IDS'

Opportunities, Challenges,Strategies and Policy Issues

Harare, Zimbabwe

Edited by

The consultants and participants in the meeting are responsible for theviews and recommendations contained in this report which do not neces-sarily represent those of UNESCO and do not commit the organisation

Published in 2002 by theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationRegional Office in NairobiP.O. Box 30592Nairobi, Kenya

ISBN 92-9158-014-7

© UNESCO 2002

Designed, typeset and layout by Winga Designs

Printed by Majestic Printing Works

Table of contentsPreface 3

Summary 4

1. Introduction 51.1. The African situation1.2. Objectives1.3. Scope of the report

2. The Opportunities 8

3. UNISPAR Programme activities 103.1 Conferences 103.2 Dissemination of information 113.3. Small grants scheme 11

3.3.1 Types of project activities for small grants scheme 113.3.2 The projects 14

4. Issues and main lessons learnt 234.1. Industry's needs and concern 234.2. How scientists should respond 264.3. Constraints 28

4.3.1. Constraints on the side of industry 284.3.2. Constraints on the side of scientists 294.3.3. Institutional constraints 314.3.4. Government policies 314.3.5. Perceptions of society 324.3.6. Unfavourable macro-economic environment 324.3.7. General constraints 33

5. Criteria and Strategies for success 345.1. Criteria 345.2. Strategies 35

6. Conclusions and recommendations 37

7. References 42

Appendix 43List of participants 43

PREFACEIn February 1994 UNESCO launched the University-Industry SciencePartnership (UNISPAR) Programme in Africa with the view of promotingcooperation between universities and industries in the region. The mainobjective of the programme is to facilitate indigenous technology developmentthrough transfer of research results from university to Industry.

Since the inception of the UNISPAR-Africa programme, UNESCO has financedmany activities aimed at promoting partnership between universities andindustry. These activities include conferences, dissemination of information,publications and award of grants for university-industry joint projects. Severalscientists, institutions and their industrial partners have benefited directly fromthese activities. Unfortunately, due to financial constraints, not all of thosewho wanted to participate in the programme got the chance to do so. However,it is possible to share with everyone the outcomes of the activities and in thisway extend the benefits of the programme to those who could not participatein it directly. This report is an attempt to do that. Its purpose is therefore toshare the experiences of the UNISPAR programme. It is a record of the meetingof grantees of the UNISPAR-Africa programme that was held in Harare,Zimbabwe in May 2001. The meeting was convened to enable participants inthe UNISPAR programme to brainstorm on various issues relevant toUniversity-industry partnership. The discussions at the meeting identifiedopportunities for university-industry partnership, factors that constrain thepossible partnership and strategies for overcoming the constraints.

This report will therefore serve as a guidebook for scientists who want tocollaborate with industry for the purpose of technology development. It willalso be a reference point for government officials and industry leaders whowish to formulate policies to enable University-industry cooperative technologydevelopment. Thus, it is hoped that the information in the book will help topromote University-industry partnership in Africa.

UNESCO is grateful to all the participants and the rapporteurs at the Hararemeeting for their contribution to the success of this effort.

J.G.M. MassaquoiSenior Programme Specialist in Science and TechnologyUNESCO Nairobi Office • P.O. Box 30592 • Nairobi • KenyaE-mail:Joseph.massaquoi@unesco.unon.org • J.massaquoi@unesco.org

SummaryThis report presents the rationale, the history and the activities of the University-Industry Science Partnership (UNISPAR) programme which UNESCO hasimplemented in Africa since 1994. It also presents the outcome of thedeliberations of a meeting of participants in the UNISPAR programme whichwas held in Harare, Zimbabwe in 2001. The deliberations at that meetingcovered the opportunities, the constraints and the strategies for successfuluniversity-industry partnership for technology development in Africa. Amongthe opportunities identified are the prospects for income generation for theinstitutions and the ability of the industrial partners to utilise the pool of humanresource available in local institutions. The increased demand for Africanuniversities to be self-financing makes every income generating activity(including partnership with industry) an opportunity that should not be missed.

The constraints to achieving partnership between university and industry arehowever many. To begin with, the report cites as a major constraint, theignorance on the part of scientists of the needs and characteristics of localindustry. Highlights of what industry needs and how scientists should respondto those needs have been presented.

The report also presents several other constraints which are categorisedaccording to the stakeholders that are adversely affected. Constraints thathinder the participation of scientists include lack of entrepreneurial skills,absence of institutional support and the negative attitude of industry and societytowards local inventions. On the side of industry the major constraints are thelack of venture capital and the scarcity of human resources in professional areasrelevant to product development.

Other constraints include absence of science and technology policy in somecountries, conflict of expectations among the stakeholders, mutual lack of trustsamong the partners, negative perception by society of local scientific ideas andunfavorable macro-economic environment.

The report presents strategies to overcome the identified constraints and thecriteria for success.

1. Introduction1.1 The African scene

In the developed or industrialized countries, partnership between university/research institutes on one hand and industry on the other, is one of the mosteffective strategies for technology development and a useful tool for assuringthe effective and efficient application of science and technology to the resolutionof social problems. Such partnerships take many forms including the jointexecution of research projects, the award of research contracts, the developmentof curricula and the provision of continuing engineering education for practicingengineers and scientists. Because of the awareness of the direct and indirectbenefits associated with the partnerships, they occur readily with little externalprodding. Furthermore each of the partners has in place the policies andinstitutional arrangements to engage in such collaborative work and researcherswith scientific ideas of economic value are assisted in forging links withindustries/entrepreneurs and financial institutions.

In most African countries, however, partnership between local industries anduniversities is not very common. Therefore, the transformation of researchresults to products/technologies is usually left to the individual who, withoutthe necessary institutional framework and experience, only allows the idea tocollect dust in a little known journal. There are of course several reasons whysuch partnerships (or the enabling institutional arrangements for suchpartnerships) have not developed over the years. These include the weaknessof the research infrastructure in some countries, which inevitably leads to ascarcity of scientific research of economic value. Another factor is the nature ofthe local industries, which tend to be infant factories of the parent companynormally located in Europe or North America. These factories do all theirtechnology development activities through their foreign parents and hence haveno reason to develop partnerships with local institutions.

The source of funding for research activities in African universities is also afactor. A significant amount of research work is donor funded which impliesthat the institutions may not have control over their research agenda. Mostdonor-funded research do not lead to scientific discoveries or inventions. Veryoften they encourage social impact assessments and field trials of existing ormodified technologies. Such donors, like the local factories of foreign companies,

are of the opinion that scientific research cannot be carried out in the existingresearch facilities in the region.

There is also the general issue of relevance of research work even where theuniversities develop their own research agenda. Since career advancement inuniversities is based on the "publish or perish" syndrome and since research inthese institutions are financed by government, there is usually a tendency todistribute funds in an equitable manner that gives every researcher a chance topublish and enhance his/her career. Under such circumstances, the relevanceof the research work to development ceases to be important. As a result, mostof the research work from African institutions are irrelevant to the industrialdevelopment of the home countries. Obviously the results of such researchcannot be commercialized and local entrepreneurs and industries have no desireto forge partnership with universities operating under such a policy for theaward of research grants.

While the weak research base and the nature of the support for research leadsto very few research results, it is ironical that even these few results areabandoned prematurely. Even with all the aforementioned problems associatedwith research there are still some amount of research work being undertaken inAfrican institutions, which could yield results that should interest localindustries. Inability to develop these results into commercial products wouldlead to frustration among scientists and even brain drain. Furthermore, Africanscientists should be encouraged to apply science to development issues andengage in research that addresses local problems especially those relating tothe establishment and growth of small-scale enterprises.

In this connection, in 1995, UNESCO embarked on the UNISPAR programmewith the aim of facilitating cooperation between scientists and industry (andother users of technology). Although the worldwide programme covers manyactivities and modes of cooperation between universities and industry, theemphasis in Africa was put on the transfer of research results to industry. Thisemphasis was intended to assist the continent in indigenous technologydevelopment specifically targeted at small scale manufacturing enterprises andother local problems. The UNISPAR programme for university-industrycooperative technology development in Africa included several activities. Thisreport is a synthesis of the experiences from the activities.

1.2 Objectives

Under the UNISPAR programme, UNESCO sponsored several projects aimedat promoting university-industry cooperation for technology development inAfrica. Some of these projects led to products of economic values. Others yieldedvaluable experiences and successful strategies for overcoming constraintsencountered in indigenous technology development. Still, others did notsucceed for reasons, which could be very useful to other researchers. It willtherefore be very helpful if some of the experiences and lessons acquired fromthe implementation of these projects were shared with others who would wantto embark on similar activity. Accordingly UNESCO convened a workshop tocollect all these experiences with the view of disseminating them to otherresearchers in the region. This report is therefore a collection of issues raised atthat meeting. It is intended to serve as a guidebook for other scientists involvedin technology development. It contains information on the opportunities andthe challenges in university-industry partnership and the strategies forpromoting it.

1.3 The Scope of the Report

The discussion in this report focuses on the problems associated with University-Industry cooperative technology development in Africa. The report presentsthe benefits and opportunities for strengthening University-Industrypartnership. It then presents the background and rationale of the UNISPAR-Africa programme activities. It highlights some of the joint University-Industrytechnology development projects, the problems encountered, and the lessonslearnt from the implementation of the projects. The discussion of the problemsand lessons learnt leads to suggestions on strategies and criteria for success.The report concludes with recommendations for action by various stakeholders.

The report is intended, in the first instant, to be a guide to scientists/ institutionswho wish to develop partnership with industry. It discusses the criteria forsuccess and the strategies that should be adopted especially in a situation wherethere is an absence of policy and institutional framework for the promotion ofpartnership.

2. The OpportunitiesIn this section we present briefly the benefits that can be derived fromUniversity-Industry partnership. Awareness, by the stakeholders, of thesebenefits will enable them to identify opportunities, which will in turn help thepartnership to flourish. It is widely accepted that the partnership is a usefulstrategy for integrating science into the productive sectors of the economy. Assuch, it offers a lot of opportunities, for social and economic empowerment,not only to the stakeholders but also to society at large. It also offers theuniversity staff an additional avenue for generating income through the sale ofthe inventions or the commercial exploitation of the technologies. Universitiescan also exploit the opportunity offered by the partnership to enable staff toobtain valuable practical experience, get job satisfaction and understand theneeds of industry. The partnership if it results in useful products andtechnologies can also enhance the profile of the local scientists and the reputationof the scientific institution in the respective country. Under the cooperationarrangement an opportunity may arise for university research to be hostedand possibly financed by industry.

Industry can also envisage from the partnership an opportunity to use the staffof academic/research institution as consultants in the execution of technicalassignment. This should lead to improvement in quality of products and increasein productivity.

The above paragraph presents the potential benefits that the university-industrypartnership offers to society and the stakeholders. But the circumstances (orstate) of the stakeholders can also be an opportunity for the university-industrypartnership to flourish. In other words there are certain developments in bothuniversities and industry, which offer opportunities for university-industrypartnership to grow stronger. For instance, currently everywhere in Africa,there is pressure on institutions to be self-sustaining. Thus efforts are beingmade to identify alternative sources of income. This is an opportunity whichcan be exploited by the partnership. The cooperation can be promoted as anincome generating activity. Under such circumstances, university authoritiesmay be quick to provide the necessary support for the partnership.

Furthermore the recent emphasis on small scale manufacturing enterprises(SME) development for large scale employment creation and poverty reduction

also presents an opportunity for university-industry partnership focusing onSMEs.

It must however be stated that in general the prevailing circumstances do notoffer much opportunity for the university industry partnership to flourish. Whatexist are constraints which will be presented in the next section.

3. UN IS PARProgramme Activities

In order to help member states promote and strengthen university-industrypartnership in member countries, the UNESCO/UNISPAR Programme engagesin three major activities which address different aspects of the problem, areinterdependent and mutually reinforcing. The activities are: organization ofnational and regional conferences; compilation of database and disseminationof information and award of small grants for university industry cooperativetechnology development. Each of the activities is expected to either addressspecific identifiable problems in the development of the university-industrypartnership or provide input for decision making and policy formulation.

3.1 Conferences

During the period 1994-2000 UNESCO provided financial support for regionaland national conferences intended to facilitate some aspects of university-industry partnership. The national conferences provided fora for industrialists,scientists and representatives of government, NGOs and the donor communityto discuss strategies for the establishment or strengthening of cooperationbetween university and industry. The meetings usually discussed issues suchas the nature and mode of cooperation; the economic sectors for activecollaboration for technology development; the financial arrangements forfunding the cooperation; the institutional framework for management of thecooperation and the programme activities. At the end of each national meetingconcrete proposals were made in order to address the above issues.

Regional conferences served as fora for the peer review of the progress ofUNESCO/UNISPAR small grants projects as well as review of proposals fornew projects. They were also used to discuss common issues such as thedevelopment of guidelines for scientists to engage in partnership. Participantsin the meetings were usually scientists and their industrial partners andrepresentatives of donor agencies. Both the national and regional conferenceshelped in formulating policies regarding the strengthening of university-industry partnership.

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3.2 Dissemination of Information

Awareness of the innovations that are available in the universities within andoutside the country can also facilitate effort for the indigenous technologydevelopment. UNESCO/UNISPAR has facilitated information disseminationusing both electronic and print media. There is an annual newsletter highlightingnew technologies and innovations and there is also information at the UNESCOwebsite.

3.3 Small Grants Project for Technology Development

The small grants scheme is an extremely important component of the UNISPARprogramme. It represents a major part of all efforts in promoting universityindustry partnership. The scheme is intended to directly facilitate thecommercialization of new technologies and at the same time enable UNESCOto identify and understand the obstacles in the transfer of technology fromuniversity to industry. Thus the small grants scheme is at once a technologydevelopment effort and a social experiment to identify political, cultural,financial and institutional obstacles to the partnership. In this regard theselection process for the projects was carried out in such a way as to be able totest the hypothesis that certain factors constitute constraints to university-industry cooperative technology development.

3.3.1 Types of project activities for the small grants schemeSeveral categories of projects have been funded under the UNISPAR programme.Decision on the categories of projects to support was reached after theidentification of the factors that constrain the operational aspects of university-industry cooperative technology development.

In reviewing the literature on university-industry partnership in developingcountries (Dhesi & Chadha 1995) it was established that efforts at the cooperativetechnology development are constrained by several factors. These include: thelow degree of awareness, by the potential users, of the existence of researchresults and new technologies; the absence of strong involvement of the users indefining the research agenda and the irrelevance of some university research.The lack of protection for the research results against piracy can also preventthe researchers from bringing their results into the public domain and therebyconstrain further development and commercialization. Finally, the inadequacy

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of technical expertise in most of the local industries can also be a constraintbecause it affects the ability to commercialize research results.

University-industry partnership programme should therefore adopt activitieswhose objectives target the elimination of the said constraints. After carefulstudy and analysis of these constraining factors, UNESCO/UNISPARprogramme put forward four types of activities that were considered essentialfor technology development. These activities include the establishment of pilotplants; support for the registration of patents; the popularization of technologies anddemand-driven research. The activities involving technology demonstration andpopularization are particularly useful for the Small Scale ManufacturingEnterprises (SMEs) that dominate the manufacturing sector while large-scaleindustries will benefit from registered patents and demand-driven research.In table 1 we present a summary of the desired objectives of each of theseactivities together with the constraints each of them is expected to overcome.Below we summarize the contents and rationale of each activity.

(i) The establishment of pilot plants enables the researchers to demonstrate thetechnical feasibility of the technology. The plant could also be used to collecttechnical and economic data, which will facilitate the assessment of economicfeasibility of the technology. Entrepreneurs or industrialists could use thedata to develop business plans for the purpose of obtaining loans fromfinancial institutions. One could also use the products from the plant formarket research in cases where the product is new.

(ii) The registration of patents is a useful activity to enable researchers to bringtheir results into the public domain. University researchers are usuallyreluctant to discuss their results (if they believe that they have commercialvalue) for fear of losing control over them and not being compensated. Thus,industry remains unaware of the achievements. In order to overcome thisproblem, UNISPAR provides grants to cover the cost of registration ofpatents. Once the research results had been patented they are then availablefor commercial exploitation by industries.

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Table 1: UNISPAR-Africa Small grants Project Activities for University-IndustryTechnology Development

Types ofactivites

Objectives to be addressed Constraints to beaddressed

Establishment ofPilot / Demonstration

to demonstrate the technicalfeasibility of the technology,to collect technical andeconomic data for economicanalysis.to use the prototype productsfor market research,to provide data forentrepreneurs to developbusiness plans for supportfrom financial institutions.

Inadequate technicalexpertise. Low degreeof awareness ofresearch results

Registration of patentsand grants forobtaining bureau ofstandards certification.

to demonstrate the technicalthereby give him confidenceto bring his results into thepublic domain,to enable researchers to fulfillany regulations of the nationalbureaus of standards as a furtherstep to make the productacceptable.

Lack of protection forresearch results

Popularization ofTechnology

to create awareness of thetechnologyto develop a marketfor the technologyto provide training for potentialusers

Low degree ofawareness

Demand-drivenResearch

to give an opportunity toindustries to participate in thedevelopment of the researchagenda.

Low degree ofawareness ofuniversity researchwork, lack of needsorientation, absence ofinvolvement ofindustries in definingresearch agenda.

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(iii)TTze popularization of technology, particularly those for use in agriculture andrural areas, is also very important. Through this activity, the population issensitized and the market is tested and/or created for the technology. Forinstance, a new agricultural technology may not readily appeal to industrialmanufacturers if they are unsure about the market for it. Even the potentialusers of the technology may be unwilling to invest in it because they areunaware of its economic, social and technical advantages. Through a seriesof activities such as TV Programs, video recordings of the technology,national seminars and field demonstrations the public awareness of thetechnology is generated. It must be stated that this activity is necessary inAfrica in view of the fact that the weak capital base of most industrialenterprises makes them less willing to manufacture untested products.

(iv)Demand-driven research is another activity supported by UNISPAR-Africaprogramme. Through this activity, grants are given to researchers for theexecution of projects, which are likely to produce results of commercial value.This approach to funding of research enables local industries to take part inthe determination of the research agenda.

3.3.2 The ProjectsUnder the small grants programme UNESCO/UNISPAR-Africa programmehas sponsored twenty-three (23) projects distributed across the various activitythemes mentioned above. The projects are grouped together under the variousthemes although some of them have sets of objectives that cut across the themes.A list and description of some of the projects can be found elsewhere (Massaquoi1996 a+b). The outcomes of the more successful projects are also described inthe UNISPAR Newsletters (1997, 1998 and 2000). Below, brief descriptions ofthe projects and highlights of the important experiences are presented. Theseexperiences have taught the researchers useful lessons, which are presented inthe next chapter.

(i) Establishment of Pilot Plants/ prototype production

Pilot Plant for the production of Chemical Feed Stocks from Sisal Wastes (Tanzania)The production of fiber from sisal plant is a major agricultural and industrialactivity in Tanzania. Unfortunately, however, the industry utilizes only 10% ofthe plant material. The rest is disposed of in various ways and sometimes at

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great cost. One particular waste material is the sisal bole. It constitutes thelargest source of waste. The boles are stems of the plant. The current methodof disposal of the boles involves smashing and burning in the fields. Nearly amillion tonnes of these materials are burnt each year. Research at the Universityof Dar es Salaam had shown that the bole contains a large amount of juice,which can be fermented and distilled to produce alcohol and other chemicals.

The UNISPAR grant was used to design and fabricate a pilot plant for theextraction and fermentation of juice from sisal bole and the distillation to produceethanol. The plant was used to collect data for assessment of the economicfeasibility of the project. It was intended to enable the Tanzania Sisal Authority(the major industrial organization with responsibility for sisal fiber production)to develop a business plan to be used in the search for financial support for afull-scale plant.

The project did not fully achieve its objectives because of disagreement betweenthe partners. The university wanted to produce acetic acid while the industrywas interested in the production of alcohol.

Pilot Plant for the Production of Avocado oil by Fermentation (Kenya}Kenya produces about 19,000 tons of avocado annually. Much of the fruit goesto waste because of lack of simple technology to utilize it. Because of its bulk,shipping cost is high and hence the Kenyan fruits are not competitive on theexport market. A low cost technology for the minimization of post-harvestlosses of the avocado crop, is the extraction of oil by fermentation. The oil ishighly valued in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and soap making industries. TheUNISPAR grant was used to design and fabricate a pilot plant for the extractionof avocado oil by fermentation.

The technology was picked up by a local industry that set up a production unitto produce several large batches of oil for trial marketing abroad. Large-scaleproduction has not yet commenced

Commercialization of brake pads made from saw dust (Nigeria)There are several companies producing brake pads and linings in Nigeria andmany more importing the product from abroad. All of them produce theirfriction materials (pads and linings) from asbestos. In order to reduce the useof asbestos (which is carcinogenic) research was carried out at the University of

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Nigeria, Nsukka to produce brake pads using sawdust, resins from cashew-nutshells and rubber latex.

UNESCO/UNISPAR programme provided a grant to fabricate a pilot plant forthe production of the brake pads using the above-mentioned raw materials.The plant was used to produce prototype products and a company in EasternNigeria is now engaged in small-scale commercial production of the pads.

The transfer of the wood adhesive formulation to a local industry (Tanzania},Most chipboard manufacturers in the region rely on imported ureaformaldehyde (UF) for the bonding of the particles in the products. Researchersat Tanzania Industrial Research and Development Organization (TIRDO)developed a tannin-based wood adhesive, which is water-resistant and possessessome preservative qualities. It is considered more environment-friendly thanthe conventional ones. It does away with the use of urea-formaldehyde (UF).The main raw materials are tannin and cashewnut shell liquid. The researchstarted in 1992 and was funded by the International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC) of Canada.

In 1995 UNESCO under its UNISPAR Programme awarded a grant to TIRDOto enable the testing of production line and the eventual transfer of thetechnology to a local industry. The glue line for utilizing the TIRDO technologywas built at the Tembo Chipboards Limited, Tanga region, and was completedsuccessfully in August 1997. It has been tested and is now used in the productionof chipboards. Furthermore the quality of the chipboards had not been adverselyaffected. The new glue line does not interfere with the existing urea-formaldehyde (UF) line, thereby giving the factory an option of using either ofthe two processes at any one time.

The wood-adhesive technology was one of the first success stories in thecommercialization of research results under the UNISPAR Programme.

Biotechnology to benefit small-scale banana producers in KenyaSmall-scale banana producers in Kenya are in dire need of clean plantingmaterials, estimated at 4 million suckers per year. Diseases (e.g. Panama Wiltand Sigatoka Leaf Spot) and pests (e.g. Banana Weevils and Nematodes) thathave over the years infested banana fields in Kenya have resulted in poor yieldsand lack of clean planting materials. Moreover the diseases and pests are spreadto clean fields through the conventional sucker.

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Droughts that are frequent in Kenya also contributes to shortage of bananaplanting material due to the fact that the pseudostems are fed to the animalsduring the dry period leaving the farmers with nothing to plant at the onset ofthe rains. In addition to these problems, banana orchards in Kenya are old andrequire replanting.

Against this background banana tissue culture (T.C) protocols were developedat the Institute for Biotechnology Research (IBR), Jomo Kenyatta University ofAgriculture and Technology (JKUAT). Tissue culture produces en massepathogen-free plants that are juvenile and more productive than the conventionalsuckers and therefore ideal for solving the above problems.

UNESCO under the UNISPAR programme provided a seed grant for theestablishment of the pilot laboratory.

The laboratory was completed in 1998. The facility has a clean air system and agrowth room with a capacity of one million plants per year. This technologyhas already contributed immensely to the supply of banana seedlings in Kenya.

A cost effective salmonella Diagnostic Kit (Zimbabwe)Salmonella is a type of bacteria, which is found in food and drinks. Its detectionis very important for the health and well being of the general public. Indeveloping countries, the availability of a rapid, specific, sensitive and cost-effective diagnostic kit will enable the standards boards to enforce strictperiodical surveillance for salmonella in the food and drink industry. Adiagnostic kit was developed at the Scientific and Industrial Research andDevelopment Centre (SIRDC), Zimbabwe and UNESCO, under the UNISPARProgramme provided a grant to commercialize the results of he research throughfurther testing and demonstration. Several prototypes of the kit were producedusing the UNISPAR grant.

The probe, which is now available commercially, can be applied in thedetermination, identification, enumeration and routine detection of the presenceof salmonella SSP bacteria in the food processing environment, rural drinkingwater resources, urban portable water systems, swimming pool waters, urbansewage and waste systems, food, animal feed, diary products poultry andpoultry production.

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Commercialisation of improved local weaning foods (Nigeria)In 1998 UNESCO/UNISPAR provided a grant for the production of theprototype of a locally formulated low-cost weaning food at the Michael OkparaFederal university of Agriculture, Umdike, Umuahia, Nigeria. The formulationutilises readily available cereal crops. The prototype was used to collect data tosatisfy the regulatory requirements of the Nigeria National Agency for Foodand Drug a Administration and Control (NAFDAC) as well as develop a marketfor the product.

Dispute among the various stakeholders, including the researcher's owninstitution, prevented the full commercial development of this product.

(ii) The Registration of Patents

Bio-assay Directed Evaluation of Traditional Medicinal Plants (Zimbabwe)The project was intended to facilitate the process of commercializing researchresults in the areas of HIV/AIDS and cancer. Researchers at the University ofZimbabwe have isolated a pure compound from one of the Zimbabwe medicinalplants. In "in vitro" tests, the compound protects the human blood cells fromthe effects of HIV virus over a broad range of concentrations.

The commercialization of the product was hampered by the reluctance of theresearchers to disclose the identity of the compound.

UNISPAR grant was provided to cover the cost of the registration of patents,which would give legal protection to the invention and thereby enable theresearcher to bring his knowledge into the public domain. An internationalpatent was obtained. The researchers are still negotiating with localpharmaceutical industries that would produce a small quantity of the tabletsfor clinical testing. This project has not made much progress because of thedifficulties in fulfilling the regulations covering drug sales and the lack of interestby local industries.

Use of Agricultural Wastes to Manufacture Cellulose (Nigeria)Cellulose is the world's most plentiful chemical compound of plant origin andits applications cut across several industries including pharmaceuticals,chemical, packaging and electrical components. In the developed world, thisproduct is usually derived from special plantation wood and is thereforeexpensive.

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Semi processing of various agricultural crops in Africa generates millions oftons of agricultural wastes per annum. Well over half of these wastes arepotential low cost sources of cellulose. Researchers at the University of Beninin Nigeria have adapted cellulose extraction technology to derive the productfrom four agricultural wastes. These are maize cobs, groundnut shell, rice husksand baggases. Laboratory and pilot scale studies show that cellulose producedfrom this source, cost approximately, only 25-30% of those imported into Nigeria.

UNESCO provided a grant for patent registration and further data collectionon the product to satisfy the requirements of the Nigerian National Agency forFood and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC).

The industrial partners in the project (Biode Pharmaceutical Industries) limitedhave already constructed a plant for the production of the cellulose.

(iii) Popularization of Technology

The transfer of production technology for essential oilsTogo, Benin and Ghana, three well-linked countries have industries whichimport large quantities of aromatic products and essential oils. Research at theUniversitE du BEnin in Togo, has led to the identification of raw materials andthe fabrication of small-scale plants for the extraction of essential oils fromcitronella plants.

Under the UNESCO/UNISPAR programme a grant was provided for thetransfer of this technology to small-scale entrepreneurs through a series ofdemonstration projects. Several farmers now grow and process the citronellaplant. They use the modified technology demonstrated by the UNESCO/UNISPAR programme

The Gum Technology for the Preservation of Cassava (Ghana)Cassava is a major crop in most developing countries where the staple food is acassava product. The current technique used by farmers for the preservation ofthe crop, do not lend themselves to commercial exploitation. The Biochemistrydepartment of the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, withthe assistance of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)developed a Gum technology which can give the product a shelf-life of 28-32days without any change in quality and consumer acceptability.

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The UNISPAR grant was utilized to sensitize farmers and cassava processingindustries to the availability of the product. A video recording was made aboutthe technology and several field demonstrations were organized. Unfortunatelythis important product for the preservation of harvested cassava has never beenput on sale because the demand for cassava products for exports has increasedconsiderably and farmers now sell all their cassava at harvest time.

Transformation of tomato various derivatives (Togo)The objective of this project was to disseminate the technology for the productionof various alcohol derivatives from tomato. The goal was to reduce the post-harvest losses of the tomato crop, which is produced in large quantities in thecountry. A grant was provided to establish small-scale plant for fermentationand distillation of tomato. The plant was to be used to train local technicians.This project did not achieve its desired objective because there was not muchdemand for the tomato derivatives.

Biofertiliser Project (Kenya)

Research work at Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya had identified the strainsof Rhizobium that can effectively modulate and fix nitrogen in the legume grownin arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya. UNESCO, under the UNISPAR programmeprovided a grant for the establishment of a pilot plant for the production of theRhizobium innoculants using the locally isolated strains.

The inoculants produced from the pilot unit, were used in field trials todemonstrate the technology to local; farmers. The farmers, who grow peas,cow peas and beans were able to compare the performance of the inoculants(biofertilisers) with that of chemical fertilizers. The results of the field trialshave been very encouraging and plans are now under way for the establishmentof a full-scale production unit following an economic feasibility analysis.

The project could have a major impact in North Eastern Kenya where the supplyof the bio-fertiliser would bring marginal land into production. This producthas not yet been produced on a commercial scale.

Jam Dessert and Candy Bars from Sweet Potatoes (Uganda)Sweet potato is a starchy food crop, which is a native of tropical America andthe Pacific Islands. It is widely grown in the world with Uganda being thelargest producer in Africa and the third largest producer in the world, producingapproximately 2 million metric tonnes annually. The crop is high yielding, has

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a short vegetative cycle and can do well on marginal, degraded soils. It is a richsource of vitamin A, energy and mineral.

Although the sweet potato has a high potential, the storage and processing ofsweet potatoes in Uganda is poorly developed.

UNESCO/UNISPAR provided a grant to develop a low-cost technology for thesmall-scale production of jams, SWEETS, dulces and candy bars from sweetpotatoes. The technology was developed and the European Development Fund,through a local NGO, supported a training programme for the transfer of thetechnology to small-scale entrepreneurs in Uganda.

Unfortunately demand for jam and other sweets products especially from non-fruit sources is not very strong. The technology has not moved much.

New Technology for plantain preservation in rural areas (Cote d'lvoire)Plantain (a member of the banana family) is an important crop in most tropicalregions and it is widely grown in sub-Sahara Africa, Asia and Latin America.About 6 to 10 million tons are produced in Africa annually and the productionin CUte d'lvoire is more than 1.5 million tons per annum.

One of the biggest drawbacks for plantain is the rapid rate of post-harvestdeterioration. The only technique known by farmers in Africa for the preservationof plantain is to cut the fruit before maturity. This technique has some limitations(whiteness of the endosperm and ripening not often happening), but the cropcould be consumed even though the quality is less appreciated.

However, the laboratory of Biotechnology and food science, Department ofBiochemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of CUte d'lvoire,in collaboration with some farmers, initially with financial support of theInternational Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, developed thetechnology using local plant material. UNESCO/UNISPAR provided grant forthe dissemination of information on the technology through the radio andtelevision.

(iv) Demand-Driven research

Low cost Incubators for Poultry Farming (Malawi)This project was launched as an answer to the long delays experienced byfarmers in Malawi in acquiring a consignment of day old chicks and the

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forbidding cost of imported incubators. By establishing local capacity tomanufacture efficient and affordable egg incubators, access to this product wouldbe improved and eventually lead to sustainable production of eggs and broilersto ensure food self-sufficiency.

UNESCO under the UNISPAR-Africa programme provided a grant to theMalawi Industrial Research and Technology Development Centre (MIRTDC)to promote the prototypes of low-cost design incubators which was developedby researchers at the centre. The technology is now very popular and its use isexpanding nationally and it is also expected to be marketed within the region.

Mosquito Repellent Formulation from some Ghanaian Plant MaterialsA large number of plants in Africa have folkloric reputation for various pesticidalactions. Although many plants have been used as medicines or as sources ofmedicinal compounds, only a few have gained commercial importance aspesticides.

Researchers in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,Kumasi, Ghana, have screened some of these "pesticidal" plants for their majorsecondary matabolites and biological activities. Mosquito repellents have beenformulated with extracts from some of the plants.

UNISPAR provided funds for further analyses that facilitated the study of theeconomics of the project.

The project produced several prototypes of tried and tested mosquito repellents,which are now awaiting interest from industrial entrepreneurs and financialinstitutions.

Summary

The preceding brief analysis shows that the outcomes of the small grant projectswere mix. Some were complete successes. Others were partial successes andstill others were complete failures. The reason for the successes and failuresconstitute important lessons that will be discussed in the next section.

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4. Main Issues andLessons LearntThis section summarises the discussion by participants at the UNESCO/UNISPAR workshop. It is a combination of lessons learnt from theimplementation of the small grants projects as well as other issues based on theparticipants' understanding of how universities interact with industry, and theprocess for the development of University-industry partnership in Africa.

Scientists interact with industry in technological development in three mainways:

O When industry approaches science and technology institutions for solutionsfor problems experienced in their operations;

n When industry and scientists jointly implement programmes to developnew technologies and

• When scientists approach industry for commercialization of a newlydeveloped technology or research results.

The effectiveness of this interaction is dependent on issues such as theunderstanding by scientists of the needs of industry and the ability to respondto those needs. Thus, issues critical to a successful university-Industrypartnership can be classified into three categories. In the first category are thoseissues relating to the needs of industry and in the second group are those relatingto the way scientists are expected to respond and then in the final group are thefactors that constrain the development of the University-industry partnership.In this report all three categories of issues affecting University-industrypartnership have been discussed. Together, these sets of factors represent themain challenges in the promotion of university-industry partnership.

4.1 Requirements, expectation and character of industry

Industry needs science and technology. It thrives on the use of technologicaldevelopments in producing consumer goods and services, and therefore relieson scientists for inventions and other technological ideas. Hence it is in its interestto form partnership with the scientific community. However it will only beenthusiastic about such partnerships if its needs are addressed through the

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cooperation. Thus in promoting University-Industry partnership for technologydevelopment, certain points are to be noted about industry's needs with regardto technology development. Furthermore it is important to take note of thecharacteristics of local industries with a view of overcoming hindrances thatsuch attributes may pose. Those who have been successful in University-industry cooperative technology development have taken note of the followingfacts and characteristics of local industry:

O Industry exists to meet the needs of society through the provision of goods andservices. By producing goods demanded by consumers, industry reacts tothe demands of society. In the same way, technological inventions byscientists, when used in industry, will aim to meet the needs of society.Therefore, ideas and technologies useful to industry should usually beproducts of demand-driven research. Experience with UNISPAR projectsshows that the commercialisation of results of demand-driven research wasmore successful than that of other research. This is so because the potentialend-user is usually anxious to adopt the technology that results from theresearch.

• Industries have their own priorities. Most industries operate with set priorities,but mainly guided by the need to make profits. They often therefore seektechnologies that are in line with their needs and priorities, and scientistsmay often have to find out what these priorities are, before directing theirresearch and approaching industry for partnership to develop technology.Sometimes the scientists have to convert their original research ideas to suitindustry's needs. An example of this was the experience from a joint projectof the chemical engineering department of university of Dar es Salaam andKatani Sisal industries Ltd., Tanzania. The former wanted to developtechnology for the production of citric acid from sisal plant wastes whilethe latter was interested in the production of ethanol. The project stalledbecause the scientists could not adjust their ideas to suite the priority ofindustry.

O Industry needs implementable technology. Industry thrives on implementingtechnological inventions, and in some cases requires that the technologysupplied to it be ready for use. This is particularly so in Africa where cash-strapped industries prefer ready-to-use technologies. In general, industryis interested in proven technologies. It is skeptical about unproven

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technologies, and fears the risks associated with venturing into unproven,and therefore uncertain technologies. This is the case with new inventionsaimed at import substitution or increasing efficiency. Only when these arepresented and demonstrated to industry will it be possible for the later toappreciate the economic value. The UNISPAR experience confirms that pilotplant demonstration projects facilitate the commercialisiation much faster.

• The cost of the technology is important for any industry. In financial terms, atechnology that is more costly than the existing alternative is shunned byindustry. Obviously no industry is willing to apply more costly technologiesthat eat into its profit margins.

• Industry takes note of consumer resistance to some technologies. The intendedmarket for the end products, to some extent, dictates production technologiesused by industry. If the market demands that the products be produced bytechnologies that meet certain criteria, then industry strives to meet thosecriteria. Examples include consumers' attitudes towards GeneticallyModified (GMO) foods and consumer insistence on environmentalstandards. The scientists' inventions are also affected by these decisions,because even if the invention is novel, its application is limited by consumerbehavior. As an example, an invention for a genetically modified tobaccostrain that may have many good properties may still not be able to implementthe technology if international markets resist GMO tobacco.

• Industry expects highly marketable technology and quick return on investment. InAfrica most industries are not well endowed and therefore expect profitsimmediately after commissioning a technology. Inventors have to deal withsuch expectation. The technology has to be affordable when implemented,have reasonable returns, and produce products that are readily marketable.

C\ The technology must meet minimum regulatory requirements. Industry operateswithin regulations set at the local, national and international levels, andneeds technology that at least meets the minimum regulatory requirements.Such regulations may cover occupational safety and environmental concerns.With technological advances, such requirements are dynamic, and oftenbecome more stringent.

O The product must also meet regulatory requirements. Apart from the technologyitself, the products produced should also meet regulatory requirements such

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as those for environment, health, and those dictated by the market that theytarget.

O Industry needs venture capital. The commercialisation of inventions andresearch results is an expensive process. Without venture capital industrymay not be able to embark on the process.

C\ Industry lacks confidence in local scientists and their inventions: During theexecution of the UNISPAR projects many researchers reported that industrydoubted the claims they made about the usefulness and quality of theirinventions. With such attitude it is very difficult to institute a university-industry partnership for technology development. Accordingly there existsa tendency for industry to look abroad for technology solutions, even whenthere are competitive local alternatives.

H Some industries are branches of multilateral companies. This is an importantcharacteristic of local industry, which must be taken into account. In manyAfrican industries, decisions about which technology to use are often madeelsewhere at the company headquarters. While such industries may wantto use local ideas their own internal bureaucracy may prevent them fromdoing so.

4.2 Expected response of scientists to industries' needs

In order to address the issues and concerns on the side of industry, scientistsmust take note of them and take appropriate measures to make their ideasattractive to industry. In particular the scientist must take the following stepsin technology development:

O Scientists should aim at promoting proven technology prototypes that are visibleand demonstrable. Rather than trying to sell just an idea to industry, a scientistshould strive to produce a prototype of his or her invention. He or she shouldbe able to demonstrate it and explain how much inputs, in terms of resources,finances etc, are required in order to commercialise it. Furthermore thetechnology should be able to attract business ventures and result in productsthat are sellable.

O Scientist should promote technology that is a product of demand-driven research.Experience from successful UNISPAR projects suggest that it is always easierto promote such technologies because they usually have a ready market

26 V > / ; '

and use. In this regard scientists should involve industry in the developmentof ideas. They should interact with industry during the development of theideas, and should be able to adjust the technology to suit prevailingcircumstances. However it must be stated that while it is easier to promoteresults of demand-driven research, the scientists should not limit him/herselfto only this type of technology development.

The scientist should envisage the market potential of his or her ideas or technology.Ideas with a small market potential generally attract fewer industry partners.Although the idea may be good and technically sound, it is the economicfactors such as the size of the market that determine the level of interestfrom industry. Some UNISPAR micro projects for technology developmentfailed to take off because of the size of the market which had not beenaccurately foreseen.

The scientist must involve other people with relevant expertise. The developmentof technology is a multi-disciplinary process requiring expertise in differentfields of study. In particular there may be need to consult with economists,engineers and other scientists. Often, scientists make the mistake of believingthat they can do it all by themselves. They should know that working in amulti-disciplinary team makes it easier to appropriately package the ideafor sale to industry. It enables one to address important issues such as marketsize and profitability of the technology or product.

The scientist should disseminate information on new technologies. Thisinformation must be packaged in a manner that will appeal to potentialinvestors. Too often scientists publicise their results among themselves. Theypublish the results in academic journals that are only read by their peers.Scientists must use other media such as newspapers, radio etc. to discus theeconomic value of their ideas. They should also take the information directlyto key players in industry and government

Researchers should comply with contracts and behave in a professional manner.The scientists should exhibit professionalism. Industry often complainsabout the lack of respect for deadlines in the execution of projects. Sometimesthere are also other unprofessional conducts with respect to the use of funds.Prudent management of funds is essential especially in the absence of venturecapital.

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O Inventors should concentrate on locally owned industries when they are promotingtheir ideas. Experience from the execution of some UNISPAR technologydevelopment projects confirm that locally-owned industries are morereceptive to the development of local ideas. Foreign-owned multi-nationalcompanies tend to be shackled by elaborate decision-making processinvolving their head offices and are also tied down by the desire for world-wide uniformity of product lines. The unfortunate irony of this situation isthat multi-national companies are better endowed in terms of resources andtherefore should be the one the scientist should normally turn to forcooperation if only they (the industries) were not constrained by their owninternal bureaucracy

4.3 Constraints

Although some scientists may be fully aware of the needs of industry and areready to take steps to respond to these needs as outlined in the previous section,there are factors limiting their ability to act and this in turn affects theeffectiveness of the partnership. Below are some of the constraints inhibitingUniversity-Industry partnership. They have been grouped into severalcategories. In effect we have looked at those constraining factors adverselyaffecting the involvement of the various stakeholders. Among the stakeholderswe have considered the scientists, the industry, the institution (university) andthe government. We have also examined other factors such as the attitude ofsociety and the general macroeconomic environment.

4.3.1 Constraints on the side of industryMost of the inhibiting factors may have their origin in the nature of theownership of the local industries (i.e. factory units of multi-nationals) and thesize (usually small) of local industries. The following are the major factors thatconstrain the active involvement of some industries in university-industrycooperative development:

• There is scarcity of relevant human resource to undertake the evaluation ofideas and interpret scientific knowledge into commercial technologies. Inparticular there is an absence of industrial economists and highly skilledtechnical staff capable of undertaking product development. The availabilityof the appropriate human resources will facilitate an integrated approach in

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design that will involve scientists, engineers and industrial economists.Because of the small size of most of the industries, human resources availableare mainly engaged in production and maintenance and not many areinvolved in product development.

O Furthermore, and again as a result of the weak human resource capacity insome of the local industries, the assessment and management of risk is notundertaken. Such an assessment is important in order to enhance the abilityof success in the technology development effort.

• Industry also faces difficulty in securing loans for the commercialdevelopment of scientific ideas and inventions. Commercial banks are oftennot forthcoming with loans for the development of new ideas and there isan absence of appropriate venture capital finance.

[1 Some industries, again by virtue of their sizes, do not undertake acomprehensive market plan /strategy comprising market research,distribution networks, promotion and packaging of product. They aretherefore unable to access accurately the economic values of new products.

n Local industries do not have any policy for their relationship with localinstitutions. This may be as a result of another problem, which is the generallack of confidence in the ideas of local scientists. The lack of policy canonly lead to unsustainable ad hoc arrangements with individual scientists.

In summary it can be stated that on the part of industry the major hindrancesare human resource scarcity in areas relevant to product development and thelack of venture capital.

4.3.2 Constraints on the side of scientistsMost on the constraints on the part of scientists are linked to finance and resourceavailability. Here are some of the factors that adversely affect the ability ofscientists in University-Industry cooperative technology development:

• A major constraint is the lack of funding from the expected sources such asgovernment, university administration, research institutions and industry.Research and development work thrives on funding for the purchase ofresearch tools, travel and other expenses associated with the work. Withoutfunding it is difficult for scientists to undertake further development.

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O Apart from the financial resource limitations, Universities and researchinstitutions are also unable to commit even non-financial resources for liaisonwith industry. For instance there is no institutional framework in mostinstitutions for University-industry cooperation. The absence of sucharrangement makes it very difficult for scientists to reach out to industry.

O Most scientists do not have business skills and marketing capabilities. Thisaffects their ability to promote their ideas among potential users or investors.Therefore they need to be provided with advice and guidance on how tomarket their ideas to interested industrial partners. A system should bedeveloped to enable scientists to receive such service from their institutions.

C\ The difficulty in accessing information is also a constraint. Once they havedeveloped the technology, the scientist would need to know where to go forfunding and partnership. Very often the researcher does not know what ishappening in some industries that may be interested in his/her idea. Amedium for exchange of information and ideas is a prerequisite for effectiveuniversity-industry partnership

O The absence of business incubators within universities and researchinstitutions is also a constraint. Such companies, if they existed, could takeup the commercialisation of the technology and its transfer to industry

O There is negative attitude of industry and society towards local ideas.Scientists in Africa have to struggle very hard to win the confidence of localindustry and society in general for their ideas. Some of the UNISPARgrantees reported that when they presented their ideas or inventions toindustry there were doubts and skepticism expressed about the advertisedperformance characteristics.

O The absence of institutional policy and framework to promote partnershipis also a major constraint on the development of University-industrypartnership. Most universities and research institutions have no policy onthe promotion of cooperation with industry. As a result there are noinstitutional arrangement (e.g. Liaison centres) for the promotion ofcommunication between industry and the university. This affects the abilityof the scientist to market his ideas. He is forced to act on his/her own withoutthe strength that would come from institutional support.

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4.3.3 Institutional constraintsUniversity and Research institutions which host the scientist have certainadministrative structures and practices that adversely affects their own abilityto promote University-industry partnership. These include:

d Poor management of funds. There have been cases where funds meant for aparticular project are temporarily diverted to other activities. This slows theimplementation of the projects, which tends to exasperate the industrialpartner providing the funds.

n The nature of the project administration: Sometimes the administration of theproject does not involve key players. The scientist involved in the dailyactivities of a project may not even be part of its steering committee. Thusimportant management decisions such as the location of the pilot plant aretaken without the prior knowledge of the scientist and this can sometimeshave negative effect on the progress of the project.

H Institutional politics (e.g. departmental rivalries) can also frustrate the technologydevelopment process. Some useful results are often "shelved" while otherswith less promise are pushed forward.

4.3.4. Government policiesA key stakeholder in the university-industry partnership is the government.The later has the responsibility to create the environment and climate fornurturing such partnerships. Government's main role is to promote thepartnership through the institution of appropriate policies and institutionalframework. It can also assist by providing financial support to scientificinstitutions to carry out research and development work. In connection withthis, the following factors are known to inhibit the role of government in fosteringuniversity-industry partnership.

• Attitude of Government officials towards local inventions and research. Like theindustrial counterpart, there is general perception among some Governmentofficials and institutions that local inventions are not good enough. Hencethere is not much enthusiasm, on the side of government, to in promoteindigenous technologies.

• Government policies towards local inventions and research. African governmentsdo not normally provide an incentive such as tax breaks for industries

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involved in the commercial developments of new ideas. Such policies ifthey were adopted will encourage local industries to take up thecommercialisation of locally generated scientific research results.

• Absence of science and technology policy in some countries. University-Industrypartnership is a useful strategy for building technological capacity in anycountry. Thus, national science and technology policy usually haveinstruments that promote university-industry partnership. Hence theexistence of Science and technology policy is important for university-industry cooperative technology development

d Political instability in some countries. Project survival depends on political andeconomic stability. Frequent changes in government and policy preventindustry from engaging in long term investments. And by nature, thedevelopment of technologies or the commercialisation of scientific researchresult is a long-term investment, which require long periods of stable policyenvironment.

4.3.5 Perceptions of society and market resistanceIndigenous technology will only strive if there is a market for it. Thus itsacceptance by society at large is crucial. In this connection, one of the mainobstacles on the side of society is the latter's perception of local science andtechnology. In industrialised societies where the scientific communities haveacquitted themselves very well, the problem of lack of confidence does not arise.In Africa, on the other hand there is need for change in the perception andattitudes of society towards local inventions. The local society is usually reluctantto try new products from local scientific community. The way society viewsindigenous scientific developments can have an economic impact because itcan enhance or diminish the size of the market for the new products. Accordinglythe perception of society can influence the economic viability of the project

4.3.6 Unfavorable macro-economic environmentNew products from local scientific community may not be competitive in thisera of globalisation because the liberalisation of trade puts infant industries incompetition with well-endowed multi-national companies. This sometimesaffects the ability to develop local technologies and products. It must howeverbe said that globalisation may also offer opportunity for some locally generated

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technologies and products. It can open the global market for new products thatadd value to Africa's vast natural resources.

Furthermore governments' appetite for money leads to the imposition of alltype of taxes and tariffs some of which have adverse effect on the whole processof technological capacity building. For the purpose of S&T capacity buildingin general, it is important to examine these tariffs and identify those thatconstrain local technology development.

4.3.7. General constraints

In the forgoing we had looked at constraints arising from weaknesses incapacities and perceptions of various stakeholders. In general whenever twoparties come together there are other factors, independent of the capabilities ofthe individual stakeholders, which work against the partnership. These arerelated to potential areas of conflict in the partnerships. The first of these is theconflict in expectations. There are high expectations on both sides of thepartnership. Industry sometimes has high, unrealistic or reasonable expectationson reliability of the technology. Sometimes, expectations from industry and thescientist over ownership of the technology may also differ. There may also bedifferences in expectations of cost sharing agreements between industry anduniversities. The scientist may want to make money very quickly from his/herinvention while industry may also want to quickly recover its investment inthe project. All these may lead to tension in the partnership and work againstthe technology development process. Each partner should learn to makesacrifices at the development stage and concentrate on the goals

There is also the issue of mutual lack of trust. And this raises another issue: theissue of intellectual property rights. The scientist would want protection ofproprietary rights of inventions even before proceeding with the partnership.But the acquisition of such rights may be an expensive, long, and difficultprocess. Industry may also expect ownership of the technology by virtue of itsinvestment in the development process. Both partners must address thispotential area of dispute through formal agreement or the registration of patents.

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5.0 Criteria andSuggested Strategies forSuccess5.1 Criteria for success

Overcoming the constraints mentioned earlier is obviously the first set of criteriafor success. The various stakeholders should take the necessary steps toeliminate all hindrances to the establishment and continued existence of thepartnership. Industries must address the issue of scarcity of relevant humanresources and make efforts to prevail on banks to make venture capital availableto them. Government must provide the favorable environment and institutionsshould provide the support for the scientists. In the absence of the completeelimination of the existing constraints, scientists may only succeed in developinga university-industry partnership for cooperative technology development ifthey have certain characteristics. In general, analysis of the work of theUNESCO/UNISPAR grantees suggests that in order to succeed the scientistmust manifest the following qualities.

d S/He must be able to deal with frustrations. Perseverance is key to successin this effort. The hurdles are too many and the means to overcome themare limited. This is bound to lead to frustration which can only be handledthrough patience and perseverance.

O S/He must be open-minded to new ideas. One of the great weaknesses ofsome scientists is arrogance and refusal to accept views contrary to thosethey carry especially when those views come from technical staff or non-scientists. After spending time on their research work and arriving at brilliantresults, they can almost be forgiven for thinking they know it all. Howeverthey need to accommodate suggestions and new ideas from all quarters.

O S/He should be a team player. For the partnership to work, the scientistmust collaborate effectively with all the other partners. Some of thehindrances can be easily overcome if they are tackled in a collaborativemanner.

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ni Scientists should also be innovative. They should think of new ways toapproach problems and overcome obstacles. When a particular strategyfails new ones should be developed.

• Another important quality which scientists engaged in technologydevelopment should have is entrepreneurial skill. As a matter of fact, mostscientists fail to develop their ideas because of the lack of this attribute.

• Finally scientists should be self-motivated and professional in the executionof the partnership.

5.2 Strategies

In the above analysis we have presented the criteria including the specialqualities scientists must exhibit in order to succeed. However, if the constraintspersist, the special qualities alone may not be enough. There is need to strategizein order to overcome the hurdles. The successful strategies involve those thatmold the character of the scientist promoting the technology. Specifically aspart of this strategy, the scientist must take the following actions.

• Right from the beginning the scientist must develop the product with theend-users in mind. He must identify the potential users of his research resultsand interact with them.

O Sometimes it will be a good idea to undertake further research anddevelopment work in order to improve the prospects of the projects. Suchadditional work must aim at demonstrating the economic value of theinvention by providing additional product characteristics.

• The scientist must maintain a continual dialogue with important players,e.g. Ministries of Commerce, Managing Directors in Industry, Investors,Government Officials. S/He must keep talking to people in order to find aprospective investor. Researchers must therefore learn to communicate withdiverse audiences. Where the product is for the benefit of rural communitiesit is necessary to tap into ongoing work of non-governmental organisation(NGO). This strategy requires the especial quality of patience andperseverance from the scientist.

O The project planning should consider all factors that are likely to influenceit and scientists must undertake activities such as SWOT (Strengths,

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Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis for university, researchinstitutions and industry partners before embarking on the technologydevelopment.

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6.0 Conclusions andRecommendations6.1 Conclusions

It is fairly reasonable to conclude that University-industry partnership is a verylogical strategy for building technological capacity and promoting economicdevelopment in any country. The partnership brings together those whogenerate knowledge (universities and research institutions) and those whoutilize that knowledge for economic development. Therefore it is a usefulmechanism for utilizing national scientific and technological capacity fordevelopment. In addition to the general advantage to the society at large, thepartnership offers opportunities to all stakeholders. For the university and thescientist, it is an opportunity to generate income and strengthen their capacities.It also enables them to serve their communities and enhance their profile insociety. Industry also benefits in many ways including access to scientificresources available in the universities and the improvements in theirtechnologies and operating performance which may arise from the partnership.

However, for the stakeholders to be able to avail themselves of theseopportunities several issues have to be addressed.

First, the scientist must take steps to address the concerns and misgivings ofindustry and also take cognizance of the peculiarities of local industries. It isclear from the analysis presented that there are specific needs and expectationsfrom industry which scientists should do well to recognize and address if thepartnership for technology development should go forward. The concerns ofindustry as far as the partnership is concerned include the cost of the invention,the economic value and whether it fits into their programs.

Scientists should also take note of the character, in particular the size and natureof ownership (foreign owned or multi-nationals) of the industries. In order toachieve quick results on partnership, locally owned industries should beapproached. They are not saddled with the long decision making process oflocal branches of multi-national companies. Nor are they likely to always lookabroad for solutions to local problems.

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Secondly, steps should be taken by all stakeholders to overcome the manyconstraints on all sides that inhibit the partnership. To start with, governmentsmust create the enabling environment. Unlike the industrialized countrieswhere partnership of this sort can take place effectively on an ad hoc basis withoutmuch government intervention, in Africa it has to be facilitated by governmentpolicy, finance and institutional arrangements. Ad hoc arrangements orpartnerships that are not based on policies are not sustainable in the long run.

Industry and institutions also have several huddles to overcome in order toforge an effective partnership. These constraints are in general derived fromthe scarcity of financial resources, the absence of relevant human resources inlocal industries, negative attitude towards local ideas and the nature (size andownership) of the industries. These factors affect the ability to finance thecooperation and implement projects, the ability to interpret scientific researchresults for further development, the ability to carry out risk assessment, thedemand and the size of the market for local technologies and the industrialpartners' ability to take decisions relating to the partnership.

Not all the above issues are peculiar to Africa or the third world in general.However, the peculiar nature and ownership of African industries and thedifficult financial state of African scientific institutions breed certain problemswhich should be overcome in order to have a satisfactory university-industrypartnership.

Thirdly, in the case where these constraints remain a problem, the scientist mustdevelop innovative strategies to bypass them. Such strategies may includeadditional development work on the project, liaison and dialogue with otherkey players such as NGOs in the case of products for rural development andacquiring new skill in management and planning.

Finally, it should be stated that as long as obstacles to the partnership exist onlyscientists with certain qualities can succeed in forging ahead and they shouldbe prepared to do so without institutional support. The experience from theUNESCO/UNISPAR grantees suggest that scientists who succeed in developingpartnerships should be innovative, patient and be able to cope with frustration.S/he must be self-motivated, self-confident and above all possess someentrepreneurial skills.

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6.2 Recommendation

The analysis presented in this guidebook has highlighted the concerns of allstakeholders and the constraints they confront. It is evident that the generalrecommendation would be for each stakeholder to take appropriate steps toremove the obstacles in the path of establishing partnership. However, for thepurpose of emphasis and clarity it is important to make specificrecommendations to all three stakeholders (government, industry anduniversities) and other partners in development. The latter comprises of donoragencies and regional bodies that foster collaboration on development issues.

6.2.7 Recommendations to GovernmentIn general governments role is to create the enabling policy environment andprovide financial support (directly or through the national institutions) to thepartnership. Thus, specifically the following actions are expected of nationalgovernments.

• Government should give tax incentives to industries that support researchand development work. Government should give tax relief for a reasonableperiod to industries that are producing products from local technologies.These incentives will definitely encourage local and even multi-nationalcompanies to actively pursue indigenous technology development throughcollaboration with local scientific institutions

O African governments should recognize and tap into university and researchinstitutions as repository of science and technology. In this regard nationalscience and technology policies should use University-industry partnershipas a vehicle for promoting technological capacity building.

• Government must also address the issue of unfavorable tariff regimes. Anexamination of the tariff structure and its effect on indigenous technologydevelopment should be carried out in order to facilitate the change in regimes

• Governments must put in place arrangements to make venture capitalavailable for investment in local technologies and products.

• Government should initiate policy changes that favor research through theallocation of adequate funding.

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6.2.2 Universities and research institutions

D Universities should rationalize management structures in order to facilitatetechnology transfer. Long bureaucratic procedures for procurement anddisbursement of project funds should be dismantled where they exist.

C\ Scientists in research institutions must carry out demand driven research.This will make the results readily marketable. Such research must either beat the request of a potential user of the results or be identified throughinteraction with potential clients.

O Business development units should be established to facilitatecommercialization of technologies. The centres will be used to developbusiness plans to market the ideas.

• Scientists must device ways to increase contact with industries. For instancethe institution can organise technology fairs to which all stakeholders shouldbe invited. A university - industry liaison centre could also be established ifnecessary. These contacts will enable the university dispel any negativeperception about the value of its work.

D University should use industry representatives to serve on importantcommittees dealing with research and curriculum development. This willencourage industry and other technology users to participate in theformulation of the research agenda.

H Research institutions with a large number of results of economic value mustestablish science incubators for the promotion of their inventions.

6.2.3 IndustriesLocal industries must take the following actions in order to promote thepartnership:

D They should recognise the importance and usefulness of locally developedtechnologies.

O They should increase financial support for research and developmentactivities and also consider the award of contract research to local institutions.

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d Industries should give financial support to technology fairs organised byscientific institutions.

6.2.4 Donor AgenciesDonors and other development partners also have a role to play. Their roleswill be catalytic to the process.

O They should assist in popularization of research results within the region inorder to provide wider market for it.

d They should support the development of a critical mass of local scientistswho will engage in research that is relevant to national development. Theallocation of fellowships for high-level training could be one form ofintervention.

• UNESCO can play a role to influence African governments to be in-wardlooking for their technology requirements by highlighting success stories.In this connection, UNESCO/UNISPAR could fund national technology fairsorganized by research institutions.

• Donors who support research activities must contribute to demand-drivenresearch that produces utilisable result.

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References(1) Dhesi A.S. and Chadha V. (1995): Factors influencing Technology Transfer

from R&D Institutions to manufacturing. An Empirical Evidence from India.Science Technology & Development Vol.13 No.2 August 1995 pp. 225-237.

(2) Massaquoi, J.G.M. (1996a): Technology Development Cooperation betweenuniversities and industry in Africa. Proceedings of the World Congress ofEngineering Educators and Industry Leaders, UNESCO Paris 2-5 July 1996,Vol.III pp. 95-101.

(3) Massaquoi J.G.M. (1996b). UNESCO's Programme for the EndogenousDevelopment of Technology in Africa. Bulletin of UNESCO Nairobi Vol.31No.2.

(4) UNISPAR Newsletter, UNESCO Nairobi Office, April 1997.

(5) UNISPAR Newsletter, UNESCO Nairobi Office, April 1998.

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AppendixLIST OF PARTICPANTS

Name

BIERINE N.

CHIKAMI E.

DUTIRO A.

EL-MSSIRY M.

GONDWE K.J.

KOUMAGLO .H.K

Address, Telephone , Fax, Email

UNIDO P.O Box 4775HarareTel:+2634\ 707317Fax:2634\737634E-email:nbiering@unido.org

Koenig Enterprise Development Center& Z.I.A

P.O Box MP 1096 HarareTel:023 892986X708761 \732612E-email:eckedec@yahoo.com

5 Schmtit AvenueSt Martins HarareTel:091 319 085 c\o Adams

SIRDCEnergy technology InstituteP.OBox 6640Harare.Tel:2634\860321Fax:2634\860351E-email:mosad56@hotmail.com

M.I.R.T.D.CBox 357,BlantyreMalawiTel:256-623805, 265-623912

Universite de LomeP. O. Box 1515LomETogoTel: 228-251052Fax 228-258784Email: hkoumagl@syfed.tg.refer.org

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KUREYA T. (Rapporteur)

MABHANDE I.

MAKANGA W.

MASANJA E.

MASHAVAP.

MASSAQUOI J.G.M

MWATHA W.E

S.A.R.D.C15 Downie AvenueBelgraviaHarareTel:263-3-4-720814\737301

Zimbabwe Patent OfficeBox CY177 ,Causeway,Harare,HarareZimbabaweTel:263-4-775545-6

Higher Education &TechnologyOld Mutual Center, HarareZimbabweTel: 702426

Chemical & Process Eng .DeptUniversity of Dar es -salamP.O Box 35131Dar es -salamTanzania

University of ZimbabweDept of Science & Maths EducationP.O Box MP 167Mt PleasantTel:303211-1491

UNESCO Nairobi OfficeP.O. Box 30592NairobiKenyaEmail:oseph.massaquoi@unesco.unon.org

Kenyatta UniversityP.O Box 43844,NairobiEmail:ecodynamic@insightkenya.com

MWINGIRA B.A.

NKUBA F.

OJIMELUKWE P.

OKHAMAFE A

ZENGENI C.

ZINANGA F.

Tanzania IndustrialR&D OrganisationP.O Box 23235Dar es SalaamTanzaniaTel: 255-2666034X255-2662338E-mail: tirdo@intafrica.com

cpct@udsm.ac.tz

Katani LimitedP.O Box 123TangaTanzaniaTel:255 0744 260263X255 027 2647237Fax:255 027 2642409

Dept of Food Science andTechnologyMichael Okpara University of AgricultureUmundike, Umuakia, Abia StateNigeriaTel: 234-42-254122

University of BeninFaculty of PharmacyPMB 1154, Benin City, NigeriaTel :+234-52 -600638,602257Fax :+234-52-602257E-Email:okhamaf e@uniben.edu

SIRDC800321X1574 Alpes RoadHatcliffe, HarareZimbabwe

Commutech286 Notrhway, DriveProspectHarareZimbabweTel 263-4-576108/576091

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