properprominence. In practice, this is all most complainants want. Anyfurther redress should be a matter for the courts. And, just as theyshould seek to protect press freedom, regulators should, of course,also be empowered to take offending media to task on their ownaccount, for example if they suspect the existence of vendettas, witch-hunts or discriminatory campaigns.

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5 Helping the media to bemore effective

Summary

Purpose of assistance

● to enable media institutions to provide optimum value for money interms of output

● promote good quality media output which is relevant and useful to theaudience and which allows the expression of a full range of opinions onmatters of public concern

● help establish a body of well-trained media managers and practitioners,operating to high standards of professional integrity and expertise, andaware of and responsive to the real needs of their audiences

Method

● to help media institutions restructure themselves to meet objectivesmore effectively

● provide skills and management training, advice on the development ofeffective local training institutions, back-up and support

● assist with the design and implementation of audience research systems

5.1 Strategy

5.1.1 State-run broadcasting media should concentrate their investment andexpenditure on achieving value for money in terms of effective output.This means giving priority to editorial and production functions and notwasting money on:

● big, unproductive bureaucracies● expensive prestige buildings● expensive state-of-the art equipment when cheaper proven technology

will do the job

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A Romanian regional TV station received no financial support from thecentre apart from payment of salaries; producers had three videocassettes each, which they had to constantly re-use, precluding thecreation of archives or a programme library. Meanwhile, back at HQ,an army of drivers was employed to wait for assignments which nevermaterialised, and each of the fully-automatic lifts was furnished withan attendant.

In Sierra Leone, the empty shell of a vast new television building hasbeen empty and decaying for over 25 years

5.1.2 News which is accessible to as many people as possible should be thefirst priority for the broadcast media. Access to information is the firstrequirement for an engaged, participative democracy. Pro-poor policiesdepend on the extent to which people and their organisations candemand and exercise their democratic rights. Without information,people will be unaware of ‘the right to have rights’. The news media canbe used to convince the poor of the benefits of having, and realisingrights – and can help them to assert these rights in practice. In manycountries this may be best achieved through radio, which reaches awide audience, rather than television, which may be accessible to only asmall minority.

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5.1.3 Adequate news coverage requires structures to gather news from allparts of the country, some of which may be remote, and from abroad. Italso needs specialised reporters who can explain complex topics –economic affairs, business and trade, environment – in terms which theaudience can understand.

5.2 Management and organisation5.2.1 Where media are state owned and run, management structures and

organisation should as far as possible respond to broadcasting orpublishing needs rather than follow traditional civil service models –often a major problem in state-run organisations with a ministry ofinformation culture.

5.3 Infrastructure5.3.1 The need everywhere is for small-scale, flexible and responsive

facilities, designed for maximum cost-effectiveness. A proven approachin broadcasting is to take a cheap, standard industrial unit and to dry-build within it a high-tech box-within-a-box. The money is thus spent onthe product, not on the shell or on expensive furnishings. While newsfacilities do need to be ‘plumbed-in’ and integrated (see paragraph5.3.2), studio-based drama or multi-camera entertainment formats canbe produced more effectively in a simple, flexible space where theappropriate equipment can be brought in as necessary. Solutions tothese problems need to be tailor-made with expert advice to meet localconditions and resources: ready-made off-the-shelf Western packagesoften look attractive initially but may not provide the best answer in thelonger term.

5.3.2 The design of accommodation should be driven by outputconsiderations. In both print and broadcast media, the separation oftechnical services from editorial functions is now old-fashioned andcounterproductive. In television, for instance, electronic graphics andpost-production facilities need to be integrated with the newsroom. Innewspapers, design and pagination should be sufficiently flexible toreflect news developments and changing priorities: lay-out should neverbecome a set pattern into which the material is forced regardless of itssignificance or complexity. These are matters where up-to-datespecialist advice is valuable.

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25

5.4 Staffing and equipment

There may be a need to dismantle old territorial boundaries betweendifferent technologies and skills. Technical specification must not beseen as the exclusive prerogative of engineers (or of accountants).Much technology is now demystified and sensitively applied multiskillingcan improve cost-effectiveness. Editorial requirements must alwaysdrive equipment and staffing patterns.

5.4.1 The technology specified should be proven and easily expandable. Inmany developing countries, there is no reason to aspire to the latest(and expensive) disc-based broadcast news systems. Systems like BetaSP (in television) remain perfectly adequate for factual coverage:capacity can be expanded without expensive retraining, and equipmentis readily and economically available. Similarly, in newspapers, aheadlong rush to embrace the latest technology can lead to a majorwaste of resources if managements make inappropriate decisions.

5.4.2 In broadcasting, a single technical standard should be specified for allprocesses. There are many television stations where material has to beshot on one system, transferred to another for editing and copied on toa third for transmission. This is time-consuming and inefficient: itreduces productivity and degrades technical quality. The flexibility andultimate economy of using a single system for gathering, editing andtransmitting material cannot be over-emphasised. This should be amajor priority.

Macedonian state television used five different technical formats,largely on obsolete or unserviceable equipment. Without funding forrenewal and rationalisation of its hardware, the organisation could notimplement staffing and efficiency savings.

5.5 Decentralisation

5.5.1 A centralised approach cannot always cater for local concerns andlanguages. Local programming can be very cost-effective and canattract big audiences even against strong competition. In manydeveloping countries there is a hunger for such output, which can makeparticipation a reality. But much depends on geography and on thecoverage-pattern of transmitters, which may not coincide with thelinguistic or demographic distribution of the audience. The opting-in andopting-out of local stations from the network programme may also

26

require complex and expensive communications links for comparativelysmall audiences. All such proposals need to be carefully assessed andcosted with expert advice. Mutual programming support among stationscan help. The model of South Africa’s regional network, compromisingin some places in order to optimise the overall pattern within a limitedbudget, is instructive. And, again, radio is very much cheaper todiversify than television.

A National Colloquium on Communication for Rural Development,conducted by the New Delhi Centre for Media Studies, concluded thatcentrally-planned and bureaucratically-administered programmes forrural development had ‘signally failed’. This was partly because theofficial media, increasingly market- and consumer-orientated, were outof tune with the values needed to promote broad-based humandevelopment. Development communication was most effective whenpractised as part of social action locally, rather than delivered top-downby media professionals.

The Scandinavian närradio model (local stations targeted at, and givingvoice to, small groups within the community) could usefully be adaptedfor some developing and transition countries.

5.5.2 The overall aim should be to achieve more than just repetitive formulaproduction. The ideal of public service broadcasting is ‘to make goodprogrammes popular and popular programmes good’. ‘ Popular’ doesnot have to mean shallow and insubstantial, any more than ‘minority’has to mean elitist.

5.5.3 It may also be worth investigating the possibility of nurturingindependent production capacity locally. This can provide a usefulproportion of off-the-shelf programmes, enabling in-house production toconcentrate on the primary news function. But proper quality control willmake considerable demands on editorial management. And too muchbought-in material means sacrificing the advantages of sharing acommon in-house editorial and production culture, exchanging viewsand experiences and learning through team-work. (A strong stationidentity is often a significant force in winning public credibility; it isunlikely to emerge from delivering a series of one-off products from avariety of outside sources.)

5.5.4 Community broadcasting – radio stations owned and controlled by thecommunities they serve, whether these are communities of language,interest or geography – thrives in many parts of the world. In central

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and South America there are thousands of such stations; Mali has over80 and South Africa over 60. Community radio stations are not profit-driven but respond to the needs and priorities of the community, andare accountable to community structures. They are not very costly toestablish and run, as long as there is support from legislative andregulatory frameworks and some financial support for start-up.Community radio can promote the development process especially inrural areas where reception from major broadcasting stations may bepoor, and where those stations may not use local languages.

Community radio in Uganda

President Museveni opened the first community radio station in Uganda– and East Africa – in July 1999, at Kagadi. The station transmits inlocal languages within a 40 km radius. During the commissioning, thePresident noted that one of the most important functions of communityradio was to carry out awareness campaigns to help change attitudesand combat poverty. In a subsequent interview he added that one ofthe country’s main problems was lack of awareness by the population,especially in rural areas, of how to move into commercial agriculture toimprove household income levels. He thought that community radiocould be an effective way of getting such messages across. This wasborne out by a local housewife who said that the most pressingproblems in Kagadi were lack of education and information on modernfarming techniques.

The station is wholly owned by the villagers, who have selected acommittee to represent their different interests and stakeholder groupsin managing the station.

Regular transmissions were planned to start in November 1999, toallow the station’s 60 trained volunteers time to prepare a stock ofprogramme material.

5.6 Editorial policy and practice

5.6.1 The editor’s task is to ensure that matters of public concern are coveredfreely and openly, allowing pluralist discussion and room for dissent.

5.6.2 The treatment of information should be people-led, not source-driven;audiences need information which gives practical guidance based onindividual human experience – ‘news you can use’ – not ministerialpublic relations (PR) hand-outs. The starting point should always be

28

where the audience is, not what the source or the practitioner knows.Media professionals can easily lose touch with this reality – andsophisticated audience research is rarely available in developingcountries to put them right. In some cases it might be possible tosupport in-country research and research capacity, for example, viaacademic media departments (and the commercial media might bewilling to support this if there were outputs which they found useful).Otherwise direct audience feedback becomes vital: it can be fosteredthrough participative programme formats as well as through directcontact on the ground.

A minister’s press conference launch was used to introduce animportant government campaign for universal immunisation of childrenagainst polio, when what the audience needed was practical guidanceon how immunisation was provided (painlessly, without injection), whereit was provided, and the fact that it was free.

5.6.3 The assumptions of newsrooms as to what constitutes ‘a good story’ –particularly if there are good television pictures to go with it – may oftenbe far removed from the values and priorities of the audience at home.Journalists can develop traditions and rituals which persist not for trueeditorial reasons but because they enable the efficient production of asaleable product. This can lead to assumptions about a ‘commoncurrency’ of journalistic conventions which is not shared by theaudience. American research has shown that, in objective tests of theircomprehension of news stories, only 2% of ordinary, educated viewersachieved anywhere near the scores of journalists. In developingcountries, where journalists are even more likely to be a better-educated elite, there is a much greater need to speak in terms whichthe poor and deprived in the audience will understand.

5.6.4 Coverage should be determined in accordance with these audience-centred principles. Governments should be discouraged from stuffingnews bulletins with ‘protocol news’, and coverage should never be givenin return for payments in cash or in kind, such as the provision of freetransport or accommodation for journalists.

5.6.5 The origin of all published material should always be clear to theaudience: they need to know whether they are watching, hearing orreading original material, material provided by an external source,archive material or a reconstruction.

5.6.6 Editors need to be wary of financial, logistic and marketing pressureson their activities. The dangers include:

● an over-readiness to rely on PR and marketing material, political aswell as commercial

● an acceptance of pre-prepared video hand-outs● a tendency to ignore, marginalise or stereotype minorities or

disadvantaged groups.

5.7 Training

5.7.1 Training probably has the potential to be the single most productiveform of aid to the media in developing countries. Provision needs to betailor-made to local requirements. These might include developing skillsand awareness in:

● management● financial control● editorial judgement● journalistic skills

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● photography● sound- and picture-editing● graphic design ● engineering

Training should not assume that Western values and practices will always be transferable to the trainee’s home environment. It iscomparatively easy to train professionals to produce materials toacceptable common professional criteria: it involves developing sharedassumptions about ethics and techniques. Balance, fairness andintegrity should clearly be universal values. But packages crafted to Western production formulae will not necessarily work with other audiences.

5.7.2 Training should be a regular process, regularly evaluated, and shouldprovide for the training of future trainers. Training plans need to bestructured, sustained and sensitive to local needs, and should considercareer paths as well as practitioner techniques. If the commercialmedia are to reflect the concerns of the poor, their journalists need tobe trained in the requisite skills (see paragraph 5.1.3). In the publicsector, in the face of sophisticated commercial competition, skills ineffective scheduling, presentation, promotion and marketing may bejust as important as journalistic, production or technical skills.

5.7.3 A TV station in Poland asked the BBC to train its journalists andproducers to operate in the new democratic environment. The trainersexpected the main need to be in technical competence, but cameramenand editors were experienced in the Polish cinema and well up toscratch. What was lacking was an appreciation of journalistic andeditorial concepts such as a televised discussion with a neutral butdemanding presenter holding the ring between opposing views.

5.7.4 Courses should be supported by well-produced materials. Self-sustaining manuals and study packs – in audio-visual as well as printedformats – will help trainees to maintain and develop their skills aftertraining, and to pass their new skills on to others.

5.7.5 As well as depending on external training-providers, media outletsshould try to develop structured, on-the-job in-house training which canbe supplemented by part-time day-release or block-release courses,where such facilities are available.

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5.7.6 Training should include the skills that journalists need to makecomplicated topics accessible to their audience – e.g. globaleconomics, global environmental issues, science and technology. Therange of these topics is expanding.

5.7.7 Journalists also need to be made aware of the severe limitations to real-life audience response. They assume a level of comprehension which isnot there, and much of what they present has been shown to be not atall well understood by ordinary, intelligent people (see paragraph 5.6.3).Where target audiences are not well educated, stories may need to befar more explicit and self-contained, incorporating more backgroundmaterial and ensuring that words and images complement one anotherclosely. It is vital to make clear how and why the story is important andrelevant to the daily life of the audience.

5.7.8 Media professional bodies – unions, editors’ associations – oftenprovide training and other facilities such as discussion groups, aimed atstrengthening the profession, and its professionalism. It may be usefulto assist the development of such bodies.

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Jere

my

Hor

ner/

Pan

os P

ictu

res

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6 Campaigning andinvestigative journalismSummary

Purpose of assistance

To enable the media to:

● mount effective campaigns● investigate and report on abuses of power ● stimulate debate, to raise awareness of development issues, and to

promote change in social norms, for example in relation to AIDS

Method

● assist with the targeting and planning of materials and their distribution

● provide specialist expertise and resources to support campaigning projects

● train in the values, the approach and the techniques of investigative journalism

6.1 Campaigning

When is a campaign likely to succeed?6.1.1 Development communication is most effective when practised as part

of social action locally, rather than delivered top-down by mediaprofessionals. Campaigns are more likely to succeed if they are part ofan overall development strategy.

In Tanzania the Media Women’s Association has used soap operas,magazines and features to alert women to their legal rights. Real casesare often investigated and followed up.

In India the Video-SEWA organisation in Ahmedabad has enabledwomen workers to produce their own programmes to highlight problemsand illustrate solutions. Results include a campaign for more municipaltaps; and instructions for a smokeless cooker

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Is the choice of media right for the particularissue and the target audience?

6.1.2 Annex A summarises the accessibility of different media, and who theycan reach.

6.1.3 A campaign will usually involve a variety of media with different butmutually supportive roles, which need to be clear from the outset. Forinstance:

● AM radio serves a universal mass market, while FM is more appropriateto niche-marketing

● radio and television can work together in a ‘bi-media’ news system,particularly in the news-gathering and -processing modes

● radio can be used to develop public discussion of issues raised initiallyon television.

It is particularly important to consider the needs of women and of therural poor.

Simple techniques can be the most effective. Nelson Mandela’smessages from detention were put on to long-playing records which soldmillions of copies. Ayatollah Khomeini’s speeches from exile in Pariswere smuggled into Iran on audio-cassettes.

6.1.4 Radio is often the only media outlet capable of reaching the entirepopulation, literate and illiterate, in their own languages. It is anextraordinarily powerful resource and almost everywhere far morewidely available than television. (In South Africa, of the 16% of thepopulation in the most deprived socio-economic group, 94% haveaccess to a radio set.)

Democratic and Health Surveys studied the effects of ideascommunicated by the mass media on traditional attitudes to earlychild-bearing and large families in six African countries. It found thatexposure to the media was directly linked to later marriage, greaterknowledge and use of contraception, smaller families and an intentionto stop child-bearing. This was true of men and women, single andmarried. Radio was most influential, followed by print media and thentelevision (still in its infancy in most of the countries covered).

6.1.5 Television can often get a strong visual or human-interest messageacross to large numbers. There are many examples of the power ofvisual images to crystalise experience and mobilise people throughempathy. The strengths of television lie in the concrete, the particular,the human and the illustrative; it is less good at the abstract, thegeneral, the theoretical and the discursive.

One SABC ‘commercial’ designed to prepare black South Africans forparticipation in their first democratic elections was a piece cut to musicshowing people of all races converging in a dancing style on a pollingstation. It was full of movement, wit and a positive, inclusive feeling ofthe celebration of freedom. Yet it also conveyed, in a relaxed andoblique way, a considerable amount of factual information about whereand how to vote.

Less effective was SABC’s attempt to explain to viewers, with graphics,how the proportional voting system would operate. The subject wasimmensely complex and a vast amount of information was presented ina short time.

6.1.6 Print is the best choice to reach literate opinion-formers. Far moreinformation and argument can be encompassed in a page of print thanin an hour of broadcasting.

6.1.7 ‘Narrow-casting’3, with on-the-ground back-up, should be considered forclosely-targeted messages – for example communication programmes insupport of development projects (experience shows that however well-conceived, projects will not impact on people unless they are supportedby planned, intensive and sensitive communication programmes).Recorded formats enable units to be used in a modular way.

The National Colloquium on Communication for Rural Development,conducted by the New Delhi Centre for Media Studies, (see paragraph5.5.1) saw voluntary organisations, supported by media initiatives, asthe catalyst for thought, action and training and the vehicle for pilotingnew ideas. The role of village women was seen as particularlysignificant, promoting literacy programmes and taking active roles ascommunity health workers, para-veterinarians, savings collectors and soon. The supporting print media might be communal (wall-newspapers orposters) or individual (pamphlets) and need not be literacy-dependent.Song, dance and drama were important popular motivators. Radio andtelevision coverage of these initiatives could show others what wasbeing achieved and encourage them to follow suit.

343 Aiming material at a specific audience rather than broadcasting it for general consumption. An example is BBC

educational material which is now usually supplied to those who need it in cassette form.

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6.1.8 In the visual media, the visual images should always lead the story.Writing a script and forcing the pictures to fit it is both inefficient andineffective. Too much commentary – and too much text on the screen –can also be counterproductive.

6.1.9 Formats other than the factual approach can be used to convey seriousmessages. For instance, soap operas have proved a highly effectivevehicle for public-responsibility messages in very many cultures. Apopular drama may reach – and affect – more people than a worthydocumentary. Music, song and dance can convey information as well asatmosphere.

6.1.10 The media can be used to carry traditional forms of communication to awider audience. In a rich oral culture symbols, images, myths andlegends may present accessible messages, and have far more ‘reach’than modern mass-media among the rural poor.

A UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) campaign for safe water and sanitationused professional troupes of traditional performers to carry themessage to villagers using song, dance and drama. The performers’ability to interact with the villagers was particularly productive.

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6.1.11 Avoid information-overload. Professionally-produced videos often carryso much information that they become incomprehensible to theaudience.

6.1.12 Do not let the technology drive the treatment. The temptation to use thelatest technology ‘because it is there’ can be irresistible topractitioners. The unrestrained use of digital effects, for instance, canmake messages unwatchable, confusing and obscure.

6.1.13 There may be scope for an interactive element. Group participationtends to provoke reflection and analysis which can give the audience adeeper and longer-lasting grasp of the issues.

6.2 Investigative journalism

6.2.1 In a democracy, a free press sees its first role as that of disclosure –often of matters which others would rather keep concealed. The role ofthe media in exposing fraud, corruption and malpractice and inchampioning the cause of the abused has been a major force forextending public accountability. It requires particularly well-developedskills of judgement, persistence, ingenuity, resourcefulness in securingaccess to information, meticulous checking, a sound knowledge of thelaw, and a determination to protect sources.

A young Indian journalist was told by a doctor that there appeared to be‘something fishy’ about the supply to hospitals of intravenous needlesand drips: the figures showed that consumption exceeded manufactures+ imports. The journalist covertly followed an ambulance taking usedand contaminated equipment for disposal and discovered that, insteadof being incinerated, some of it was being illicitly repackaged for resaleas new. The potential public health risk was huge.

The journalist, at considerable personal risk, posed as a potential buyerand using a concealed camera obtained irrefutable evidence of this criminaltraffic. He presented his evidence to the local state health minister, but theminister, in an interview, expressed scepticism about the story.

The journalist then took the local MP to the location. The MP wasobliged to say, on camera, that he would take action. He did: he askeda question in the national parliament which exposed the scandal. As aresult the criminals were arrested, 15 truck loads of illicit supplies wereimpounded, and a new system of disposal through dedicatedincinerators was introduced.

6.2.2 Conducted incompetently or irresponsibly, investigative journalism cando serious harm to the cause of free media; conducted assiduously andin the public interest it is an essential element in democratic society.Its effective practice requires both extensive training and a good deal ofpractical experience. It should therefore be high on the agenda for thetraining of senior journalists and editors.

6.2.3 But in many developing and transitional countries, this kind ofdisclosure is not seen as a proper role for the press. The ‘questioningculture’ is an alien concept, deference to authority is expected andjournalists who challenge it may put themselves and their sources atrisk. Changing such attitudes may be a long process and may need toinclude education on both sides of the fence: journalists will need tomaster the professional skills which will assure them respect;politicians will need to accept that it is proper for journalists to holdthem accountable on behalf of the public – and that this is an integralpart of the media freedom which can bring benefits for government(see Section 3.1).

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Sim

ulta

neou

sm

ass

acce

ss

Real

-tim

e ba

sed

Sign

al q

ualit

y

Stop

/Sta

rt &

re-c

ap

Perm

anen

t

Requ

ires

liter

acy

Inte

ract

ive

Vide

o or

Audi

oRe

cord

ing

No

No

Very

goo

d

Yes

Yes

No

Poss

ible

(CD

-RO

M)

etc.

)

Live

TV

View

ing

With

inge

ogra

phic

allim

its o

ftra

nsm

itter

Yes

Goo

d

No

No

No

Poss

ible

(Pho

ne-in

,gr

oups

etc

.)

FM R

adio

List

enin

g

With

inge

ogra

phic

allim

its o

ftra

nsm

itter

Yes

Very

goo

d

No

No

No

Poss

ible

(Pho

ne-in

,gr

oups

etc

.)

AM R

adio

List

enin

g

Yes

Yes

Varia

ble

No

No

No

Mor

e di

fficu

lt

Shor

t w

ave

Radi

oLi

sten

ing

With

inge

ogra

phic

allim

its o

ftra

nsm

itter

Yes

High

lyva

riabl

e w

ithpr

opag

atio

nco

nditi

ons

No

No

No

Mor

e di

fficu

lt

Port

able

Prin

ted

Text

No

No

Very

Goo

d

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Publ

icDi

spla

yPr

inte

d Te

xt

Geo

grap

hica

lLi

mits

No

Goo

d (if

sta

tic)

Yes

(if s

tatic

)

Poss

ibly

Yes

No

Port

able

Prin

ted

Gra

phic

s

No

No

Very

Goo

d

Yes

Yes

No

No

Publ

icDi

spla

yPr

inte

dG

raph

ics

Geo

grap

hica

lLi

mits

No

Goo

d(if

sta

tic)

Yes

(if s

tatic

)

Poss

ibly

No

No

Annex A: Accessibility of the media

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Annex B: Sources of expertise

List I lists topics and shows which organisation has expertise in eachtopic. List II lists the organisations in alphabetical order and says whatthey do.

The lists do not include the many commercial firms which specialise inthe design and construction of facilities, in the specification and fit-outof technical equipment, in management consultancy or in businessplanning. The bodies listed will be able to give leads to appropriateenterprises in these specialist fields where necessary. Names ofindividual contacts have not been included as they are subject tofrequent change.

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TopicAdvertising – training and development

Advertising and marketing – examinations

Audio cassette programming

Audio production

Broadcasting engineering training

Broadcasting operations training

Broadcasting production training

Broadcasting standards

Broadcasting studies

Combating censorship

Commonwealth broadcasting

Commonwealth press

Communication studies

Conflict analysis

Conflict reporting

Desk Top Publishing

Development of independent media

Editorial writing

Editors – print and broadcast media

Educational media

InstitutionInstitute of Practitioners in Advertising

CAM Foundation

World Radio for Environment andNatural Resources (WREN)

University of Westminster

BBC Training and Development

BBC Training and Development

BBC Training and Development

Broadcasting Standards Commission

Falmouth College of Arts Thomson Foundation

Article 19

Commonwealth Broadcasting Association

Commonwealth Press Union

Goldsmiths’ CollegeUniversity of Leicester

Conciliation Resources

Conciliation Resources

PMA Training

Article 19

PMA Training

Society of Editors

British Council

List I: Specialisms and who has them

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Election coverage

European Journalism Studies

Expert volunteers

Feature service for the media

Film and Broadcasting Studies

Freedom of information

Graphics training

Information for the media

Information officers, government – training

International Journalism course

Internet broadcasting

Journalism Studies

Mass communication

Media as a tool for development

Media development

Media general – expert volunteers

Media in conflict

Media Management

Media skills – specialist areas

Media strengthening

Media training and consultancy, general

Monitoring and Evaluation, Basic– short course

News editing

News media

Newspaper publishing

Non-journalists working with the media

Conciliation Resources

Cardiff University

BESO

Panos Institute

Cardiff University

Falmouth College of ArtsNational Film and Television SchoolSkillsetThomson FoundationUniversity of Central LancashireUniversity of Westminster

Article 19

Reuters Foundation

Panos Institute

Central Office of Information

City University

One World Broadcasting TrustUniversity of Central Lancashire

Cardiff UniversityCity UniversityFalmouth College of ArtsLondon College of PrintingNational Council for the Training ofJournalists (NCTJ)PMA TrainingReuters FoundationThomson FoundationUniversity of Central LancashireUniversity of Westminster

University of Leicester

BBC World Service Trust

Panos InstituteThomson Foundation

British Executive Service Overseas

Institute of War and Peace Reporting

PMA TrainingUniversity of Stirling

Guardian Foundation

BBC World Service Trust

British Council

Charities Evaluation Service

PMA Training

Thomson Foundation

Newspaper Publishers Association

Guardian Foundation

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Periodicals-related courses

Photo Journalism Studies

Press Complaints

Print-related areas

Professional body for journalists

Public Relations

Publishing

Radio journalism

Radio programming

Regional press

Television and film studies

Text training

Trade union for journalists

Trade union membership servicesand benefits

Web page training

Periodicals Training Council

Cardiff UniversityLondon College of Printing, School of MediaReuters FoundationThe Sheffield CollegeUniversity of Westminster

Press Complaints Commission

Institute of Printing

London College of Printing, School of Printing and Publishing

PIRA International(Printing Industries Research Association)

Chartered Institute of Journalists

Institute of Public RelationsPMA TrainingUniversity of Central Lancashire

London College of Printing, School of Printing and Publishing

London College of Printing, School of Media

World Radio for Environment and Natural Resources (WREN)

Newspaper Society

National Film and Television SchoolReuters FoundationSkillsetUniversity of Westminster

Reuters Foundation

Chartered Institute of JournalistsNational Union of Journalists

British Association of Journalists

One World Broadcasting Trust

List II: Specialisms and who has them

Under “Main services”:

Training includes on-and off-the-job training; distance learning; seminarsand conferences; and study visits.

Consultancy includes both long- and short-term assignments byspecialists of British or other nationality

Information includes briefing packs and papers and the results ofcommissioned or non-commissioned research

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Institution

Article 19Lancaster House33 Islington High StreetLondon N1 9LH

Tel: 0207 278 9292Fax: 0207 713 1356Email: info@article19.orgWebsite: www.article19.org

British Association of Journalists88 Fleet StreetLondon EC4Y 1PJ

Tel: 0207 353 3003Fax: 0207 353 2310

BBC Training and DevelopmentHeadquartersRoom 20835 Marylebone High StreetLondon W1M 4AA

Operations TrainingEngineering TrainingTel: 01386 420216 or email: woodnorton@bbc.co.uk

Production TrainingTel 0207 208 9470E-mail: nicola.green@bbc.co.uk

Main areas ofinterest/expertise

Promotion and protection of right tofreedom of expression, information andopinion (art 19 UDHR); combatingcensorship Support for development ofindependent media, includingproduction of model freedom ofinformation laws, manuals onmonitoring activities,etc

Smallest of 3 journalism trade unionsin Great Britain.Trade union membership services and benefits

Short courses in broadcastingoperations, production and engineering skills

Mainservices

ConsultancyInformationResearchTraining

ConsultancyInformation

ConsultancyTraining

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BBC World Service TrustPO Box 76Bush HouseStrandLondon WC2B 4PH

Tel: 0207 257 2463Fax: 0207 379 1622E-mail: corinna.furse@bbc.co.uk

British CouncilMedlock StreetManchester M15 4AA

Tel: 0161 957 7000Fax: 0161 957 7561Website:www.britishcouncil.org/governance/medinf/index.htm

British Executive ServiceOverseas164 Vauxhall Bridge RoadLondon SW1

Tel: 0207 630 0644Fax: 0207 630 0624e-mail: team@beso.demon.co.uk

Broadcasting StandardsCommission7 The Sanctuary London SW1P 3JS

Tel: 0207 233 0544Fax: 0207 233 0397Email: bsc@bsc.org.ukWebsite: www.bsc.org.uk

CAM FoundationAbford House15 Wilton RoadLondon SW1V 1NJ

Tel: 0207 828 7506Fax: 0207 976 5140Email: info@camfoundation.comWebsite: www.camfoundation.com

Cardiff UniversityCentre for Journalism StudiesBute Building, King Edward VII AvenueCathays ParkCardiff CF1 3NB

Help to strengthen the media indeveloping and transition countries and to encourage use of the media to enhance development anddevelopment work, e.g. through publicinformation campaigns

Educational mediaOther media operations

Expert volunteers in various fields

Broadcasting standards

Industrial examining body foradvertising and marketing providingqualifications (Certificate, Diploma) bycollege attendance or distance learning.

MA Journalism Studies, MA EuropeanJournalism, Postgraduate DiplomaJournalism Studies specialising ineither Newspaper, Broadcast,Magazine, Public and Media Relationsor Photo Journalism, BA Journalism,

ConsultancyTraining

ConsultancyTraining

ConsultancyTraining

ConsultancyResearch

Information

ConsultancyTraining

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Tel: 01222 874 786Fax: 01222 238 832Email: jomec@cf.ac.ukWebsite:www.cf.ac.uk/uwcc/jonec/index.html

Central Office of InformationHercules RoadLondon SE1 7DU

Tel: 0207 928 2345Fax: 0207 928 5037

Charities Evaluation Service4 Coldbath SquareLondon EC1R 5HL

Tel: 0207 713 5722Fax: 0207 713 5692Email: enquiries@ces-vol.org.uk

Chartered Institute of Journalists2 Dock OfficesSurrey Quays RoadLondon SE16 2XU

Tel: 0207 252 1187Fax: 0207 232 2302

City UniversityDepartment of JournalismNorthampton SquareLondon EC1V 0HB

Tel: 0207 477 8221Fax: 0207 477 8594Email: journalism@city.ac.ukWebsite:www.city.ac.uk/journalism

Commonwealth BroadcastingAssociation17 Fleet StreetLondon EC4Y 1AA

Tel: 0207 583 5550Fax: 0207 583 5549Email: cba@cba.org.ukWebsite: www.oneworld.org/cba

Commonwealth Press Union17 Fleet StreetLondon EC4Y 1AA

Film and Broadcasting and PhDfacilities. (Details of course fees canbe found on the website.)

Official publicity agency.Training information officers forgovernments.

Runs intensive 1 day introductory coursein Basic Monitoring and Evaluation.Useful general guidance though notdirectly focused on the media.

Professional body and trade union fornewspaper and magazine journalists.

Academic courses BA(Hons)Journalism and Social Science. Post-graduate diplomas in broadcastjournalism and newspaper andperiodical journalism. InternationalJournalism course aimed at foreignstudents (9 months diploma, 12montha MA). Details of courses canbe found on the website.

Represents interests of Commonwealthbroadcasting organisations. Substantialinvolvement in training, includingarranging courses and consultancies,lectures, seminars and conferences.

Association of Commonwealthnewspapers, news agencies andperiodicals, upholding the ideals of

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Tel: 0207 583 7733Fax: 0207 583 6808Email: cpu@cpu.org.ukWebsite: www.cpu.org

Conciliation ResourcesPO Box 21067London N7 1ZJ

Tel: 0207 359 7728Fax: 0207 359 4081E-mail: cr@c-r.orgWebsite: www.c-r.org

Falmouth College of ArtsWood LaneFalmouthCornwall TR11 4RA

Tel: 01326 211 077Fax: 01326 211 205Email:admissions@falmouth.ac.ukWebsite: www.falmouth.ac.uk

Guardian Foundation119 Farringdon RoadLondon EC1R 3ER

Tel: 0207 278 2332 (ext 4525)Fax: 0207 837 2114Email:Foundation@guardian.co.uk

Goldsmiths’ CollegeDepartment of Media andCommunicationsNew CrossLondon SE14 6NW

Tel: 0207 919 7600Fax: 0207 919 7616Email: media-comms@gold.ac.ukWebsite: www.goldsmiths.ac.uk

the Commonwealth. Works to advancethe freedom, interests and welfare ofthe Commonwealth press. Network oftraining courses available throughoutthe Commonwealth. Runs annual Harry Brittain Fellowships scheme for Commonwealth journalists to visit Britain

Media-related activities and thedevelopment of working relationshipswith media practitioners in Africa, theSouth Pacific, Europe, the Caucasusregion and North America. Theprogramme is comprised primarily offacilitation, training and monitoring incollaboration with indigenousorganisations and groups. Conflictanalysis and conflict reporting, electioncoverage, collaborative assessments ofjournalistic concerns and trainingneeds and practical skills training.

BA(Hons) Broadcasting Studies andBA(Hons) Journalism Studies, combiningtheory and practical experience. Alsomainly practical Postgraduate DiplomaBroadcast Journalism. Details of coursefees can be found on the website.

Journalism workshops and seminarscovering specialist areas of media skills.Expertise in Eastern Europe. Alsotraining for non-journalists working withthe media.

A leading centre for communicationstudies

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Institute of Practitioners inAdvertising44 Belgrave SquareLondon SW1X 9QS

Tel: 0207 235 7020Fax: 0207 245 9904Website: www.ipa.co.uk

Institute of PrintingThe MewsHill HouseClanricarde RoadTunbridge WellsKent TN1 1PJ

Tel/Fax: 01892 518 028Email: iop@globalprint.comWebsite:www.globalprint.com/uk/iop

Institute of Public Relations15 Northburgh StreetLondon EC1V 0PR

Tel: 0207 253 5151Fax: 0207 490 0588Email: info@ipr.org.ukWebsite: www.ipr.org.uk

Institute of War and Peace ReportingLancaster House33 Islington High StreetLondon N1 9LH

Tel: 0207 713 7130fax: 0207 713 7140Email: alan@iwpr.netWebsite: www.iwpr.net

London College of PrintingSchool of Media10 Back HillClerkenwellLondon EC1R 5EN

Tel: 0207 514 6800Fax: 0207 514 6848

Professional body offering wide rangeof training courses and developmentworkshops to the media andadvertising industry.

Maintains a Registered List ofConsultants whose skills cover manyprint-related areas of expertise such asplant specification, materials andstock control, and desk-top publishing.

Professional association for thoseworking in PR. Publishes annualhandbook with register of members.

IWPR supports the democratisationand professionalisation of media inconflict areas. Established byinternational journalists in 1991 as amulti-lingual publishing and overseasprogramme based charity, IWPR workspredominantly in the Balkans, theCaucasus and in Central Asia, on itsown and in collaboration with localpartners. Produces several free emailnews services.

3 year full time BA(Hons) degrees inJournalism and Media Studies. AlsoPostgraduate Diploma RadioJournalism, HND Journalism and MInteractive Multi Media.1 year full time Postgraduate Diplomain Photojournalism is availablecombining essential technical skillswith the exploration of theory. LsoBA(Hons) Photography. Details ofcourses can be found on the website.

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School of Printing and PublishingElephant and CastleLondon EC1 6SB

Tel: 0207 514 6717Fax: 0207 514 6772Email: printing@LCP.LINST.ac.ukWebsite: www.LCP.LINST.ac.uk

National Council for theTraining of Journalists (NCTJ)Latton Bush CentreSouthern WayHarlowEssex CM18 7BL

Tel: 01279 430 009Fax: 01279 438 008Email: NCTJ@itecharlow.co.ukWebsite:www.itecharlow.co.uk/nctj/

National Film and Television SchoolBeaconsfield StudiosStation Road, BeaconsfieldBuckinghamshire HP9 1LG

Tel: 01494 671 234Fax: 10494 674 042Email: admin@nfts-tv.ac.ukWebsite: www.nftsfilm-tv.ac.uk

National Union of Journalists314 Grays Inn RoadLondon EC1X 8DP

Tel: 0207 278 7916Fax: 0207 837 8143Email: acorn.house@nuj.org.uk

Newspaper PublishersAssociation34 Southwark Bridge RoadLondon SE1 9EU

Tel: 0207 928 6928Fax: 0207 928 2067

BA(Hons) Printing Management,BA(Hons) Publishing, HND Printing +various other print-related courses.Details of courses and fees can befound on the website.

British newspaper industry’s principal training body, operatingqualification scheme for new entrants(National Certificate) and a range of post-qualification short courses.Consultancies at home and abroadand in-house training also offered.Participants in NVQ journalismprogrammes.

Offers Programme of Training forDeveloping Countries. Also shortcourses in Television and Film. 1 and2 year postgraduate courses in 11specialist areas of film-making (detailscan be found on the website).

The principal trade union fornewspaper and magazine journalists,also with significant membership inbroadcasting and public relations (seealso Chartered Institute of Journalistsand British Association of Journalists).

Association of national newspaperowners. Seeks to promote anindependent pluralist written press,efficient management, good practicein reporting and advertising and thecultivation of literacy throughnewspaper reading.

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Newspaper SocietyBloomsbury House74-77 Great Russell StreetLondon WC1B 3DA

Tel: 0207 636 7014Fax: 0207 580 7167

One World Broadcasting TrustHedgerley Wood HouseRed Lane, ChinnorOxon OX9 4BW

Tel: 01494 481 629Fax: 01494 481 751Email: justice@oneworld.orgwebsite: oneworld.net

Panos Institute9 White Lion StreetLondon N1 9PD

Tel: 0207 278 1111Fax: 0207 278 0345E-mail:panos@panoslondon.org.ukWebsite: oneworld.org/panos

Panos Eastern AfricaPOB 34033KampalaUgandaWebsite:www.econewsafrica.org/panos/

Periodicals Training CouncilQueens House55-56 Lincoln’s inn FieldsLondon WC2A 3LJ

Tel: 0207 404 4168Fax: 0207 404 4168Email: training@ppa.co.ukWebsite: www.ppa.co.uk/ptc

PMA TrainingPMA HouseFree Church PassageSt IvesCambridgeshire PE17 4AY

Tel: 01480 300 653Fax: 01480 496 022Email: admin@pma-group.comWebsite: www.pma-group.co.uk

The voice of Britain’s regional press.Provides legal advice and lobbyingservices to regional newspaperpublishers and their staff and to thenational newspaper, magazine anddistribution industries. Holds a series ofconferences and seminars each year.

Runs One World Online (supported byDFID), which allows NGOs to publiciseactivities on World Wide Web. Awardscheme and fellowships forbroadcasters in developing countries.Training for NGO personnel inpreparing WWW pages.

Provides authoritative information tomedia organisations. Holds capacitybuilding workshops on various topicsincluding HIV/AIDS.Offers feature service for developingcountry journalists.

Recent publications include “Up In TheAir – The state of broadcasting inEastern Africa”, with country analysesfor Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Tanzaniaand Uganda (available on website).

Accredited periodicals-related coursesavailable at affiliated institutions. Alsowide range of NVQs and directory oforganisations specialising in trainingfor the magazine industry.

Wide experience in East Europeantraining and consultancy. Shortpractical courses covering all levels ofcompetence from the Foundation –Introduction to Journalism to advancedcourses including News-Editing andEditorial Writing. Also courses inManagement, DTP, Public Relationsand Production.

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Press Complaints Commission1 Salisbury SquareLondon EC4Y 8AE

Tel: 0207 353 1248Fax: 0207 353 8355Email: pcc@pcc.org.ukWebsite: www.pcc.org.uk

PIRA International(Printing Industries ResearchAssociation)Randalls roadLeatherheadSurrey KT22 7RU

Tel: 01372 376161Fax: 01372802238website: www.PIRA.co.uk

Reuters Foundation85 Fleet StreetLondon EC4P 4AJ

Tel: 0207 542 7015Fax: 0207 542 8599Email: foundation@reuters.comWebsite:www.foundation.reuters.com

The Sheffield CollegePhotographic DepartmentNorton CentreDyche LaneSheffield S8 8BR

Tel: 0114 260 2600Fax: 0114 260 2301Website: www.sheffcol.ac.uk

Skillset2nd Floor 91-107 Oxford StreetLondon W1R 1RA

Tel: 0207 534 5300Fax: 0207 534 5333E-mail: info@skillset.orgWebsite: www.skillset.org(and www.bfi.org.uk for detailedcourse information)

Ethics body supported by pressindustry promoting high standard ofaccuracy and protecting the publicfrom misrepresentation. Operates non-statutory code of practice,adjudicating on complaints bymembers of public.

Independent non-profit organisationand leading UK centre for research,consultancy, training and informationfor the paper and board, packaging,printing and publishing industries.

Provides practical journalism trainingin television, text, photography andgraphics. Courses held in ReutersFoundation training centre in Londonand throughout the developing world.University Fellowship programme atOxford for mid-career journalists.

Photo Journalism/Press Photographycourse leading to NCTJ’s NationalCertificate Examination. Available eitherthrough employee block release or as afull time (1 year) pre-entry course.

Training organisation for the broadcast,film and video industry, concernedwith developing a national standardthrough vocational qualifications(NVQs/SVQs). Framework could beparticularly useful for countriesdeveloping a training infrastructureand media strategies.

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Society of EditorsUniversity CentreGranta PlaceMill LaneCambridge CB2 1RU

Tel: 01223 304080Fax: 01223 304090Email: society@ukeditors.comWebsite: www.ukeditors.com

Thomson FoundationBute BuildingKing Edward VII AvenueCardiff CF10 3NB

Tel: 01222 874873Fax: 01222 225194Email: thomfound@cardiff.ac.ukWebsite: www.thomfound.org

University of Central LancashireDepartment of Journalism,Preston PR1 2HE

Tel: 01772 894730Fax: 01772 892907E-Mail: p.g.cole@uclan.ac.ukWebsite: www.uclan.ac.uk

University of LeicesterCentre for Mass CommunicationResearch104 Regent RoadLeicester LE1 7LT

Tel: 0116 252 3863Fax: 0116 252 3874Email: cmcr@leicester.ac.ukWebsite: www.le.ac.uk/cmcr/

University of StirlingDepartment of Film and MediaStudiesStirling FK9 4LA

Tel: 01786 467520fax: 01786 466855Email: mt12@stir.ac.ukWebsite: www.stir.ac.uk/film

Established professional associationfor print and broadcast media editors.Able to assist with provision ofconsultants

Experienced training organisation fortraining of news media in emergentcountries. Two-wing structure: pressand broadcasting. Widely involved inboth developing countries and EasternEurope. Operates courses both in UKand in-country, also consultanciesavailable in all aspects of news media.

Postgraduate courses in BroadcastJournalism, Newspaper Journalism andOnline-Journalism. Undergraduatecourses in journalism (multi-media firsttwo years, specialising in the third yearin print, broadcast or online) and PublicRelations. Strongly vocational withmany industry links, work placements,and good media employment record.Digital radio and TV studios. Digitalradio and TV studios. Dedicated print,broadcast and online newsrooms.

The centre offers PhD supervision, MAMass Communication – also availableby 2 year distance learning format –BA Communications and Society. Staffwidely experienced in internationalconsultancy. Details of courses andfees can be found on the website.

MSc and Postgraduate Diploma inMedia Management, offering trainingin Management Skills. ResearchMethodology, Regulatory and PolicyEnvironment and Media BusinessStrategy. Department is a leadingresearch centre, with extensivefacilities. Details of courses and feescan be found on the website.

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University of WestminsterSchool of CommunicationHarrow CampusWatford Road, Northwick ParkHarrowMiddlesex HA1 3TP

Tel: 0207 911 5000 (ext 4139)Fax: 0207 911 5943Email: hrw12@westminster.ac.ukWebsite: www.wmin.ac.uk

World Radio for Environmentand Natural Resources (WREN)FressingfieldEyeSuffolk IP21 5SA

Tel: 01379 586 787Fax: 10379 586 755Email: post@wrenmedia.co.ukWebsite: www.wrenmedia.co.uk

MA Journalism Studies, MAPhotographic Studies andPostgraduate Diploma in Journalism,with emphasis on practical content.Also MA Film and Television Studies,MA Communication and MA AudioProduction. Details of courses can befound on the website.

Radio programme production service,consultancy on all aspects of radioprogramming and training in radio andaudio cassette programming.

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Annex C: International sources of support

1 The British CouncilGovernance SectionMedlock StreetManchester M15 4AA

Telephone: 0161 957 7000Fax: 0161 957 7561Website: www.britcoun.org andwww.britishcouncil.org/governance/medinf/index.htm

2 Charities Aid Foundation Grantmaking DepartmentKings Hill AvenueKings HillWest MallingKent ME19 4TA

Telephone: 01732 520 000Fax: 01732 520 001Website: www.charity.net.orgWebsite: www.thecommonwealth.org

3 Commonwealth Media Development FundDirector of Information and Public affairsCommonwealth SecretariatMarlborough HousePall MallLondon SW1Y 5HX

Telephone: 0207 839 3411Website: www.thecommonwealth.org

4 Department for International Development94 Victoria StreetLondon SW1E 5JL

Telephone: 020 7917 7000Website: www.dfid.gov.uk

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5 European CommissionFunding is available from several sources; the most relevant are:

PHARE and TACIS Democracy Programme(Central and Eastern Europe, CIS, Central Asia)

LIEN PartnershipFinancial and Administrative Office – IBFRue Montoyer 63B – 1000 BrusselsBelgium

Telephone: (TACIS & PHARE) +32 (0)2 237 0952Fax: +32 (0)2 237 0955e-mail: info@ldp.ibf.be

Med-Media(Middle East, Mediterranean)Med SecretariatRue Montoyer 63B – 1000 BrusselsBelgium

Telephone: +32 (0)2 237 0960Fax: +32 (0)2 237 0970e-mail: e.lankes@med.ibf.be

DG VIII(ACP countries)Rue de la Loi 200B – 1049 BrusselsBelgium

Telephone: +32 (0)2 299 3065Fax:+32 (0)2 299 2525e-mail: maria-rosa.de-paolis@dg8.sec.be

6 Foreign and Commonwealth OfficeKing Charles StreetLondon SW1A 2AH

Telephone: 020 7270 3000

7 The Guardian Foundation119 Farringdon RoadLondon EC1R 3ER

Telephone: 020 7278 2332Fax: 020 7837 2114e-mail: foundation@guardian.co.uk

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8 Know How FundCentral & South Eastern Europe Department20 Victoria StreetLondon SW1H 0NF

Telephone: (enquiries) 0845 3004100Fax: 020 7210 0010E-mail: enquiry@dfid.gtnet.gov.ukWebsite: www.dfid.gov.uk

East Europe and Central Asia Department20 Victoria StreetLondon SW1H 0NF

Telephone: (enquiries) 0845 3004100Fax: 020 7210 0098E-mail: enquiry@dfid.gtnet.gov.ukWebsite: www.dfid.gov.uk

9 National Lottery Charities BoardSt Vincent’s House16 Suffolk StreetLondon SW1Y 4NL

Telephone: 020 7747 5300Fax: 020 7747 5214e-mail: enquiries@nlcb.org.ukWebsite: www.nlcb.org.uk

10 Reuters Foundation85 Fleet StreetLondon EC4P 4AJTelephone: 020 7542 7015Fax: 020 7542 8599Website: www.foundation.reuters.com

11 The Soros FoundationOpen Society Institute888 Seventh AvenueNew YorkNY 10106USA

Telephone: +1 212 887 0602

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12 United Nations OrganisationSeveral UN Agencies operate in the media field and may provide funding (UNESCO, UNDP and UNICEF are the most relevant)

13 Westminster Foundation for Democracy125 Pall MallLondon SW1Y 5EA

Telephone: 020 7930 0408Fax: 020 7930 0449E-mail: wfd@wfd.org

14 World BankWorld Bank Institute Programme1818 H Street NWWashington DC 20433USA

Telephone: +1 202 473 6300/8133Fax: +1 202 522 1714E-mail: vthomas@worldbank.orgWebsite: www.worldbank.org

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Annex D: Research sources

56

ANON. Now for the Second Reel – the Indian peasant rising in ChiapasArticle in The Economist, Vol. 330 19 Feb 94, London, 1994

ANON. Read, Write, Disbelieve Article on the effect of market forces ona newly-liberalised press, in The Economist, Vol. 330 8 Jan 94, London,1994

ATAL, Y. and ØYEN, E. (Eds.) Poverty and Participation in Civil SocietyAbhinav Publications and UNESCO Publishing, New Delhi and Paris,1997

BALTIC MEDIA CENTRE Television Reporting of Minority Issues BMC,Svaneke, 1998

BEETHAM, D. and BOYLE, K. Introducing Democracy – 80 questions andanswers Polity Press, Cambridge, and UNESCO Publishing, Paris, 1995

BOYLE, M. Building a Communicative Democracy: the birth and deathof citizen politics in East Germany Article in Media, Culture andSociety, Vol. 16 Apr 94, USA, 1994

BRITISH COUNCIL Media and Governance – how media training canpromote democracy and economic reform in transitional anddeveloping countries Proceedings of a Conference sponsored by theBritish Council and the World Bank, Manchester, 1997

BROWN, D.R., FIRESTONE, C.M. and MICKIEWICZ, E. Television/RadioNews and Minorities The Aspen Institute, Queenstown MD, 1994

CENTRE FOR MEDIA STUDIES Communication Strategies for RuralDevelopment Proceedings of a National Colloquium, CMS, New Delhi,1995

CENTRE FOR MEDIA STUDIES Media Reforms: Freeing the AirwavesProceedings of a National Symposium, CMS, New Delhi, 1995

COLE, B. Mass Media, Freedom and Democracy in Sierra LeonePremier Publishing House, Freetown, 1995

DAVIS, D.K. and ROBINSON, J.P. Newsflow and Democratic Society inan Age of Electronic Media Paper in Public Communication andBehavior (G. Comstock Ed.), Academic Press, New York, date n.k.

DAVIS, D.K. and VINCENT, R. Making Sense of Political news on TV –what people learn from dramatised political events Round-tableSession, American Political Science Association, Washington DC, 1986

DAVIS, D.K. and VINCENT, R. Making Sense of Air Disaster News –viewer perceptions and story content Mass Communication Division ofthe Speech Communication Association, Denver, 1985

DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT White PaperEliminating World Poverty: A Challenge for the 21st Century, The Stationery Office Limited, London, 1997

DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Taking Account ofGood Government Government and Institutions Department, TechnicalNote 10, London, 1993

DUGGER, R. Democratising the Media Article on the second New YorkMedia and Democracy Congress, in The Nation, Vol. 265 No. 17, New York, 1997

EDWARDS, M. (Ed.) Women and Children on the Air The ThomsonFoundation for UNESCO, Cardiff, 1996

ENG, P. Media Rising Article on journalism and politics in Thailand, inthe Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 36 May 97, Washington DC, 1997

HANKISS, E. The Hungarian Media’s War of Independence The Stevenson Lecture, published in Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 16Apr 94, USA, 1994

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF JOURNALISTS The Right to Know –access to information in African countries Report on the Harare AfricanRegional Conference, Brussels, 1996

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF JOURNALISTS Reporting EthnicConflict Brussels, 1995

LEONE, M. Under the Boot, Out of the Net Article on the effects of theInternet on media censorship, in the Columbia Journalism Review, Vol.35 Nov 96, Washington DC, 1996

57

LEVIN, L. Human Rights – questions and answers UNESCO Publishing,Paris, third edition 1996

MEANS, G.P. Soft Authoritarianism in Malaysia and Singapore Article inthe Journal of Democracy, Vol. 7 Oct 96, USA, 1996

MOLLISON, T.A. Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s Marchtowards an Open, Democratic Society Article in the Journal ofBroadcasting and Electronic Media, Vol. 42 No. 1, USA, 1998

PRESCOTT THOMAS, J. Who’s That Out There? – the relationshipbetween broadcasters and their audiences The Bolland Lecture,University of the West of England, Bristol, 1984

RAMAN, A.S. The Press in India Article in the Contemporary Review,Vol. 267 Aug 95, USA, 1995

SADURSKI, W. Freedom of the Press in Post-Communist Poland Articlein East European Politics and Societies, Vol. 10 Fall 96, USA, 1996

SNYDER, J. and BALLENTINE, K. Nationalism and the Marketplace ofIdeas Article on the dangers of sudden liberalisation of the mediawithout supporting democratic institutions, in International Security, Vol.21 Fall 96, USA, 1996

TEER-TOMASELLI, R. Moving Towards Democracy: the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation and the 1994 Election Article in Media,Culture and Society, Vol. 17 Oct 95, USA, 1995

THE THOMSON FOUNDATION Notes on DFID White Paper Consultationon Support for Transition Countries Internal Report on the White PaperConsultation Day, Cardiff, 1997

TUSA, J. Conversations with the World BBC Books, London, 1990

WILLIAMS, V. (Ed.) Children and Women in the News The ThomsonFoundation for UNICEF, Cardiff, 1994

WANYANDE, P. The Media as Civil Society and its Role in DemocraticTransition in Kenya Article in Africa Media Review, 10 1-20 No. 3,Kenya, 1997

58

WESTOFF, C.F. and BANKOLE, A. Mass Media and ReproductiveBehavior in Africa Demographic and Health Surveys Analytical ReportsNo. 2, Macro International Inc., Calverton MD, 1997

WORLD PRESS FREEDOM COMMITTEE Everyone has the Right WPFC,Reston VA, 1998

The research project on which this guide is based also had access toreports (written and oral) on media consultancy and training projectsconducted by the Thomson Foundation in Belarus, Bulgaria, Fiji, the GulfStates, India, Macedonia, Malawi, Moldova, Nepal, Romania, Russia,Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan and Ukraine.

The Faculty of Mass Communication and Media Arts at Southern IllinoisUniversity was particularly supportive of the research.

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