MEMORYAP Psychology—Chapter 6

What is Memory? The persistence of learning over time

The Three Processes of Memory

Encoding: the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored

Storage: the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved

Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Encoding Memory Automatic

processing – unconscious processing of incidental information and well-learned information; does not require effort. For example,

remembering what well-learned words mean or remembering who you saw on your way to class.

Encoding: Automatic Processing Space

Where information is in a textbook (page, side, paragraph)

Time Sequence of events:

If you lose something, you can retrace your steps to find it.

Frequency How many times

something happens, ex: “That’s the third time this song has played today!”

Well-learned Information Registering meaning of

words in your native language

Subliminal Advertising

Encoding Memory Effortful

(Controlled) processing – encoding that requires effort and conscious attention. For example,

learning material for a class.

Often produces durable and accessible memories

Improving Memory—Effortful Processing

Effortful processing strategy, a way to encode information into memory to keep it from decaying and make it easier to retrieve. Requires Rehearsal

(Conscious repetition) Amount remembered

depends on amount of time spent learning.

Effortful processing is also known as studying.

Examples: Chunking

(grouping) Mnemonics:

images, maps, and peg-words

Hierarchies/categories

Rehearsal, especially distributed practice

Deep processing Semantic

processing Making

information personally meaningful

Can you remember this list?

RehearsalEffortful Processing Strategies

Rehearse....Rehearse.....Rehearse!!

2 Types of Rehearsal:• Maintenance Rehearsal: repetitive

review of information• Ex: Repeating a phone #

• Elaborative Rehearsal: repetition plus analysis....information is made meaningful• Ex: remembering that the attack on

Pearl Harbor was December 7th, because your favorite numbers are 7 and 12.

Massed and Distributed Practice

Massed Practice refers to cramming information all at once. It is not time-effective.

The spacing effect: You will develop better retention and recall, especially in the long run, if you use the same amount of study time spread out over many shorter sessions. (Distributed Practice) This doesn’t mean you have to study every

day. The longer the time between study sessions, the better the

long-term retention, and the fewer sessions you need!

Effortful Processing Strategies

Effortful Processing StrategiesChunking Why are credit card numbers broken into

groups of four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode (memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.

Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA

Chunking: organizing data into manageable units

XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ Chunking works even better if we can

assemble information into meaningful groups: X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA

Q

X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q

Improving Short-Term Memory

Chunks: Manageable and meaningful units, easily encoded, stored, retrieved Ex:  Social Security

Number (three chunks), Phone Number (2- 3 Chunks)

What are some other things we chunk?

Why is encoding important?

What we encode and how well we encode it determines what

we remember.

Levels of Processing Activity Activity One

Decide whether each word has double letters Ex: CUDDLE has a double D and NEED has a

double E

If the word does have a double letter, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

Levels of Processing Activity Activity Two

Decide whether each word fits into a broader category Ex: RABBIT fits into the animal category, and

SPIDER fits into the insect category

If the word does fit into a broader category, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

Levels of Processing Activity Activity Three

Decide whether you have had a personal experience with the object or event the word represents Ex: for the word SPIDER you would check yes if

you have ever been bitten by a spider. If you have never been bitten by a spider, you would check no.

If you have had a personal experience with the word, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

And now….Write Down as many words as you can remember from each list!

The Answers

Why is Encoding Important?Craik and Lockhart: Levels of Processing Approach: brain encodes

info in different ways, extents, and levels art, words, and meaning

When you encode info one way, you do not encode it in other ways Ex: How many words do you recall from the memory

 experiments? Info was not encoded for meaning, but only to quickly

 repeat/recall them

Encoding Semantic Encoding— thinking about

the meaning of the word helps in retention.

Acoustic Encoding (thinking about the sound of a word) and Visual Encoding (thinking about the appearance of a word are less helpful

Self-Reference Effect— We are more likely to remember things that we feel relate to us You will remember your psychology better if

you relate it to your own personal experiences (Application!)

We are more likely to retain it if we deeply process even a simple word list by focusing on the semantics (meaning) of the words.

“Shallow,” unsuccessful processing refers to memorizing the appearance or sound of words.

Deep/Semantic Processing

Effortful Processing Strategies

Encoding Specificity Principle

Encoding Specificity Principle: Effectiveness of retrieval

cue depends on how well it matches up with originally encoded info Ex:  Learning to type on a

Mac and then having to write a paper on a PC

Encoding Specificity Principle  Meeting someone

at your dentist's office and then seeing them at Meijer— you will be more

likely to recognize them if their surroundings match how you originally met them (i.e. toothbrush

aisle)

Encoding: Confirmation Bias Confirmation

Bias: The tendency to notice and encode info that confirms beliefs that are already held. Ex:  Political

Candidates and television ads

Storage Processes of maintaining or keeping

information readily available Where information is held, or the

memory stores

3 Stage Storage System: SENSORY SHORT-TERM WORKING MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

Sensory Memory Storage mechanism that

performs initial encoding and provides brief storage

Very brief, 1-3 seconds think lightning--a quick flash,

brief image, then gone

Example: hearing a song, or touching a piece of silk

Sensory Memory--Iconic Iconic Memory is a

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Our dominant sense is vision, called visual capture. There is much more to

see, which is why iconic memory has to be very brief, about a few tenths of a second

Sensory Memory--Echoic Echoic memory is a

momentary sensory memory of auditory memory

Echoic memories last about 3-4 seconds, which is why when you

repeat terms you are able to retain the terms longer- lasts longer than just looking at a term.

Short Term Memory Active, readily available information

you retain temporarily (no longer than one minute)

Also known as: Short term storage Temporary memory Primary memory Working memory

Short Term Memory—What does it do?

Short-term memory has two primary tasks: 1-To store new information briefly 2-To work on that (and other) information

Short-term memory is thought to only hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information

Memory Span: Information only lasts about 20-30 seconds

Let’s Test our Short-term Memory!

sunshine

mirror

wheel

orange

tea

calm

fountain

library

mostly

pyramid

jeans

airplane

tired

dog

pencil

soccer

Finished!

How many did you remember?

Testing Short-Term Memory Statistics for this same test:

*The average 20-year-old remembers 7 of the 15 words

 *The average 80-year-old remembers 4 of them

How many of you remembered… Sunshine? Airplane? Soccer?

Why? Serial Position Effect: People recall more

words either at the beginning or the end of a list than they do words in the middle Two types:

1-Primacy EffectPeople remember early items better

2-Recency EffectPeople remember the last one or two words

too

Long Term Memory Storage

Mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of information.

Brains seem to have an unlimited capacity for long-term memory

Types of Long-Term Memory Implicit (Non-Declarative)

involve procedural information containing motor skills and procedures that do not require active thinking in order perform-

these memories are stored in the cerebellum

Implicit memories are “implied” memories, which means “you just know” how to do, like walk or ride a bike.

Implicit Memory Procedural: Mem

ory for the perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks. Ex: Driving a car,

in-line skating, etc.

Types of Long-Term Memory Explicit/

Declarative: Memory for specific tasks/events Have to be consciously

recalled Ex: The last year the

Tigers won the World Series (1984), 9/11, etc.

Explicit/Declarative Long-Term Memories

Memory of specific events and situations that are personally relevant: it includes memory of when, where, and how. Ex: embarrassing

moment, your first day of school, your surprise birthday party

“Episodes”

Memory of ideas, rules, and general concepts about the world; not time specific. Ex: Social Rules (don’t

steal, flush the toilet), colors on a stop light, number of tires on a car

Episodic Semantic

Long-Term Potentiation Memory is stored in synapses

Synapses increase and grow stronger so that less stimulation is required to release the same about of neurotransmitters

This is called Long-term potentiation An increase in a neuron’s firing, which

involves the neurotransmitter serotonin, (linked to learning and memory)

Each time that memory is activated, the memory trace is activated, resembling a path.

Long-Term Potentiation Example:

If you had a shed in the backyard and a snowstorm made it difficult to get to the shed, the more you walked back and forth from your house to the shed the easier it would be to get to the shed.

You would have created a path, which you will now each time use you have to go to the shed.

This is similar to the process of learning (walking back and forth to the shed) and forming a memory (the path in the snow)

Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb

memories are vivid, clear memories of an emotionally significant moments or events that are processed in the amygdala, which often ties emotions to this information

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

1.Stimuli are recorded by our senses and held briefly in sensory memory. 2.Some of this information is processed into short-term memory and encoded through rehearsal .3.Information then moves into long-term memory where it can be retrieved later.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

Mnemonic--Interference  Proactive Old interferes Retroactive New interferes  

It took me forever to remember to just add “interferes” after old and new. I could remember the mnemonic, but not which way to use it!

  Proactive – old info interferes with remembering new info Retroactive – new info interferes with remembering old info   Proactive is when old blocks new information - forward acting. Retroactive is when new blocks old - backwards acting.   We use the example for proactive interference: It is not proactive to your relationship to call your new girlfriend by your old girlfriend's name.   For retroactive interference we use the example: You can't remember your old phone number once you get a new cell phone number.