MEMORYMEMORY

Take a minute to list all the things Take a minute to list all the things that our memory is useful for.that our memory is useful for.

Now think about all the things that Now think about all the things that we wouldn’t be able to do if we did we wouldn’t be able to do if we did not have our memory. not have our memory.

-tying shoelaces-tying shoelaces-remembering faces-remembering faces-no friends-no friends-no self-concept-no self-concept-no personal identity-no personal identity

Human memory is not a single organ.Human memory is not a single organ.

Technically we do not actually have a Technically we do not actually have a memory- we have different memory memory- we have different memory systems. systems.

Memory consists of a collection of Memory consists of a collection of complex interconnected systems, each complex interconnected systems, each of which serves a different purpose and of which serves a different purpose and operates in a very different way. operates in a very different way.

Despite these differences, all memory Despite these differences, all memory systems have some functions in common-systems have some functions in common-they each receive, process and store they each receive, process and store information for future use. information for future use.

When we receive sensory information the When we receive sensory information the brain must select what information will be brain must select what information will be attended to, processed and stored in the attended to, processed and stored in the various memory systems and what will be various memory systems and what will be eliminated and therefore not stored in eliminated and therefore not stored in memory. If this process did not occur our memory. If this process did not occur our memory systems would be overloaded memory systems would be overloaded with unimportant information. with unimportant information.

In terms of people who are said to have In terms of people who are said to have “lost” their memory- this is generally a “lost” their memory- this is generally a reference to a situation where one or more reference to a situation where one or more memory systems have malfunctioned. memory systems have malfunctioned.

To have no memory at all you would To have no memory at all you would probably be unconscious or dead. probably be unconscious or dead.

MEMORY AS AN INFORMATION MEMORY AS AN INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEMPROCESSING SYSTEM

Most psychologists view Most psychologists view memorymemory as an as an active information-processing system that active information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers receives, organises, stores and recovers information.information.

This description compares memory to a This description compares memory to a computer in terms of the way information is computer in terms of the way information is processed. processed.

Like a computer, memory does not passively Like a computer, memory does not passively receive and store new information. receive and store new information.

Instead, it actively alters and organises incoming Instead, it actively alters and organises incoming information so that it can be stored in a way that is information so that it can be stored in a way that is relatively easily retrieved.relatively easily retrieved.

Memory and a computer are also comparable in Memory and a computer are also comparable in the way that they each deal with information in a the way that they each deal with information in a sequence involving three key processes: sequence involving three key processes: encodingencoding, , or conversion of information into a useable form; its or conversion of information into a useable form; its storagestorage or retention after being encoded; and its or retention after being encoded; and its recovery or recovery or retrievalretrieval when needed. when needed.

ENCODINGENCODING Information that is received and stored in Information that is received and stored in

memory must be converted from its raw sensory memory must be converted from its raw sensory state to a form that the brain can process and state to a form that the brain can process and use.use.

New information must also be placed, or New information must also be placed, or represented, in some form- sound, visual image, represented, in some form- sound, visual image, touch or meaning- in the memory system. touch or meaning- in the memory system.

The entire process of converting information into The entire process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in a useable form or code that can be stored in memory is called memory is called encoding.encoding.

STORAGESTORAGE

Next, information must be retained by the Next, information must be retained by the information-processing system. information-processing system.

Storage Storage is the retention of information over time. is the retention of information over time.

Personal computers usually store information on Personal computers usually store information on a hard drive, whereas human memory stores a hard drive, whereas human memory stores information in the brain. information in the brain.

RETRIEVALRETRIEVAL

Finally, the information is retrieved, or located Finally, the information is retrieved, or located and taken out of storage when it is needed. and taken out of storage when it is needed.

Retrieval Retrieval is the process of locating and is the process of locating and recovering the stored information from recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of memory so that we are consciously aware of it. it.

The retrieval of some information is very The retrieval of some information is very easy and quick, such as your name or birth easy and quick, such as your name or birth date. date.

Other information is harder to retrieve such Other information is harder to retrieve such as something you learnt in year 7 science. as something you learnt in year 7 science.

In these instances we often rely on In these instances we often rely on cuescues to to retrieve information that has been stored in retrieve information that has been stored in memory. memory.

Copy out this diagramCopy out this diagram

MEASURES OF RETENTIONMEASURES OF RETENTION

What methods do we use to test what has been What methods do we use to test what has been retained in memory?retained in memory?

Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is your performance on a test or exam a reliable your performance on a test or exam a reliable measure of how much information you have measure of how much information you have retained in memory?retained in memory?

There are different types of questions teachers There are different types of questions teachers ask, including multiple-choice questions, ask, including multiple-choice questions, true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer, and essay questions. answer, and essay questions.

Research shows that the amount of information Research shows that the amount of information that will be retrieved from memory is, at least that will be retrieved from memory is, at least partly, dependent on the type of question asked. partly, dependent on the type of question asked.

There are three main kinds of measures that are There are three main kinds of measures that are used to determine how much information has used to determine how much information has been retained: been retained: recall, recognition recall, recognition and and relearning. relearning.

RECALLRECALL

What are the names of the 7 dwarfs?What are the names of the 7 dwarfs?

In order to answer this question, you would have In order to answer this question, you would have searched through your long-term memory, tried to searched through your long-term memory, tried to locate the information required, and either have locate the information required, and either have

produced or not produced the correct information.produced or not produced the correct information.

RECALLRECALL

This approach to measuring the amount of This approach to measuring the amount of information retained in memory is a test of information retained in memory is a test of recall. recall.

Recall Recall involves being asked to reproduce involves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval.to assist retrieval.

In an experiment used to measure recall as a In an experiment used to measure recall as a measure of retention, participants might be measure of retention, participants might be required to learn a list of randomly selected required to learn a list of randomly selected words. Then, after a period of time, they may be words. Then, after a period of time, they may be required to write, in any order, as many of the required to write, in any order, as many of the words off the list as they can. words off the list as they can.

This method is called This method is called free recall.free recall. Free recall is Free recall is involved when participants are only asked to involved when participants are only asked to remember as much information as possible, in no remember as much information as possible, in no particular order. particular order.

If participants were asked to recall a list of words If participants were asked to recall a list of words in the order in which they were presented, in the order in which they were presented, researchers would be asking for researchers would be asking for serial recallserial recall. .

Sometimes the general cue we are provided with Sometimes the general cue we are provided with to search information in our long-term memory is to search information in our long-term memory is too general and the list of possible matches is too general and the list of possible matches is too long. too long.

Cued recall Cued recall makes use of specific cues to aid makes use of specific cues to aid retrieval. For example; being given the first letter retrieval. For example; being given the first letter of each of the 7 dwarfs names. of each of the 7 dwarfs names.

RECOGNITIONRECOGNITION

Which of the following are the names of Which of the following are the names of the 7 dwarfs?the 7 dwarfs?

-Bashful-Bashful -Goofy-Goofy

-Happy-Happy -Dopey-Dopey

-Grumpy-Grumpy -Sneezy-Sneezy

-Pop-Pop -Doc-Doc

-Sleepy-Sleepy -Grouchy-Grouchy

RECOGNITIONRECOGNITION

Recognition Recognition involves identifying the correct involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives, such as in the information from among alternatives, such as in the previous question. previous question.

Generally we can retrieve more information when Generally we can retrieve more information when tested by the recognition method than we can with tested by the recognition method than we can with the recall method because the recognition method the recall method because the recognition method provides more cues that assist in the location and provides more cues that assist in the location and retrieval of information from long-term memory.retrieval of information from long-term memory.

In an exam situation, students typically In an exam situation, students typically prefer M/C questions or true/false prefer M/C questions or true/false questions to an essay or short answer questions to an essay or short answer questions. questions.

M/C and true/false questions involve M/C and true/false questions involve recognising the correct response from recognising the correct response from among a small number of alternatives, among a small number of alternatives, whereas essay question require recall, whereas essay question require recall, where there are very few cues. where there are very few cues.

RELEARNINGRELEARNING Most people have times when they are unable to Most people have times when they are unable to

recall or to recognise information that has been recall or to recognise information that has been stored in long-term memory. stored in long-term memory.

Even though they are unable to retrieve this Even though they are unable to retrieve this information, it does not necessarily mean that it information, it does not necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. has been forgotten.

Relearning Relearning or the or the method of savings, method of savings, involves involves learning information again that has been learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long-term previously learned and stored in long-term memory. memory.

If information is learned more quickly the If information is learned more quickly the second time it is assumed that there must second time it is assumed that there must be some information retained from the first be some information retained from the first learning experience, whether we realise it learning experience, whether we realise it or not. or not.

HERMANN EBBINGHAUSHERMANN EBBINGHAUS

Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in memory research instead of words so that retention is memory research instead of words so that retention is not affected by the words having some sort of meaning not affected by the words having some sort of meaning or association with words already stored in memory. or association with words already stored in memory. When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he had learned, he found that even if he could not had learned, he found that even if he could not remember a single item from the original list, he could remember a single item from the original list, he could relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had been able to with the original list. This indicated that been able to with the original list. This indicated that some information had been retained from the initial some information had been retained from the initial learning.learning.

This is also called the method of savings This is also called the method of savings because it can be calculated using the because it can be calculated using the following formula. following formula.

Savings = Savings = (no. of trials for original learning) – (no. of trials for relearning) (no. of trials for original learning) – (no. of trials for relearning) x x 100100(no. of trials for original learning)(no. of trials for original learning) 1 1

Eg. Eg. 10 – 510 – 5 x x 100 100 = 50% = 50% 10 110 1

A savings score can also be calculated on the A savings score can also be calculated on the basis of the time taken to relearn information.basis of the time taken to relearn information.

Savings = Savings = (time taken for original learning) – (time for relearning)(time taken for original learning) – (time for relearning) x x 100100(time for original learning)(time for original learning) 1 1

RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF MEASURES OF RETENTIONMEASURES OF RETENTION

Recall, recognition and relearning differ in Recall, recognition and relearning differ in their relative sensitivity as measures of their relative sensitivity as measures of retention. The retention. The sensitivitysensitivity of a measure of of a measure of retention refers to its ability to assess the retention refers to its ability to assess the amount of information that has been amount of information that has been stored in memory. stored in memory.

Recall tends to be the least sensitive Recall tends to be the least sensitive measure of retention, relearning tends to measure of retention, relearning tends to be the most sensitive measure of be the most sensitive measure of retention, and recognition tends to be less retention, and recognition tends to be less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall. sensitive than recall.

In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of retention, 24 university students were used as retention, 24 university students were used as participants. participants.

The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition of the initial learning were tested and finally a of the initial learning were tested and finally a relearning stage. relearning stage.

In the first stage, participants were given a series of In the first stage, participants were given a series of number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95-number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95-horse. horse.

The second stage of the experiment required the The second stage of the experiment required the participants to participate in the testing and relearning participants to participate in the testing and relearning stages of the experiment. stages of the experiment.

In the testing stage, participants were required to In the testing stage, participants were required to complete two different types of tests. The first was a test complete two different types of tests. The first was a test of recall where the participants were given the original of recall where the participants were given the original number as a cue and were asked to provide the number as a cue and were asked to provide the association word that went with it. The second test was association word that went with it. The second test was similar but required the participants to name the similar but required the participants to name the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated words. The third stage of the experiment involved words. The third stage of the experiment involved relearning the words from the previous list which had relearning the words from the previous list which had been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They were then given a recall test on both the new information were then given a recall test on both the new information and the old information. and the old information.

The results showed that a mean score of The results showed that a mean score of 48% of the target words were correctly 48% of the target words were correctly recalled, recalled, and 69% were correctly and 69% were correctly recognised recognised in the testing. Furthermore the in the testing. Furthermore the percentage of target words correctly percentage of target words correctly recalled during the relearning stage was recalled during the relearning stage was significantly higher for the old items (88%) significantly higher for the old items (88%) than for new items. than for new items.

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STAGES OF MEMORYSTAGES OF MEMORY

The The Atkinson-Shiffrin modelAtkinson-Shiffrin model (named after two (named after two psychologists) describes human memory as consisting of psychologists) describes human memory as consisting of three distinguishable kinds of memory, with each one three distinguishable kinds of memory, with each one representing a stage through which information passes in a representing a stage through which information passes in a sequential way. sequential way.

-Sensory memory-Sensory memory

-Short-term memory-Short-term memory

-Long-term memory-Long-term memory

Although these three memory systems are Although these three memory systems are viewed as separate sub-systems of memory, viewed as separate sub-systems of memory, they each operate simultaneously and interact in they each operate simultaneously and interact in many ways. many ways.

Within each stage of memory, information Within each stage of memory, information processing involves encoding, storage and processing involves encoding, storage and retrieval of information. retrieval of information.

According to this model, when information is According to this model, when information is received from the environment, it passes from received from the environment, it passes from sensory memory to short-term memory and then sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory. to long-term memory.

Each stage of memory differs in terms of its Each stage of memory differs in terms of its functionfunction (the role it plays), its (the role it plays), its capacitycapacity (the (the amount of information it can hold at any given amount of information it can hold at any given moment) and its moment) and its durationduration (the length of time it (the length of time it can hold information).can hold information).

Sensory memorySensory memory is the entry point for new is the entry point for new information into the memory system. information into the memory system.

Anything that is not attended to in sensory Anything that is not attended to in sensory memory is then lost. memory is then lost.

If the information is attended to it is then If the information is attended to it is then passed on to short-term memory where it is passed on to short-term memory where it is stored for up to 20 seconds. stored for up to 20 seconds.

If an effort is made to retain this information it If an effort is made to retain this information it is then transferred to long-term memory, if not is then transferred to long-term memory, if not it is lost. it is lost.

SENSORY MEMORYSENSORY MEMORY

Sensory memorySensory memory is the entry point of memory-the is the entry point of memory-the initial stage of the memory system in which all of the initial stage of the memory system in which all of the stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original sensory form (not encoded) for a very brief original sensory form (not encoded) for a very brief time.time.

It is assumed to be unlimited in capacity. It is assumed to be unlimited in capacity.

An important function of sensory memory is that it An important function of sensory memory is that it stores sensory impressions long enough for them to stores sensory impressions long enough for them to slightly overlap one another. slightly overlap one another.

This means that we see the world as continuous and This means that we see the world as continuous and not as a series of disconnected visual images or not as a series of disconnected visual images or sounds. sounds.

Sensory information remains in sensory memory just Sensory information remains in sensory memory just long enough for it to be attended to and selected to long enough for it to be attended to and selected to be transferred to short-term memory (STM). be transferred to short-term memory (STM).

We are not consciously aware of the majority of We are not consciously aware of the majority of information that enters our sensory memory. information that enters our sensory memory.

However when we direct our attention to it in order to However when we direct our attention to it in order to store it in STM we become consciously aware of it. store it in STM we become consciously aware of it.

Incoming sensory information is stored in separate Incoming sensory information is stored in separate sub-systems called sub-systems called sensory registerssensory registers and it is and it is believed that there is a separate sensory register for believed that there is a separate sensory register for each of the senses. each of the senses.

ICONIC MEMORYICONIC MEMORY

Iconic MemoryIconic Memory is the name given to visual sensory is the name given to visual sensory memory, or the memory of visual sensory information.memory, or the memory of visual sensory information.

Visual images in their original sensory form are usually Visual images in their original sensory form are usually retained in iconic memory for one-third of a second. retained in iconic memory for one-third of a second.

Sperling’s experiment.Sperling’s experiment.

PHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORYPHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORY

Some people are able to remember highly detailed scenes as Some people are able to remember highly detailed scenes as if the actual event were occurring before them. if the actual event were occurring before them.

These people are said to have These people are said to have eidetic memoryeidetic memory. These . These memories are said to be an exact replica of a visual image memories are said to be an exact replica of a visual image that persists over time without distortion.that persists over time without distortion.

These can last sometimes for days or weeks. These can last sometimes for days or weeks.

View this image for 30 seconds and then answer the View this image for 30 seconds and then answer the following questions. following questions.

1.1. How many bows are on the girls apron?How many bows are on the girls apron?

2.2. Is the hemline of the girl’s dress above or Is the hemline of the girl’s dress above or below her knees?below her knees?

3.3. How many flowers are in bloom on the taller How many flowers are in bloom on the taller plant?plant?

4.4. How many whiskers are there on the cat in the How many whiskers are there on the cat in the tree?tree?

5.5. How many stripes are on the cat’s tail?How many stripes are on the cat’s tail?

6.6. What is the girl wearing in her hair?What is the girl wearing in her hair?

ECHOIC MEMORYECHOIC MEMORY

Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory is the name given to is the name given to auditory sensory information, or the auditory sensory information, or the memory of auditory sensory information. memory of auditory sensory information.

It is called echoic memory because the It is called echoic memory because the sounds linger in it like an echo. sounds linger in it like an echo.

The main difference between iconic and echoic The main difference between iconic and echoic memory is the duration of time that they are able to memory is the duration of time that they are able to

hold on to information. hold on to information.

Iconic (visual) MemoryIconic (visual) Memory About 0.2-0.4 secondsAbout 0.2-0.4 seconds

Echoic (auditory) Echoic (auditory) MemoryMemory

About 3-4 secondsAbout 3-4 seconds

The availability of this information for 3-4 The availability of this information for 3-4 seconds is generally long enough to select seconds is generally long enough to select what has been heard for further processing what has been heard for further processing and interpretation before the sound and interpretation before the sound disappears completely. disappears completely.

Auditory information must also be held for Auditory information must also be held for long enough for all parts of speech within a long enough for all parts of speech within a list of words to be identified. list of words to be identified.

SHORT-TERM MEMORYSHORT-TERM MEMORY

Short-term memory (STM) Short-term memory (STM) is a memory system is a memory system with a limited storage capacity in which with a limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short period information is stored for a relatively short period of time (unless renewed in some way). of time (unless renewed in some way).

STM stores information temporarily but for a STM stores information temporarily but for a longer time than sensory memory.longer time than sensory memory.

Generally items in STM can be retained fairly Generally items in STM can be retained fairly well for the first few seconds. well for the first few seconds.

After 12 seconds, recall begins to decline and After 12 seconds, recall begins to decline and by about 18 seconds almost all of the by about 18 seconds almost all of the information disappears entirely if it has not information disappears entirely if it has not been renewed in some way. been renewed in some way.

Information can be renewed in STM and Information can be renewed in STM and retained for longer through use or by retained for longer through use or by constantly repeating it. constantly repeating it.

STM AS WORKING MEMORYSTM AS WORKING MEMORY

Many psychologists prefer to use the term Many psychologists prefer to use the term working memoryworking memory rather than STM. rather than STM.

Working memory is the active part of Working memory is the active part of memory where information you are memory where information you are consciously aware of is actively ‘worked’ consciously aware of is actively ‘worked’ on. on.

Working memory works on information from sensory Working memory works on information from sensory memory and LTM. memory and LTM.

Information from sensory memory is processed in Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is extracted from LTM working memory and information is extracted from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory.to be used and manipulated in working memory.

- ImaginingImagining- Problem-solvingProblem-solving- AnalysingAnalysing- ReasoningReasoning- ComprehendingComprehending- PlanningPlanning

all involve working memory. all involve working memory.

Psychologist Allan Baddeley proposed that working Psychologist Allan Baddeley proposed that working memory consists of three sub-systems. memory consists of three sub-systems.

- One system for verbal memoryOne system for verbal memory- Another for visual informationAnother for visual information- And a central executive that processes the And a central executive that processes the

information from the other two sub-systems. information from the other two sub-systems.

Verbal working memoryVerbal working memory (also called (also called phonological phonological looploop) stores a limited number of sounds ) stores a limited number of sounds (phonemes), such as words, for a short period of (phonemes), such as words, for a short period of time. time.

Baddeley argued Baddeley argued that the longer it that the longer it takes to takes to pronounce each pronounce each word impacts on word impacts on the amount of the amount of information you information you can retain in can retain in short-term short-term memory. memory.

BurmaBurma SwitzerlandSwitzerland

GreeceGreece NicaraguaNicaragua

TibetTibet AfghanistanAfghanistan

IcelandIceland VenezuelaVenezuela

MaltaMalta PhilippinesPhilippines

LaosLaos MadagascarMadagascar

Visual working memoryVisual working memory (also called the (also called the visuospatial sketchpad) temporarily stores visual visuospatial sketchpad) temporarily stores visual information, such as the location and nature of information, such as the location and nature of objects in the environment. objects in the environment.

The The central executivecentral executive integrates information from integrates information from the verbal and visual storage systems, as well as the verbal and visual storage systems, as well as information received from long-term memory.information received from long-term memory.

It works on the information from the other two sub-It works on the information from the other two sub-systems. systems.

The central executive has a role in:The central executive has a role in:- Calculating mental arithmetic tasksCalculating mental arithmetic tasks- Decision makingDecision making- Analysing an image of modern artAnalysing an image of modern art- Planning strategiesPlanning strategies- Coordination of behaviourCoordination of behaviour- SuppressingSuppressing (holding back) irrelevant information (holding back) irrelevant information

from our conscious thinkingfrom our conscious thinking- Helps decide what to do and what not to do nextHelps decide what to do and what not to do next

Does not store information.Does not store information.

DURATION OF STMDURATION OF STM

Information can be kept in STM for longer Information can be kept in STM for longer than the usual maximum of 18-20 seconds than the usual maximum of 18-20 seconds by by maintenance rehearsal.maintenance rehearsal.

CAPACITY OF STMCAPACITY OF STM

Compared to sensory memory and long-term Compared to sensory memory and long-term memory, STM is very limited in storage capacity. memory, STM is very limited in storage capacity.

If you have an average storage capacity you should If you have an average storage capacity you should be able to recall around seven numbers in a row. If be able to recall around seven numbers in a row. If you were given eleven numbers this would not be you were given eleven numbers this would not be quite as easy. quite as easy.

The limited capacity of seven bits of information in The limited capacity of seven bits of information in short-term memory was first described by George short-term memory was first described by George Miller in 1956.Miller in 1956.

Millers research indicated that STM has a Millers research indicated that STM has a capacity of holding between five and nine capacity of holding between five and nine units of information at any one time. units of information at any one time.

7 7 ++ 2 2

Rarely are we able to hold any more than 7 Rarely are we able to hold any more than 7 ++ 2 pieces of information in STM regardless of 2 pieces of information in STM regardless of what type of information it is. what type of information it is.

Information stored in STM is lost primarily Information stored in STM is lost primarily through through decaydecay (not being used) and (not being used) and displacementdisplacement (being pushed out) by new (being pushed out) by new information. information.

Chunking InformationChunking Information

We can get around the limited capacity of long-term We can get around the limited capacity of long-term memory. memory.

One way is to learn the information well enough to One way is to learn the information well enough to transfer it to long term memory, which has an unlimited transfer it to long term memory, which has an unlimited storage capacity. storage capacity.

Another way is to put more information into each of the 7 Another way is to put more information into each of the 7 ++ 2 units that can be stored in STM. 2 units that can be stored in STM.

D N V R C E W V D C S VD N V R C E W V D C S V

NSW VCR VCE DVDNSW VCR VCE DVD

People are usually able to recall more of the second People are usually able to recall more of the second set of letters even though it is made up of exactly the set of letters even though it is made up of exactly the same letters. same letters.

This is a demonstration of chunking. This is a demonstration of chunking.

Chunking Chunking is the grouping or packing of separate bits is the grouping or packing of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or ‘chunk’ of of information into a larger single unit or ‘chunk’ of information. information.

Chunks can be take many forms. They can be Chunks can be take many forms. They can be numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases or numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases or abbreviations. (BHP, RACV, CSIRO). abbreviations. (BHP, RACV, CSIRO).

What examples of chunking have you come across in What examples of chunking have you come across in everyday life?everyday life?

Phone numbersPhone numbers Car registration number platesCar registration number plates

In sum, STM is a working memory system with In sum, STM is a working memory system with limited capacity and duration in which information-limited capacity and duration in which information-often stored in verbal form-is lost rapidly unless it is often stored in verbal form-is lost rapidly unless it is rehearsed. rehearsed.

STM is used to work on new information or STM is used to work on new information or information retrieved from LTM, to select and process information retrieved from LTM, to select and process ongoing information and to store memories for a ongoing information and to store memories for a short duration. short duration.

Effects of rehearsalEffects of rehearsal

RehearsalRehearsal is the process of actively manipulating is the process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. information so that it can be retained in memory.

There are two types of rehearsal:There are two types of rehearsal:

- Maintenance rehearsalMaintenance rehearsal- Elaborative rehearsalElaborative rehearsal

Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the involves repeating the

information being remembered over and over again information being remembered over and over again to retain it in short term memory. to retain it in short term memory.

When you hear something for the first time and go When you hear something for the first time and go over it and over it so that you don’t forget it, you are over it and over it so that you don’t forget it, you are using maintenance rehearsal. using maintenance rehearsal.

Maintenance rehearsal can be verbal, which involves Maintenance rehearsal can be verbal, which involves the use of words. It can also be non-verbal, involving the use of words. It can also be non-verbal, involving visual or spatial information. visual or spatial information.

When the information is verbal, maintenance When the information is verbal, maintenance rehearsal can occur rehearsal can occur vocally, vocally, by saying the by saying the information aloud over and over; or information aloud over and over; or sub-vocally, sub-vocally, by by silently repeating the information in your head. silently repeating the information in your head.

Whether maintenance rehearsal is verbal, visual or Whether maintenance rehearsal is verbal, visual or spatial, provided it is not interrupted, information can spatial, provided it is not interrupted, information can be retained indefinitely in STM.be retained indefinitely in STM.

This does not necessarily mean that this information This does not necessarily mean that this information will automatically be transferred into LTM. will automatically be transferred into LTM.

When information is continually renewed in STM When information is continually renewed in STM through the rehearsal process, the amount of new through the rehearsal process, the amount of new information that can enter is restricted because of the information that can enter is restricted because of the limited capacity of STM. limited capacity of STM.

Elaborative rehearsalElaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal generally involves organising and Elaborative rehearsal generally involves organising and dealing with new information in terms of its dealing with new information in terms of its meaning. meaning.

Elaborative rehearsalElaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from long term memory. its storage and retrieval from long term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal is a more active process than Elaborative rehearsal is a more active process than maintenance rehearsal. maintenance rehearsal.

It is also more effective than maintenance rehearsal It is also more effective than maintenance rehearsal as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well.

When we relate new information to personal When we relate new information to personal experiences and our personal situation, encoding is experiences and our personal situation, encoding is enhanced and therefore we are more likely to enhanced and therefore we are more likely to remember it. This is called the remember it. This is called the self-reference effect.self-reference effect.

Using elaborative rehearsal to improve your Using elaborative rehearsal to improve your memorymemory

Elaborative rehearsal has a number of practical applications Elaborative rehearsal has a number of practical applications for students. The learning of new information is more likely for students. The learning of new information is more likely to be retained in LTM when you:to be retained in LTM when you:

Think about what the new information meansThink about what the new information means Ask questions about the new informationAsk questions about the new information Link new information to previously learned informationLink new information to previously learned information Create visual images relevant to the new informationCreate visual images relevant to the new information Link the new information to personal experiences or your Link the new information to personal experiences or your

personal situation. personal situation.

Consolidation theoryConsolidation theory Consolidation theory Consolidation theory proposes that physical proposes that physical

changes to the neurons in the brain occur when changes to the neurons in the brain occur when something new is being learned, and immediately something new is being learned, and immediately following learning. following learning.

This theory also proposes that if memory is disrupted This theory also proposes that if memory is disrupted during the consolidation phase, information may not during the consolidation phase, information may not be processed in LTM and will therefore be lost. be processed in LTM and will therefore be lost.

Material being transferred into LTM is vulnerable to Material being transferred into LTM is vulnerable to disruption for up to 30 minutes. disruption for up to 30 minutes.

LONG-TERM MEMORYLONG-TERM MEMORY

Long-term memoryLong-term memory is the relatively permanent is the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time. information for a long period of time.

It is a different kind of memory system to STM.It is a different kind of memory system to STM.

LTM differs from STM in several ways: how LTM differs from STM in several ways: how information is retrieved, the form in which information information is retrieved, the form in which information is stored and the way in which information is is stored and the way in which information is forgotten. forgotten.

LTM has to be organised in a way that enables the LTM has to be organised in a way that enables the efficient retrieval of information. efficient retrieval of information.

We retrieve information from LTM using retrieval We retrieve information from LTM using retrieval cues. This can be intentional or unintentional. cues. This can be intentional or unintentional.

In either case, only the specific information relevant In either case, only the specific information relevant to the cue is retrieved rather than the entire contents to the cue is retrieved rather than the entire contents of LTM. of LTM.

Remarkably it takes only a few seconds to search Remarkably it takes only a few seconds to search through this huge storehouse of information to find through this huge storehouse of information to find the information required. the information required.

Information retrieved from LTM is held in working Information retrieved from LTM is held in working memory while it is being used. Once it is no longer memory while it is being used. Once it is no longer required, it can be returned into LTM for further required, it can be returned into LTM for further storage. storage.

If we are unable to retrieve specific information from If we are unable to retrieve specific information from LTM, it is because of poor organisation of the LTM, it is because of poor organisation of the information during encoding and storage or failure to information during encoding and storage or failure to use the appropriate retrieval cue. use the appropriate retrieval cue.

If information is not properly stored it is difficult to If information is not properly stored it is difficult to locate and retrieve. locate and retrieve.

STM stores information in terms of the physical STM stores information in terms of the physical qualities of an experience, especially sounds.qualities of an experience, especially sounds.

In contrast, LTM stores information semantically, that In contrast, LTM stores information semantically, that is in terms of its meaning. is in terms of its meaning.

In terms of forgetting, LTM differs from STM in that it In terms of forgetting, LTM differs from STM in that it does not only last longer but it is in fact permanent. does not only last longer but it is in fact permanent.

This means that forgetting occurs in LTM not This means that forgetting occurs in LTM not because the memory is gone, but because we are because the memory is gone, but because we are unable to retrieve it. unable to retrieve it.

Types of LTMTypes of LTM

Psychologists have distinguished between two types of Psychologists have distinguished between two types of LTM storage, each with distinctly different properties. LTM storage, each with distinctly different properties.

These are procedural memory and declarative memory. These are procedural memory and declarative memory. Two types of declarative memory have also been Two types of declarative memory have also been described. They are called episodic memory and described. They are called episodic memory and semantic memory. semantic memory.

Procedural memoryProcedural memory Procedural memoryProcedural memory is the memory of actions and is the memory of actions and

skills that have been learned previously and involves skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing ‘how to do something’. knowing ‘how to do something’.

How to drive a carHow to drive a car How to ride a bikeHow to ride a bike How to use a computerHow to use a computer

Procedural memories are also called Procedural memories are also called implicit memoriesimplicit memories because it is often difficult to recall when or how we because it is often difficult to recall when or how we learned to perform the sequence of actions required learned to perform the sequence of actions required to do something. to do something.

Declarative memoryDeclarative memory Declarative memoryDeclarative memory is the memory of specific facts is the memory of specific facts

or events that can be brought consciously to mind or events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or ‘declared’. and explicitly stated or ‘declared’.

Consequently declarative memories are also called Consequently declarative memories are also called explicit memoriesexplicit memories. .

Identifying a type of flowerIdentifying a type of flower Explaining a statistics formulaExplaining a statistics formula Describing the events of a movie you have seenDescribing the events of a movie you have seen

When distinguishing between declarative When distinguishing between declarative and procedural memory psychologists and procedural memory psychologists often refer to declarative memory as often refer to declarative memory as involving ‘knowing what’ and procedural involving ‘knowing what’ and procedural memory as ‘knowing how’. memory as ‘knowing how’.

Episodic memoryEpisodic memory

Episodic memoryEpisodic memory is the declarative memory system is the declarative memory system that holds information about specific events or that holds information about specific events or personal experiences. personal experiences.

Like a mental diary, recording the autobiographical Like a mental diary, recording the autobiographical episodes we experience. episodes we experience.

What you ate for breakfastWhat you ate for breakfast The birth of a brother or sisterThe birth of a brother or sister Going to the dentistGoing to the dentist

Semantic memorySemantic memory

Semantic memorySemantic memory is the declarative memory system is the declarative memory system that stores the information that we have about the that stores the information that we have about the world. world.

It includes our specialised knowledge in areas of It includes our specialised knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge of the kind learned in expertise, academic knowledge of the kind learned in school, rules, everyday general knowledge, the school, rules, everyday general knowledge, the meaning of words. meaning of words.

Semantic memories seem to involve facts that do not Semantic memories seem to involve facts that do not depend on a particular place or time but are simply depend on a particular place or time but are simply facts. facts.

Organisation of information in Organisation of information in LTMLTM

One of LTM’s most distinctive features is its One of LTM’s most distinctive features is its organisation of information. The task of retrieving organisation of information. The task of retrieving information from LTM is very different to retrieving information from LTM is very different to retrieving information from STM.information from STM.

In STM there is only a choice of 7 In STM there is only a choice of 7 ++ 2 pieces of 2 pieces of information to choose from, however LTM stores information to choose from, however LTM stores such a vast amount of information that there is a such a vast amount of information that there is a need for some form of information to assist the need for some form of information to assist the storage and retrieval process. storage and retrieval process.

Research has found that information stored in LTM is Research has found that information stored in LTM is organised in meaningful clusters of related organised in meaningful clusters of related categories. categories.

Eg. Fruit types, names, occupations. Eg. Fruit types, names, occupations.

Research findings also indicate that information is Research findings also indicate that information is also linked or associated with other information also linked or associated with other information stored in LTM. stored in LTM.

There is also considerable research evidence that There is also considerable research evidence that suggests that recall from LTM is better when we suggests that recall from LTM is better when we further organise the information stored there. further organise the information stored there.

Bower and Clark experiment. Bower and Clark experiment.

Semantic network theorySemantic network theory

Information in LTM is both organised and associated Information in LTM is both organised and associated with other information held in the LTM system. The with other information held in the LTM system. The semantic network theory is one theory that describes semantic network theory is one theory that describes howhow this is done. this is done.

Semantic network theorySemantic network theory proposes that information proposes that information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping networks or grids of concepts that are overlapping networks or grids of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links.

According to this model, each concept, called a According to this model, each concept, called a nodenode is linked with a number of other nodes. is linked with a number of other nodes.

This means that when we retrieve information, the This means that when we retrieve information, the activation of one node causes other related nodes to activation of one node causes other related nodes to be activated also. be activated also.

In reality, LTM contains thousands of concepts, each In reality, LTM contains thousands of concepts, each with very many connections. with very many connections.

This system of storing information in terms of This system of storing information in terms of meaning is quite an effective means of storage which meaning is quite an effective means of storage which enables effective and efficient retrieval of information. enables effective and efficient retrieval of information.

According to the semantic network theory:According to the semantic network theory: retrieval begins with someone searching a particular retrieval begins with someone searching a particular

regionregion then tracing associations for links among memories then tracing associations for links among memories

in that region, rather than randomly searching the in that region, rather than randomly searching the vast information stores in LTM. vast information stores in LTM.

It also proposes that a specific retrieval cue activates It also proposes that a specific retrieval cue activates relevant nodes, which in turn activate other nodes to relevant nodes, which in turn activate other nodes to which they are linked. which they are linked.

The shorter the link between nodes the The shorter the link between nodes the stronger the association, the less time it stronger the association, the less time it takes to activate related concepts to which takes to activate related concepts to which they are linked. they are linked.

The longer the link between nodes the The longer the link between nodes the weaker the association between them and weaker the association between them and the longer it takes to activate the the longer it takes to activate the information that is further away. information that is further away.

The more nodes that are activated, the The more nodes that are activated, the quicker the retrieval of information from quicker the retrieval of information from LTM. LTM.

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

To test whether STM is a separate sub-system of To test whether STM is a separate sub-system of memory from LTM, psychologists have studied memory from LTM, psychologists have studied people’s memory of lists of words, numbers and people’s memory of lists of words, numbers and other information. other information.

A consistent finding has occurred: which words A consistent finding has occurred: which words are recalled from the list tends to depend on their are recalled from the list tends to depend on their serial position. serial position.

The The Serial Position Effect Serial Position Effect is a research finding that is a research finding that suggests that recall is better for items at the end suggests that recall is better for items at the end and beginning of the list than for items in the middle and beginning of the list than for items in the middle of the list.of the list.

The Primacy Effect describes superior recall of The Primacy Effect describes superior recall of items at the beginning of a list. items at the beginning of a list.

The Recency Effect describes superior recall of The Recency Effect describes superior recall of items at the end of a list. items at the end of a list.

Together with the relatively low recall of items from Together with the relatively low recall of items from the middle of the list, this pattern makes up the the middle of the list, this pattern makes up the serial position effect. serial position effect.

What causes the serial position What causes the serial position effect?effect?

The most acceptable explanation relates to The most acceptable explanation relates to differences between STM and LTM.differences between STM and LTM.

If recall occurs immediately after learning, the last If recall occurs immediately after learning, the last few items are remembered first because they are still few items are remembered first because they are still in STM. in STM.

The first few items are remembered most because The first few items are remembered most because the received more attention and rehearsal than other the received more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM.items and are therefore transferred into LTM.

Items around the middle of the list are presented Items around the middle of the list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred into LTM and too early to be held in transferred into LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal and are therefore likely to STM without rehearsal and are therefore likely to be forgotten. be forgotten.

If participants are asked to recall the list 30 If participants are asked to recall the list 30 seconds after learning, the serial position effect is seconds after learning, the serial position effect is not as prominent as this goes beyond the limits not as prominent as this goes beyond the limits of STM. of STM.