Mental modelFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought process about how something works in the real world. It is arepresentation of the surrounding world, the relationships between its various parts and a person's intuitive perception about hisor her own acts and their consequences. Mental models can help shape behaviour and set an approach to solving problems(akin to a personal algorithm) and doing tasks.

A mental model is a kind of internal symbol or representation of external reality, hypothesized to play a major role in cognition,reasoning and decision-making. Kenneth Craik suggested in 1943 that the mind constructs "small-scale models" of reality that ituses to anticipate events.

Jay Wright Forrester defined general mental models as:

"The image of the world around us, which we carry in our head, is just a model. Nobody in his headimagines all the world, government or country. He has only selected concepts, and relationships betweenthem, and uses those to represent the real system."

In psychology, the term "mental models" is sometimes used to refer to mental representations or mental simulation generally. Atother times it is used to refer to mental models and reasoning and to the mental model theory of reasoning developed by PhilipJohnson-Laird and Ruth M.J. Byrne.

Contents

1 History2 Mental models and reasoning

2.1 Principles of mental models2.2 Reasoning with mental models2.3 Criticisms

3 Mental models in system dynamics3.1 Characteristics

3.2 Expression of mental models3.3 Mental model in relation to system dynamics and systemic thinking3.4 Single and double-loop learning

3.4.1 Single-loop learning3.4.2 Double-loop learning

4 See also5 References6 Further reading7 External links

History

The term "mental model" is believed to have originated with Kenneth Craik in his 1943 book The Nature of Explanation.Georges-Henri Luquet in Le dessin enfantin (Children's Drawings), published in 1927 by Alcan, Paris, argued that childrenconstruct internal models, a view that influenced, among others, child psychologist Jean Piaget.

Philip Johnson-Laird published Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference and Consciousnessin 1983. In the same year, Dedre Gentner and Albert Stevens edited a collection of chapters in a book also titled Mental

Models.[1] The first line of their book explains the idea further: "One function of this chapter is to belabor the obvious; people'sviews of the world, of themselves, of their own capabilities, and of the tasks that they are asked to perform, or topics they areasked to learn, depend heavily on the conceptualizations that they bring to the task." (see: Mental Models (Gentner-Stevensbook)).

Since then, there has been much discussion and use of the idea in human-computer interaction and usability by researchersincluding Donald Norman and Steve Krug (in his book Don't Make Me Think). Walter Kintsch and Teun A. van Dijk, usingthe term situation model (in their book Strategies of Discourse Comprehension, 1983), showed the relevance of mentalmodels for the production and comprehension of discourse.

Mental models and reasoning

One view of human reasoning is that it depends on mental models. In this view, mental models can be constructed fromperception, imagination, or the comprehension of discourse (Johnson-Laird, 1983). Such mental models are akin to architects'models or to physicists' diagrams in that their structure is analogous to the structure of the situation that they represent, unlike,say, the structure of logical forms used in formal rule theories of reasoning. In this respect, they are a little like pictures in the"picture" theory of language described by philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in 1922. Philip Johnson-Laird and Ruth M.J. Byrnedeveloped a theory of mental models which makes the assumption that reasoning depends, not on logical form, but on mentalmodels (Johnson-Laird and Byrne, 1991).

Principles of mental models

Mental models are based on a small set of fundamental assumptions (axioms), which distinguish them from other proposedrepresentations in the psychology of reasoning (Byrne and Johnson-Laird, 2009). Each mental model represents a possibility. Amental model represents one possibility, capturing what is common to all the different ways in which the possibility may occur(Johnson-Laird and Byrne, 2002). Mental models are iconic, i.e., each part of a model corresponds to each part of what itrepresents (Johnson-Laird, 2006). Mental models are based on a principle of truth: they typically represent only those situationsthat are possible, and each model of a possibility represents only what is true in that possibility according to the proposition.However, mental models can represent what is false, temporarily assumed to be true, for example, in the case of counterfactualconditionals and counterfactual thinking (Byrne, 2005).

Reasoning with mental models

People infer that a conclusion is valid if it holds in all the possibilities. Procedures for reasoning with mental models rely oncounter-examples to refute invalid inferences; they establish validity by ensuring that a conclusion holds over all the models ofthe premises. Reasoners focus on a subset of the possible models of multiple-model problems, often just a single model. Theease with which reasoners can make deductions is affected by many factors, including age and working memory (Barrouillet, etal., 2000). They reject a conclusion if they find a counterexample, i.e., a possibility in which the premises hold, but theconclusion does not (Schroyens, et al. 2003; Verschueren, et al., 2005).

Criticisms

Scientific debate continues about whether human reasoning is based on mental models, versus formal rules of inference (e.g.,O'Brien, 2009), domain-specific rules of inference (e.g., Cheng & Holyoak, 2008; Cosmides, 2005), or probabilities (e.g.,Oaksford and Chater, 2007). Many empirical comparisons of the different theories have been carried out (e.g., Oberauer,2006).

Mental models in system dynamics

Characteristics

A mental model is generally:

founded on hardly qualifiable, impugnable, obscure, or incomplete factsflexible – is considerably variable in positive as well as in negative senseeffects as information filter – causes selective perception, perception of only selected parts of informationcompared with the complexities surrounding the world, it is very limited, and even when the scientific model is extensiveand in accordance with a certain reality in the derivation of logical consequences of it. It must take into account suchrestrictions on working memory; i.e., well-known rules on the maximum number of elements that people are suddenlyable to remember, gestaltismus or failure of the principles of logic, etc.

sources of information, which one can not find anywhere else, are available at any time and can be used.[2][3][4]

Mental models are a fundamental way to understand organizational learning. Mental models are "deeply held images of thinking

and acting."[5] Mental models are so basic to understanding of the world that people are hardly conscious of them.

Expression of mental models

Three basic forms are typically used: [2]

Polygons – whose vertices sharing the edge represent related items.Causal-loop diagrams – displaying tendency and a direction of information connections and the resulting causalityFlow diagrams – a more appropriate way to express a dynamic system.

Those forms allow showing a mental model, as a written model, which can help remember more details, such as more items in along list.

Mental model in relation to system dynamics and systemic thinking

In the simplification of reality, creating a model can find a sense of reality, seeking to overcome systemic thinking and systemdynamics.

These two disciplines can help to construct a better coordination with the reality of mental models and simulate it accurately.

They increase the probability that the consequences of how to decide and act in accordance with how to plan.[2]

System dynamics – extending mental models through the creation of explicit models, which are clear, easilycommunicated and can be compared with each other.Systemic thinking – seeking the means to improve the mental models and thereby improve the quality of dynamicdecisions that are based on mental models.

Single and double-loop learning

After analyzing the basic characteristics, it is necessary to bring the process of changing the mental models, or the process oflearning. Learning is a back-loop process, and feedback loops can be illustrated as: single-loop learning or double-looplearning.

Single-loop learning

Mental models affect the way people work with the information and determine the final decision. The decision itself changes,but the mental models remain the same. It is the predominant method of learning, because it is very convenient. One establishedmental model is fixed, so the next decision is very fast.

Double-loop learning

A double-loop process (see diagram below) is used when it is necessary to change the mental model on which a decisiondepends. Unlike single loops, this model includes a shift in understanding, from simple and static to broader and more dynamic,

such as taking into account the changes in the surroundings and the need for expression changes in mental models.[3]

Process of learning

Feedback process Single-loop learning Double-loop learning

See also

Internal model (motor control)Cognitive psychologyCognitive mapEducational psychologyFolk psychologyList of cognitive biasesLovemapMacrocognitionMeme

Metaknowledgeabstract modelNeuroeconomicsNeuro-Linguistic ProgrammingNeuroplasticityKnowledge representationPsyche (psychology)QualiaSelf-Stereotyping

Social intuitionismSocial psychologySpeed of thoughtSystem DynamicsThought disorderConceptual ModelText and Conversation TheoryOODA Loop

References

1. ^ "Mental models" (http://www.lauradove.info/reports/mental%20models.htm), report at www.lauradove.info.

2. ̂a b c Šusta, Marek. "Několik slov o systémové dynamice a systémovém myšlení" (http://proverbs.cz/media/art/SM_ST.pdf)(PDF) (in Czech). Proverbs, a.s. pp. 3–9. Retrieved 2009-01-15.

3. ̂a b Mildeova, S., Vojtko V. (2003). Systémová dynamika (in Czech). Prague: Oeconomica. pp. 19–24. ISBN 80-245-0626-2.

4. ^ Ford, David N., Sterman, John D. "Expert Knowledge Elicitation to Improve Mental and Formal Models"(http://web.mit.edu/jsterman/www/ford_sterman_elicit_1.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA - MassachusettsInstitute of Technology. pp. 18–23. Retrieved 11.1.2009.

5. ^ "LEADING FOR A CHANGE", Ralph Jacobson, 2000, Chapter 5, Page102

Sources

Barrouillet, P. et al. (2000). Conditional reasoning by mental models: chronometric and developmental evidence. Cognit.75, 237-266.Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: How People Create Counterfactual Alternatives to Reality.Cambridge MA: MIT Press.Byrne, R.M.J. & Johnson-Laird, P.N. (2009). 'If' and the problems of conditional reasoning. Trends in CognitiveSciences. 13, 282-287Cheng, P.C. and Holyoak, K.J. (2008) Pragmatic reasoning schemas. In Reasoning: studies of human inference andits foundations (Adler, J.E. and Rips, L.J., eds), pp. 827–842, Cambridge University PressCosmides, L. et al. (2005) Detecting cheaters. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9,505–506Oberauer K. (2006) Reasoning with conditionals: A test of formal models of four theories. Cognit. Psychol. 53:238–283.O’Brien, D. (2009). Human reasoning includes a mental logic. Behav. Brain Sci. 32, 96–97Oaksford, M. and Chater, N. (2007) Bayesian Rationality. Oxford University PressJohnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, andConsciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Johnson-Laird, P.N. (2006) How We Reason. Oxford University PressJohnson-Laird, P.N. and Byrne, R.M.J. (2002) Conditionals: a theory of meaning, inference, and pragmatics. Psychol.Rev. 109, 646–678Schroyens, W. et al. (2003). In search of counterexamples: Deductive rationality in human reasoning. Quart. J. Exp.Psychol. 56(A), 1129–1145.Verschueren, N. et al. (2005). Everyday conditional reasoning: A working memory-dependent tradeoff betweencounterexample and likelihood use. Mem. Cognit. 33, 107-119.

Further reading

Georges-Henri Luquet (2001). Children's Drawings. Free Association Books. ISBN 1-85343-516-3Groesser, S.N. (2012). Mental model of dynamic systems. In N.M. Seel (Ed.). The encyclopedia of the sciences oflearning (Vol. 5, pp. 2195-2200). New York: Springer.Groesser, S.N. & Schaffernicht, M. (2012). Mental Models of Dynamic Systems: Taking Stock and LookingAhead. System Dynamics Review, 28(1): 46-68, Wiley.Johnson-Laird, P.N. 2005. The History of Mental Models(http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/papers/2005HistoryMentalModels.pdf)Johnson-Laird, P.N., 2005. Mental Models, Deductive Reasoning, and the Brain(http://cogsci.bme.hu/~babarczy/Orak/BMEpostgrad/semantics/2005spring/Johnson-Lairdmental_models.pdf)Jones, N. A. et al. (2011). "Mental Models: an interdisciplinary synthesis of theory and methods(http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss1/art46/)" Ecology and Society.16 (1): 46.Robles-De-La-Torre, G. & Sekuler, R. (2004). "Numerically Estimating Internal Models of Dynamic Virtual Objects(http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-RS-Estimating-Internal-Models.pdf)". In: ACM Transactions on AppliedPerception 1(2), pp. 102–117.Sterman, John D. A Skeptic’s Guide to Computer Models, Massachusetts Institute of Technology(http://web.mit.edu/jsterman/www/Skeptic%27s_Guide.html)

External links

Mental models website (http://www.mentalmodelsblog.wordpress.com)Mental Models and Usability (http://www.lauradove.info/reports/mental%20models.htm)Mental Models and Reasoning Laboratory (http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/)

What's Your Idea of a Mental Model? (http://www.boxesandarrows.com/whats-your-idea-of-a-mental-model)Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group, University of Oxford (http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/samp/)System Dynamics Society (http://www.systemdynamics.org/)

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