megalithic

Agricultural, Pastoral & Megalithic CulturesSaturday, February 4 2012, 7:35 PM

General Note on Common Features of Agricultural Pastoral Cultures of IndiaFactors Behind Beginning of Agriculture

One theory was that climate became drier which forced men, animals and plants to move close to the water sources which changed theirrelationships and produced agriculture and domestication.

1.

Another said that domestication was the outcome of experimentation by humans. But this is not acceptable since there are many tribes todaywhich know of agriculture but see no point in practicing it.

2.

One theory suggests that due to rising temperatures and rise in sea levels, the coastal people migrated inwards. This created an overpopulationstage and hence people took to agriculture. But its criticism is that there is no evidence of such a migration.

3.

The accepted theory is that as the weather became warmer, conditions conducive for growth of wild cereals spread. Hence wild cereals spreadand eventual domestication. And because wild cereals responded positively to domestication via enhanced productivity, agriculture one begun,continued to flourish.

4.

Earlier the theory was that agriculture moved from west Asia to NW to east but now evidences suggest that it developed locally. 5.

Community Life

The beginning of agriculture and sedentary life meant better living conditions and food, better child and mother care. Hence an increase inpopulation. This only made subsequent urbanization possible (another supporting argument for the neolithic revolution hypothesis). The surplusfood also led to the potential of exchange at a later time and thus led to secondary activities.

1.

The beginning of agriculture led to new requirements in tools, technologies, roles etc. Hence the division of labor in society would havechanged. The tools of this age are polished and the removal of rough edges must have increased their efficacy. The grass huts of mesolithic agebegan to give way to wattle and daub huts (constructed from the branches of trees and plastered with mud) and slowly these would have turnedinto mud brick structures.

2.

Women had been traditionally associated with food gathering. Hence it is possible earliest experiments in agriculture were made by women. Butthe association of men with agriculture would have truly revolutionized it. This age also saw a shift from kin labor to non kin labor who could bepaid for by the food surplus. Employing captives in agriculture is easier than employing them in pastoral activities (since they may run awaywith animals).

3.

There are evidences of specialized crafts from Mehrgarh, Ganeshwar, Kunjhun unlike the notion of subsistence level agriculture. This led togrowth of trade and commerce. Even a minimal specialization can give birth to exchange of goods.

4.

Many areas give evidence of segregation of settlement by occupation. This indicates emergence of some kind of collective community decisionmaking.

5.

The agriculture must have led to an increase in belief in fertility cult. Similarly, because women give birth, fertility came to be associated withwomen and hence mother goddesses were worshipped.

6.

The increase in the number of purposeful burials indicate a growing sophistication in religious philosophies. 7.

Phase 1: 7000 - 3000 BC

https://www.evernote.com/pub/crazyphoton/historyancient

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North WestPottery

The pottery was red, black on red ware. They made criss cross and geometric designs and birds and animals on their pottery (like Harappa). 1.

Crafts

Thousand of microliths found in initial period followed by neolithic tools like axes with wooden handles. Tools based on blade and celttechnologies have been found and bone tools as well.

1.


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Grinding stones, terracotta female figurines, shell and terracotta bangles, pieces of copper, worked ivory tusks etc. have been found. Fishing,precious stone working, terracotta working were important activities.

2.

Community Life

The burials were in open spaces between their houses. The bodies were placed in a bent position in ovalpits. Secondary burials have been found indicating liminal tradition and the bones were often covered in red ochre indicating fertility beliefs. InNal, fractional burials were found in pots. Some graves have a niche where grave goods were kept which was sealed with mud bricks.

1.

They were engaged in long distance trading since in the graves some precious stones have been found which could only come from Afghanistan/ Baluchistan (for lapis lazuli) and Iran / Central Asia (for turquoise). Similarly the similar pottery found in the region indicates interactionamong different people.

2.

Settlements

Mehrgarh, Kile Gul Muhammed, Siah Damb, Anjira, Mundigak, Rana Ghundai, Gumla. 1. They lived in houses of handmade mud bricks with small rectangular rooms. The bricks used were of standard size and used cooking hearths.2.

Agriculture

Irrigation was practiced in Rana Ghundai in Anambar Valley. In Nal, people built 2 kind of embankments. First was built along hill slopes toprevent the washing away of soil. Later crops were grown on the flattened surface. Second was where water was collected in low lying basins.This was diverted into fields.

1.

Granaries and grinding stones have been found. Wheat, barley and cotton (earliest producers of cotton in the world) were the main crops.2. Animals like goat, sheep, buffaloes, ram were domesticated.3.

Iron

No use of iron. Copper has been found.1.

Similarities with Harappa

Presence of embankments and granaries. Long distance trading of precious stone with Baluchistan, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Iran. 1. The black on red ware pottery which they designed with geometrical and animal designs.2. The terracotta figurines of mother goddess, shells, bangles, ivory work etc. The standard size bricks, the rectangular rooms in the houses.3.

Belan ValleyPottery

Red ware + black-and-red ware have been found.1. Some pots bear soot marks indicating they were used for cooking. 2.

Crafts

Tools were based on blade and celt technology and bone tools as well.1. Terracotta beads have been found. 2.

Settlements

Koldihva (Allahbad), Mahagara (Allahbad), Kunjhun, Lahuradeva. 1. Houses were made of mud brick and wattle and daub and had thatched roofs made of grass. 2.

Agriculture

Remains of rice have been found here (earliest producers of rice in the world ~ 6K BC) along with barley and pea.1. Animals like goat, sheep, buffalo, ram were domesticated. 2.

Iron

Not used.1.

Similarities to Harappa

None.1.

Phase 2: 3000 - 2000 BC


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Kashmir CulturePottery

Burzahom pottery was handmade, ill-fired and was in grey, red, brown and buff colors. Later, a lac burnished ware emerged and the distinctivepot was a long jar with flaring rim.

1.

Crafts

The stone and the bone tool industries were well developed. 1.


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Settlements

Burzahom, Gufkral, Ghaligai Caves (Swat Valley) were main centers.1. They lived in pit dwellings in the initial phase. These dwellings were mud plastered, narrow from top and wider from bottom, and had staircases.Later, they came out of the pits and covered it and used it as the hut floor. Huts were made of wattle doab.

2.

Community Life

From the initial periods, no burials have been found indicating people had some other means of disposing off dead. In later periods, dead beganto be buried under the house floor. Both inhumation and secondary burial was practiced. The grave goods were few but the animals including petdogs began to be buried with the deceased. Some wild animals were also buried in the grave.

1.

Hunting and fishing were chief activities. 2.

Agriculture

They cultivated wheat, barley and pea. Domesticated sheep, goat and dog.1.

Iron

No iron. A copper arrowhead has been found.1.


Evidences of some carnelian beads and depiction of a horned deity on a pottery have been taken as links with Harappan civilization.1.

Ganeshwar - Jodhpura CulturePottery

Pottery was wheel turned, poorly fired, red in color and with incised designs. Typical pots were dish on sand. 1.

Crafts

Copper smelting and weapon making were important and few copper weapons have been found. They also used microliths.1.

Settlements

Ganeshwar and Jodhpura in Rajasthan are the main sites.1. Houses were made of mud brick and had pebble floors.2.

Community Life

They were a hunting gathering community.1.


They used to supply copper items to early and mature Harappa phase as is evident from discovery of Harappan pottery from Ganeshwar. Otheritems too have been found from each other's sites.

1.

Kayatha Culture: 2200 - 2000 BCPottery

The typical pottery is wheel turned, with red color. Designs are painted in violet or deep red only on the upper part of the vessel. Linear designsare painted. Bowls, basins, jars etc. were typical pots.

1.

Crafts

Plenty of microliths made of chalcedony have bee found. 1. Copper axes and bangles have been found as well.2.

Settlements

Kayatha is the main site.1. No complete house plans were uncovered but houses were made of mud and reed with mud plastered floors.2.

Agriculture

They domesticated cattle and horses. 1. They used a mace head or ring stone to turn the soil for agriculture purposes.2.



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There are similarities in the pottery and steatite micro-beads. 1.

Savalda CulturePottery

The pottery is wheel turned, medium to coarse fabric, with thick slip and chocolate colored. Designs were geometric or natural. 1.

Crafts

Many bone tools or beads made of shell, teracotta etc. have been found. 1.

Settlements

Kaothe, Daimabad and Savalda are main sites. 1. Houses were round or oval with a sloping roof. 2.

Community Life

A phallus shaped object has been found at Daimabad.1.

Middle Gangetic ValleyPottery

The pottery was hand made, red or black ware and had ochre colored linear and geometric designs.1.

Crafts

Tools were made using blade and celt technology. Bone tools have also been found. 1. Bead making, terracotta figurines including humped bull, snakes and birds were important crafts.2.

Settlements

Chirand, Senaur, Sohgaura, Chech Kutubpur, Tardih are chief centers. 1. People lived in circular wattle and daub houses.2.

Agriculture

Rice was the main crop. Pulses like moong and masur were grown too. Wheat and barley grown and goat and sheep domesticated.1.

South IndiaPottery

The pottery was handmade and coarse. Sometimes a pre-firing designs were applied to it in red, black and brown and sometimes post firingdesigns were made in red ochre.

1.

Settlements

Ash mound sites are Utnur, Budhihal, Kodekal, Watgal. Evidences from Budhihal show that people lived near these cattle pens for long time aswell. Key areas are Raichur Doab (R. Krishna and R. Tungbhadra) and Shorapur Doab (R. Krishna and R. Bhima).

1.

Earliest neolithic sites here were located on the hilltops and plateaus. People practiced domestication and some agriculture on the hill bottoms.Second phase is that of use or red ware. In the third phase (~1500 BC), people moved down the hills and began to practice agriculture on a largescale.

2.

Community Life

Ash mounds are a distinctive feature. These mounds were crated by repeated burning of cow dung. The cattle were enclosed in a pen surroundedby heavy tree trunks. Their dung was burnt perhaps to mark a seasonal festival or beginning/end of migrations.

1.

Utnur shows evidences of the cattle pen being built and dung burnt repeatedly. 2.

Agriculture

Earliest evidences of betel nuts have been found from Watgal. Barley was the major crop while wheat and pea were also grown. Domesticationof cattle, goat and sheep was the main activity in this phase and agriculture only became important later.

1.


They used to trade with Harappa mainly on gold. 1.

Phase 3: 2000 BC onwards


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OCP PhasePottery

Pottery was ill-fired with fine to medium fabric, wheel turned and a thick red slip and designed in black. When rubbed, it leaves ochre color infingers.

1.

Some think it was a degenerate form of Harappan pottery while some think it was an independent tradition with only some influence fromHarappa. It is divided into the E and the W zone. The W zone (Ambakheri, Jhinjhana, Bargaon) shows links with Harappa tradition while the Ezone (Atiranjikhera, Ahichchatra, Saipai, Lal Qila) shows no such links.

2.

Crafts

Stone tools and bone tool making were important. Copper working, terracotta etc. were important as well. 1.

Settlements


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First finds were Bisauli and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnaur). At Hastinapur, Ahichchatra and Jhinjhana, OCP was followed by a break and then PGW. AtAtiranjikhera and Noh, OCP followed by Black and Red Ware (BRW) and then PGW. Bargaon and Ambakheri show an overlap between lateHarappa and OCP.

1.

Very few structural remains remain. Houses were made of wattle and daub and mud bricks. Only very rarely the burnt bricks were found. 2.

Agriculture

People grew 2 crops in an year. Rice in summers and barley or legumes in winters. 1.

Iron

No iron has been found.1.

Copper Hoards PhaseCrafts

Hunting was important as many objects used in hunting were found. Most of the items were copper indicating copper making was an importantcraft.

1.

The evidence from copper hoards suggests that around 2000 BC, upper Gangetic valley had emerged as a distinct copper manufacturing area. 2.

Settlements

Bithur, Gungeria (MP), Saipai (Itawah). Copper hoards have been found at over 90 sites from Bengal and Odisha to upper Gangetic Valley. Butmain concentrations are in UP doab region. Generally 1 - 50 items are found but in Gungeria 424 copper object and 102 silver objects werefound. In Saipai copper hoards were found in the context of OCP phase.

1.

Ahar Culture: 2000 - 1500 BCPottery

BRW with linear and dotted designs in white. 1.

Crafts

Copper smelting was an important craft. Beads of terracotta and precious stones were also made. Terracotta figurines including that of humpedbull were made.

1.

Iron implements have been found from later chalcolithic stages indicating earliest finds of iron in the sub-continent. 2.

Settlements

Ahar, Gilund and Balathal are the main sites. This was a chalcolithic culture. 1. Houses were made of mud, wood etc. and had stone foundations. burnt bricks have been found in Gilund.2.

Community Life

Evidences of a mud fortification wall with bastions have been found in Balathal. 1. They used to export their copper implements to Deccan, Malwa and other communities.2.

Agriculture

They cultivated wheat, barley and legumes.1.

Iron

Evidences of iron implements have been found from 1800 BC layers but some scholars argue that these are the disturbed layers. If they aregenuine these could be the earliest iron finds in the sub-continent.

1.


Its pottery was black-and-red ware with linear and dotted designs in white. 1. Burnt bricks have been found in Gilund.2. Terracotta humped bulls and other animals have been found. 3.

Eastern IndiaPottery

Pottery was BRW and painted in white. In the regions of Odisha like Kuchai and Golabai Sasan it was red ware.1.

Crafts

Bronze made here had high proportion of tin in the Pandu rajar Dhibi, Bahiri, Mahisadal, Mahasthan, Chandraketugarh, Mangalkot region.1.


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Terracotta was another major industry.

Settlements

Chirand, Senaur, Barudih, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahisadal, Mahasthan, Mangalkot, Chandraketugarh, Kuchai, Golbai Sasan. 1.

Agriculture

These areas constituted early independent centers of rice cultivation. They also practiced wet paddy cultivation.1.

Iron

Chirand shows many iron objects around around 1000 BC. Barudih too shows many objects including a sickle around 900 BC. In the sitesof Pandu rajar Dhibi, Mahisadal, Mahasthan, Chandraketugarh, Mangalkot we find evidences of iron in the 1st millennium BC.

1.

Malwa Culture: 1600 - 1300 BCPottery

BRW. In the Malwa region, pottery was coarse. In the Deccan, the pottery was of fine fabric. Human, animal, plant and geometric designs madein black or brown, usually just on the upper part of the pot.

1.

Crafts

More items of stone than copper have been found indicating copper was scarce.1. Beads of steatite, terracotta and semi-precious stones were made. Terracotta figurines was an important craft. 2.

Settlements

Navdatoli, Maheshwar, Eran, Chandoli, Nevasa, Kaothe, Daimabad , Inamgaon, Prakash. 1. Houses were circular made of wattle and daub with post holes. There was little planning and houses were haphazard. 2.

Agriculture

Navdatoli cultivated largest variety of crops. It cultivated wheat, masur, black gram, peas, green gram, rice. Barley was the main crop. 1. System of crop rotation and embankments was found. 2.

Community Life

At Navdatoli, a pit was dug in the floor of a house with wooden post holes. This is taken to be a fire altar used for performing sacrifices. A hugestorage jar was found with a woman, a lizard / alligator and a shrine between them on one side and a tortoise on other has been found indicatinganimal worship. Tortoise shaped shells were also found. They also used to worship bulls, snakes, trees, goddesses. A proto-Rudra type figurinehas been found from Navdatoli.

1.

Sometimes the legs of the dead were cut-off before burial.2. Mud fortifications of the towns indicates preventive measures from animals and also collective labor.3. Tools have been fairly distributed indicating each household made its own tools indicating a certain degree of equality in society.4. There was specialization of labor indicated by a coppersmith's workshop.5. The fire altars indicate presence of rituals. Female and humped bull figurines have been discovered. 6.

Links with Harappa

Beads of carnelian and lapis lazuli are found here indicating links with Harappa.1. A rhino, buffalo, elephant (each on wheels) have been found in Daimabad indicating links with Harappa.2.

Neolithic - Chalcolithic Sites of South India (2000 - 900 BC)Pottery

BRW.1.

Crafts

Gold objects have been found @ Tekkalkota. Shell making, bead making, terracotta were major industries.1.

Community Life

The thickness of their debris is very less indicating they moved from places to places.1. They were aware of horses as well for in Jaunapani (Maharashtra) we find evidence of horses. 2.

Megalithic Burials

Attempts have been made to link megaliths to a distinct culture. But they obviously represent too much heterogeneity to be from the same1.


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culture. It was also attempted given their knowledge of horse that they were Aryans who had settled in peninsula. But this is also not supportedby evidence.In Vindhyan region, heaps of stones (simple cairns) have been found. In areas of TN, they practiced urn-burial. They wouldput the skeleton in an urn along with only a few grave goods without any cairn circles. In the Krishna - Godavari region, they practiced pit orcyst burial and not the urn burial. Here the grave had multiple grave goods and was surrounded by stones. Other burial types were menhir,dolmen, flat stone supported on top of 2 other.

2.

Grave good were primarily BRW pottery and iron artefacts (like hoes and sickles, weapons). It can be speculated if these were ritual items orthose of daily use by the dead and if the burials were marked for ancestor worship.

3.

The uniformity and specialization of the iron artefacts and the presence of horse indicates that these artefacts were manufactured by specializedcraftsmen and there was a trade network.

4.

Some sites have also yielded Roman coins.5.

Settlements

Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Watgal, Hallur, Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota. 1. The first stage of neolithic life in S India was the ash mound sites (3000 - 2000 BC). In the beginning of the second stage now, they used to liveon granite hill tops in wattle and daub houses. Tools were still mostly made of stone. In the third stage we find that though the stone toolscontinue, there is an increase in the number of copper and bronze tools.

2.

Agriculture

They were mainly pastoral as indicated by numerous cattle bones found with cut marks, humped cattle figurines and cattle dominance in the rockpaintings of Mask and Kupugal. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat. They also cultivated wheat, barley and peas.

1.

Jorwe Culture: 1400 - 1000 BCPottery

Pottery was wheel turned, well fired, fine fabric, black-on-red / black-on-orange with geometric designs. Spouted pots with flaring mouths,bowls and high necked jars were made.

1.

Crafts

Ornaments, copper, terracotta, stone, beads were important. Stone, copper, bronze etc. were used by them to make toys, tools and implements.From Daimabad we have found a copper hoard with a rhino, an elephant, a buffalo and a chariot.

1.

Community Life

There was specialization of labor indicated by findings of specialists' houses.1. There was a ranked society indicated by segregation of housing based on occupation, grave goods, chief's house in Inamgaon.2. There were fire altars, rituals involving mother goddess figurines, one structure with approach paths plastered with cow dung and collection ofpots containing offerings. Large number of female figurines have been recovered including one which could be made to sit on a bull. They weremostly unbaked and buried under the house floor.

3.

There was a political authority indicated by chief's house, stone embankment, irrigation channels, elaborate burials in the chief's house.4. They used to cut off the legs of the dead (in Nevasa). Many urn burials have been found as well. 5. The importance of mother goddess indicates a matriarchal society. Male gods were rare and we find only 3 male figurines from Inamgaon. Butthe opposite view is that these figurines are headless. A matriarchal society would not appreciate a headless figurine even for ritual. Black markshave been found in front of the images indicating rituals to please the deity.

6.

Settlements

Prakash, Inamgaon, Daimabad, Jorwe, Nevasa, Chandoli, Songaon. 1. There was a settlement hierarchy with some large settlements in a region, some more medium and more small / temporary. Daimabad andInamgaon were proto urban. It was the slow emergence of agricultural surplus in such cultures which led to second urbanization in India.

2.

The houses were laid down in a row in Inamgaon indicating planning and specialization of labor and emergence of a class based society. Theywere mud houses with post holes and conical roofs. There were small houses and big houses.

3.

There were mud fortifications, granaries, stone embankments and irrigation channels indicating political authority. 4.

Agriculture

Barley was the main crop given dry climate. Apart from that wheat and masur were grown as well. Animals domesticated were cattle, goat,sheep and dog. They also practiced hunting and fishing.

1.

Evidences of embankments have been found in Inamgaon. Similarly evidences of crop rotation found too from Inamgaon. 2.

PGW Culture


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Crafts

Most artefacts found seem to be connected to war or hunting like arrowheads, spearheads, blades, daggers, lances. There are few industrialimplements only which increase as time progresses. @ Jakhera we get evidence of sickle, ploughshare and hoe in the mature PGW phase. Thisindicates that iron industry had developed by the mature PGW phase.

1.

Settlements


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Some PGW sites like Ropar and Sanghol in Punjab, Alamgirpur and Hulas in UP show a break between the preceding late Harappan and thePGW phases. Some like Bhagwanpura, Dadheri in Punjab show an overlap between PGW and the late Harappan phases. Moving lower and eastwe see that sites like Hastinapur and Ahichchatra were preceded by OCP phase (and not late Harappan) with a break in between. AtAtiranjikhera and Noh and Jodhpura in Rajasthan we PGW succeeding BRW with a break in between.

1.

Agriculture

PGW sites indicate a subsistence base which included cultivation of rice, wheat and barley. Animal husbandry and fishing were practiced aswell.

1.

There is no direct evidence of agricultural facilities but a few deep circular pits outside the habitation area @ Atiranjikhera are indicative ofkuchcha wells.

2.

Iron

The rigvedic PGW sites in the Ghagghar - Hakra region (like Bhagwanpura) don't show evidence of iron. Elsewhere in sites like Jakhera, Nohand Kaushambi we find iron in pre-PGW phase itself. In the doab region (which was settled in the later vedic age), PGW sites yield iron.

1.

Development of States in S India

Initially they couldn't clear the forests on the plains. Their life was primarily pastoral and frequent cattle raids happened. Hunting and fishingwere other occupations.

1.

Sangam texts speak of perpetual wars and cattle raids. This indicates the community had not yet settled down, was nomadic and tribal incharacter and war booty formed important source of livelihood.

2.

They believed that heroes turn to stones on the death, hence the tradition of hero3. But around 3 cent BC they were able to do so and moved to the fertile plains.4. Here they came in contact with the material culture of Mauryas. The Dakshinapatha played an important role as not only did it facilitate themovement of monks, bahamans etc. but also facilitated trade with the Mauryas. Asokan monks carrying the message of dhamma had theirinfluence.

5.

The early Northern influence was mainly from the heterodox sects. Brahmanism began to spread really from 4 cent AD.6. Trade with North and with Romans contributed in a big way to the development of the S states. 7.

Development of Iron Industry


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Debate

Some scholars believed that iron was introduced in India by immigrating tribes form W Asia and dated beginning of iron age in India to around700 - 800 BC. This was based on evidence from Vedas which show familiarity with iron and its use in agricultural operations around 1000 - 500BC.

1.

However since 1950s, a series of archaeological finds at Atiranjikhera, Jakhera, Nagda, Eran helped push it back to the second millenniumBCE. More archaeological evidence was found from Komaranhalli (1200 BC) that the smiths of this site could deal with large implements,implying that they had already been experimenting for centuries. But it was disputed. Similarly iron evidence was found at Ahar but wasdisputed.

2.

It must, however, be noted that the beginning of iron age is not the same as beginning of iron technology (for obvious reasons). One of thereasons for embracing irons could be its superiority over copper as well as scarcity of copper in India.

3.

PGW Sites

The rigvedic PGW sites in the Ghagghar - Hakra region (like Bhagwanpura) don't show evidence of iron. Elsewhere in sites like Jakhera, Noh1.


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and Kaushambi we find iron in pre-PGW (i.e. BRW) phase itself. In the doab region (which was settled in the later vedic age), PGW sites yieldiron.

S India - Early Iron Sites

Subsequently finds at Veerapuram, Ramapuram and Adam help establish the iron beginnings to 2nd millennium BC. Earlier based on Hallur(1000 BC) and Watgal, the use of iron was dated close to beginning of 1st millennium BC.

1.

Use of iron remain limited mainly to weapons and thus it had limited impact only (if any) on agriculture. 2.

Middle Gangetic Valley - Recent Early Iron Sites

Dadupur, Malhar (Chandauli), Raja Nal Ka Tila (Sonbhadra) and Lahuradewa (Sant Kabir Nagar) all show iron findings date back to early partof 2nd millennium BC. The pottery of these regions was BRW and red ware. In terms of artefacts, arrowhead, knives, nails were maincomponents. A ploughshare was also found @ Malhar and evidence points to date of 1800 BC.

1.

These findings confirm that iron working was prevalent in the middle gangetic valley from the early second millennium BCE. 2. The beginning of the use of iron was earlier associated with the eastward migration of the later Vedic people, who are also considered as anagency which revolutionized material culture particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The new finds and their dates suggest that a freshreview is needed.

3.

Eastern India

Sites from Mahasthan, Mangalkot, Mahisadal, Chandraketugarh and Pandu Rajar Dhibi all give high tin content bronze from 2nd millennium BCand by 1st millennium BC we can see iron implements here. Similarly Chirand too shows iron implements from around 800 BC.

1.

Deccan

The Jorwe and Malwa culture sites in Deccan show desertion for 4 - 5 centuries after the decline of Jorwe culture and then reoccupation around4 - 5 cent BC and iron. Iron implements found are mainly of warlike character.

1.

Nagda and Eran were major early iron sites. Mahurjhari was also an important site.2.

Impact of Iron Technology

Thus we see that by 5 cent BC iron had come to be used throughout the country. DD Kosambi had suggested that the eastern movement ofAryans was to reach the iron ores of Jharkhand and it was a near monopoly over these ores which was responsible for the successful Magadhanimperialism. But given the wide distribution of iron ore through the country this hypothesis is untenable. Moreover the iron used in sites likeAtiranjikhera was not smelted from the Jharkhand ore but the nearby ore only.

1.

Similarly the argument that iron was responsible for the large scale cutting of forest and expansion of Aryans is also not tenable as most of theclearings were done by fire and we know that iron axes had not come into widespread use by then.

2.

Similarly the argument that iron was responsible for agricultural surplus and emergence of towns is also not tenable as use of iron in agriculturaltechnology became widespread only in mauryan times.

3.


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megalithic

Documents

beginning of agriculture

produced agriculture

kin labor

pastoral activities

accepted theory

growth of wild cereals

community life

division of labor