merchandising

PREFACE

PAGE 114

PREFACE

As everybody knows, the textile industry is one of the best trades in the world. Especially the business of manufacturing and exporting knitted garments is very much interesting.

The knit garments can be made in lightweight, at the same time, with more thickness fabrics for winter seasons. For the summer seasons, they can be made in lighter weight with less thickness fabrics. Also there is a huge number of fabric varieties can be made in knits. The speciality of knit garments is the elasticity. Because of these special and comfort qualities, the requirement for knit garments is huge and forever. Hence manufacturing and exporting knit garments is definitely a life long profitable business.

At the same time, there is a huge competition among the exporters around the world. Nowadays, most of the overseas buyers and importers prefer to do business with the suppliers

Who are having their own manufacturing factories with huge production capacity,

Who are quality conscious,

Who are able to make prompt shipment in right time with right quality,

Who are adopting local labour laws and code of conduct,

Who are having thorough knowledge about the business,

Who are reliable,

Who are having sound financial strength and

Who are able to supply the garments on competitive prices?

As the quota restrictions will be removed from January 2005 and due to globalisation, we expect a huge competition in all the businesses among the sellers and buyers worldwide. In these years, we have been competing within our country or region. But hereafter we will have to compete with the other countries. It is going to be very tough. At the same time, it is not an impossible thing. We can achieve success, if we pay more attention in knowing about the trade thoroughly.

Actually, I wanted to share my knowledge and experience with my younger brothers who are also in this same trade. And I wanted to give them the important hints for their easy understanding and reference. But while I was writing, I decided to write this also for others who are in this trade and who is interested to know about this trade. Then I decided to write this elaborately covering all the stages of this trade in detail. Also I have explained the details in very simple and easy language so that every one who reads this book can understand easily.

In this book, I have given the costs and costing in Indian Rupees, as it is easy for me. The readers, other than Indians, will have to convert the costs and costing in their desired currencies. I believe that the readers will bear with me for this inconvenience.

I am very happy to bring out my knowledge about this trade through this book and I have real happiness as I am sharing the details with you. Hope all the information in this book will be useful to you all and hope you will be satisfied. I wish you all success in your business or career!

INDEX

Subject Heading

Page NoGARMENTS

7

GSM

7

YARN

Grey yarn & Prices

8

Mlange yarn & Prices

9

Dyed yarn & Prices

10

Mercerized yarn & Prices

10

Grindle yarn & Prices

12

KNITTING OR FABRICATION

13

Machine gauge

13

Texture

14

Diameter

14

Knitting charges

15

Knitting with Elastan (Spandex)

15

PRE-PROCESSING

17

Procedures to avoid shading

17

PROCESSING

Azo Free Dyestuffs

19

Bleaching (Chlorine & Peroxide)

20

Fabric dyeing Reactive, Pigment & Discharge dyeing

21

Lab dips

21

Winch dyeing & charges

21

Soft flow dyeing & charges

22

Fabric Mercerizing & charges

23

Fabric Washing & charges

23

FINISHING & COMPACTING

Calendering & charges

24

Compacting & charges

24

Stentering & charges

24

Heat setting & charges

25

Fabric raising & charges

25

PRINTING

All over prints

25

Pigment print (by Rotary machines) & charges

26

Procedures

26

Advantages

27

Risk factors

27

Print in open width form

27

Water base print

28

Organic dyeing & printing

28

Printing charges

28

Reactive print (by Rotary machines) & charges

28

Procedures

28

Advantages

29

Risk factors

29

Printing charges

29

Discharge print (by Rotary machines) & charges

29

Procedures

30

Advantages

30

Risk factors

30

Some tips

30

Printing charges

30

Chest prints (advantages)

31

Printing charges

31

SPECIAL PROCESSES

Tie & Dye

32

Procedures

33

Advantages

34

Risk factors

34

Tie & Dye charges

34

Batiks

34

Garment dyeing

Procedures

35

Advantages

36

Risk factors

36

Garment dyeing charges

36

EMBROIDERY

36

Applique

36

Acoba

36

Embroidery charges

37

ACCESSORIES

37

Cost of buttons

37

Cost of zippers

37

Cost of twill tapes & ropes

38

Cost of elastics

38

Cost of labels

39

Cost of hangtags

39

Cost of inner boards

40

Cost of tissue papers

40

Cost of safety pins & threads

40

Cost of polybags

40

Cost of master polybags

41

Cost of hangers & sizers

41

Cost of cartons

41

CMT CHARGES

42

SHIPPING

Delivery terms

43

Sea freight

44

Air freight

47

Calculation of the charges

48

GARMENT COSTING

48

Fabric consumption

49

Trial costing No.1 Mens Basic T shirts

50

Fabric consumption of open width fabrics (synthetic)

52

Gross weight & net weight

54

Fabric cost per kg

54

Fabric cost per garment

54

Other charges

55

Cost of trims

55

CMT charges

55

Cost of accessories

55

Cost of garment

55

Price of garment

56

Shipping charges

56

Profit

56

Cost of quota

56

Commission

56

Garment costing

56

Trial costing No.2 Mens all over printed Polo shirts

58

Trial costing No.3 Ladies Night dress

61

Trial costing No.4 Mens long pyjamas

62

Trial costing No.5 Mens Pique polo shirts

65

Trial costing No.6 Ladies Yarn stripes T shirts (feeder) 67

Trial costing No.7 Boys Yarn stripes T shirts (engineering) 69

PAYMENT TERMS

71

L/C terms

71

L/C amendments

73

Importance of B/L & Airway bill

73

Documentation

75

At Sight L/C

76

30days, 60days, 90days L/C

77

Revolving L/C

78

D/P terms

78

D/A terms

80

MARKETING

81

Self study

81

Code of conduct

81

Child labour

82

Safety

82

Workers rights

83

Factory conditions

83

Housing conditions

84

Environment

84

Policies and approaches

84

Product study

86

Market study

86

Customer study

87

Work study

89

Costing & pricing

90

Communication

90

Documentation

92

Purchase

93

Shipping

93

Payment

94

MERCHANDISING

94

Internal & external communication

94

Sampling

95

Development samples or enquiry samples

95

Salesmen samples or promotional samples

95

Proto samples or fit samples

96

Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples 96

Wash test samples

96

Photo samples

97

Fashion show samples

97

Pre-production samples

97

Production samples

97

Shipment samples

98

Lab dips

98

Accessories & trims

99

Preparing internal order sheets

99

Preparing purchase orders

99

Advising and assisting production

100

Advising quality department about quality level

100

Coordination regarding shipping

100

Helping documentation department

100

Taking responsibility for inspections

100

Following shipment

100

PRODUCTION

101

Production planning

101

Work study

101

Standard Minute Value

102

Line balancing

102

Man planning

103

Cost Per Minute

104

Patterning

104

Fabric inspection

104

Line system

105

Cutting

105

Inspection of cut bits

106

Sewing

106

Trimming

108

Quality checking

108

Packing

109

Sampling

109

QUALITY CONTROL

Quality system

109

Lab tests

112

Washing instructions & symbols

113

Quality procedures

116

Workmanship & general appearance

118

Presentation

119

Inspections

120

Coordination

121

GARMENTS

There are 2 types of garments. One is a Woven garment. Another is Knitted garments. Shirts, trousers, sarees, bed spreads, blankets, towels and made ups are Woven. T-shirts, sweatshirts, undergarments, pyjamas and socks are Knits.

Woven fabrics are made in hand looms, power looms and mill made. Making woven fabrics is simple. But yarn counts, reed & picks (warp & weft), width should be considered with more care. The fabric quality is made differently by various methods of finishing and treating.

Knit fabrics are made in different kinds of knitting machines. According to the structure of fabrics, they are called by different names. The mainly used fabrics are Jersey, Pique, Interlock, Rib, French Rib, Flat back rib, Loop knit, Fleece, Polar fleece and Jacquards. The knit garments can be made in solid dyed or all over printed or yarn striped or jacquard fabrics.

GSM

GSM is the short form of Grams per Square Metre. GSM is the very most important thing, which defines the weight of the fabrics of knit garments.

Garment price and quality based on many things like GSM, fabric quality, colours, finishing, prints, embroidery, style, etc. But GSM is the most important thing to be decided when confirming the prices between the sellers and buyers.

GSM is the weight of 1mtr x 1mtr fabric. It means 100cm x 100cm = 10,000 sq.cms. It can be found out by any one of the below ways.

By the weight of 100cm x 100cm fabric bit.

By the weight of 50cm x 50cm fabric bit multiplied by 4.



We must be aware that if we use the smaller size bit, accurate GSM cannot be achieved. The bigger size of fabric bit is better used to get exact or closer GSM.

If we have fabrics, then we dont have any problem in finding GSM, as we can cut any dimension to find GSM. But most of the times, we will have only the garments to find GSM. And we will have to keep the garment for style, making and other references. So we will be allowed to cut a small bit from the garments. Hence nowadays, round cutters are used. This system is used worldwide. With the help of this round cutter, the fabric will be cut into a small bit.

Then the GSM of the fabric can be found out by multiplying the weight of this round bit by 100. This round bit is to be weighed in an electronic scale with milligram accuracy. As this bit is very small and as the weight has to be multiplied by 100, the fabric has to be cut very sharply to get the exact GSM. Hence the blades of this round cutter are to be sharp and new to get the exact GSM.

YARN

The thickness of yarn is measured as Counts. Yarns are made in different counts like 2s, 4s, 10s, 16s, 20s, 24s, 25s, 30s, 34s, 36s, 38s, 40s, 60s, 80s, 100s, etc.

We can consider like this. 0s counts are cotton fiber. 20s counts yarn is thicker than 24s yarn. Likewise 30s yarn is thicker than 34s. So when the yarn counts are increasing, the thickness becomes lesser. We can see, the higher the counts, the lesser the thickness.

Yarn prices based on the thickness. Price of 20s yarn is lesser than 24s. Price of 30s yarn is lesser than 34s yarn. We must know, higher the counts, higher the prices.

There are 2 qualities of yarn. Combed and Carded.

Combed is superior quality. The cotton fibers are in different lengths from 0.25 inches to 2.5 inches. According to the technical parameters, the fibers with more length are considered to be better. These long fibers give more evenness and more strength for yarns. Also the short fibers are increasing hairiness whereas the long fibers are decreasing hairiness in yarns. Hence in order to get uniformity in fiber lengths, the short length fibers are to be eliminated from the long length fibers. For this purpose, a special process is being done. This process is called Combing. Because of the same longer length of fibers, the yarn will be very even with lesser hairiness. Hence after knitting or weaving, the fabric will have very even look.

Carded yarn is inferior in quality. As the above said combing process is not being done, the carded yarn will be made of the fibers in different lengths. Hence the yarn strength will be lesser than combed yarn. Also carded yarn will have more hairiness and due to this, the fabric made with carded yarns will have more unevenness.

Because of this extra process, the Combed yarn price is higher than Carded yarn. Also Combed yarn quality is superior to Carded yarn.

We have to use either Combed or Carded yarn according to buyers requirements and to the suitable price range.

Yarn prices will vary from Mill to Mill due to their different quality standards. As the yarn prices are fluctuated often and as the yarn is the major cost factor of garments, we have to pay more attention in yarn quality and its cost.

When we think about the raw materials for knit garments, we can understand that there is only one raw material, which is, the Yarn. Cost of yarn covers almost 20% to 30% of garment price. Cost of yarn depends on the quality standards like dyeing absorbency, hand feel, evenness, strength, raw material, availability, etc.

The processing (dyeing, bleaching and finishing) results will differ according to the yarn quality. If the yarn contains more lifeless and dull cottons, the dyeing absorbency will be very less. Also evenness and numbers of naps determine the yarn quality.

The garment quality is based on the fabric quality; the fabric quality is based on the yarn quality. Hence the garments quality is lying on the yarn quality.

Let us see below the approximate prices for various qualities of 100%Cotton yarns.

Approximate grey yarn prices per kg in Rs:

20s 24s 30s 34s 40s

Combed 100 120 130 140 145

Carded 95 110 120 130 140

Mlange yarn:

Mlange means mixture. Mlange yarn means mixture of different shades of yarns.

There are different mlange yarns. They are Grey mlange, Ecru mlange, bleached mlange, Flax mlange, Colour mlange, etc.

Mlange yarns are generally made with Cotton and Viscose fibers. According to the required percentage and colour shades, the fibers are mixed together before making into yarn.

Grey Mlange, Ecru Mlange, Bleached Mlange are used widely. These mlange yarns are generally in the composition of 85%Cotton / 15%Viscose approximately. In these yarns, the cotton portion will be in light shade and the Viscose portion will be in dark shade.

In colour mlange yarn also, the cotton portion will be in light shade. For light colour mlange yarn, it is enough to add little percentage of Viscose. But for dark colour mlange yarns, higher percentage of Viscose to be added to get dark shades. For example, the Dark Blue colour mlange yarns will have 55%Cotton / 45%Viscose approximately. But we have to remember that if we use colour mlange yarns with higher percentage of Viscose, the fabric made with these yarns will have higher shrinkage; also the shrinkage cannot be controlled. The fabric may have very soft feel and shiny look. But we must think of shrinkage, which is very important.

Hence, we have to be very cautious of the percentage or composition of Viscose. It is safer not to use mlange yarns with higher percentage of Viscose, due to higher shrinkage.

To avoid this shrinkage problem, colour mlange yarns made by 100%Cotton fibers are also used. But this is more expensive than normal colour mlange yarn with Viscose blend. But as we use 100% Cotton, the shrinkage can be controlled to the acceptable level.

Also there is another way to solve shrinkage problem. Fabric can be made with Ecru mlange or Grey mlange and can be over dyed to required dark shades. Cost wise, there will not be big difference between colour mlange yarn and over dyeing. But this method will solve the shrinkage problem.

Approximate Melange yarn prices per kg in Rs:

For Ecru Mlange & Grey Mlange yarns, Rs.10 to 15 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.

For Colour Mlange in Cotton / Viscose blend:

Light colours: Rs.20 to 30 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.

Medium colours: Rs.30 to 40 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.

Dark colours: Rs.40 to 50 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.

For Colour Mlange in 100% Cotton:

Approximately Rs.70 to 100 to be added (according to the depth of colours) with above prices of Combed yarns.

Dyed yarn:

For making the stripes and jacquard design fabrics, the dyed yarns are used. Yarns are dyed by manually and by sophisticated machines. In manual yarn dyeing, we cannot expect the consistency of shades, yarn strength and better quality. Hence it is always advised to dye the yarns with the latest machines only.

For yarn dyeing, only combed yarns are used. Also the yarn should have more yarn strength. It is called Count Strength Product (CSP).

The prices of dyed yarn are based on the counts and colour shades. For easy reference, the dyed yarn price of 30s Medium colour will be around Rs.250 per kg. The prices for other colours will be differed according to the shades.

The prices of other counts are based on the price differences of grey (kora) yarns.

Mercerised Yarn:

This is a very special quality yarn. There is a huge difference between the mercerised yarns and normal type of cotton yarns. These yarns are made with selective fibers with longer lengths by thoroughly removing the lifeless, dull and dead cottons.

Mercerised yarns are always in 2 ply, like 60/2, 80/2, 100/2. It means 2 yarns of same counts have to be twisted together. The minimum counts, which can be doubled, are 50s. So minimum mercerised yarn can be 50/2. Let us see some important things about these special yarns.

As the finer cottons are used, the yarn contains more cotton, giving more resistance and silky feel. These yarns are made exclusively of long fibers, as the combing process removes shorter fibers.

As these yarns are made in multi-ply (2 ply), they have 10 15% more resistance than single ply yarns. This will give more life to the garments.

After combing and twisting, the yarn will be singed (gassed). By this process, the yarn will pass rapidly through flames and the superficial hair around the yarn would be eliminated. Due to more heat, the hairy particles of the yarn will be burnt out. (Now this is called Gassed Yarn).

Then the yarn is treated with caustic soda under perfectly controlled tension. This process is called Mercerising. Mercerising is done to strengthen the yarn and to improve luster of yarn. After mercerising, the yarn will have great strength and greater brightness. Also the yarn will capture 20% more humidity without getting wet. Further, this mercerising process increases the resistance of yarn and reduces its becoming dirty. (Now the yarn is called Gassed Mercerised Yarn).

These yarns do not create allergies to body. Due to its high resistance properties, these yarns are used for knitwear, underwear and hosiery. The garments made with mercerised yarns can be washed an infinite number of times without losing luster. Also the garments will not be deformed regarding shape. They have exceptional ability to absorb and disperse body perspiration. So these mercerised yarns are very special due to its special qualities.

If two yarns of 60s counts are gassed, then we get 2/60s gassed yarn. Then after mercerizing, the yarn is called 2/60s mercerised yarn.

The special features of Gassed Mercerised yarns are

1. Used for making very expensive special garments.

2. Luster and shininess of yarn / fabric / garments.

3. Complete evenness throughout the yarn / fabric / garments.

4. Very less shrinkage of yarn / fabric / garments.

5. Longer life of garments.

After making the fabrics with these Gassed Mercerised yarns, the fabric has to be mercerised again with caustic soda to get the permanent shiny look. As mercerising is done two times, one in yarn stage and another in fabric stage, this is called Double Mercerising.

As the prices of Mercerised yarns are higher than Gassed yarns, to minimise the cost, Gassed yarns can be used instead of Mercerised yarns. After making the fabrics with Gassed yarns, fabrics have to be mercerised again. We will get the shiny look on the fabric. But this shiny look will not be permanent and will be inferior comparing with the fabric used with Gassed Mercerised yarns. In this method, as the yarn is not mercerised and as only the fabric is mercerised, it is called Single Mercerising.

In any case, the fabric has to be mercerised before fabric dyeing.

Also Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarns are available. For yarn striped and jacquard design fabrics, these dyed yarns are used.

Approximate Gassed (Grey) yarn prices per kg in Rs:

2/60s: Rs.310

2/74s: Rs.360

2/80s: Rs.400

Approximate Gassed Mercerised (Grey) yarn prices per kg in Rs:

2/60s: Rs.380

2/74s: Rs.440

2/80s: Rs.490

Approximate Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarn prices per kg in Rs:

2/60s: Light colours: Rs.480

Medium colours: Rs.520

Dark colours: Rs.550

2/74s: Rs.60 to be added with the above prices of 2/60s dyed yarn.

2/80s: Rs.100 to be added with the above prices of 2/60s dyed yarn.

Grindle Yarns:

These yarns are also called Twisted Yarns. Two yarns of same counts but in different colours are twisted together. Between these 2 colours, one colour will be in lighter shade and the other will be in darker shade. After the twisting, the yarn will be in a different mixing shade. We must be sure of these yarns are in same counts and have same yarn strength. Also when they are being twisted together, the number of twists per inch (usually 14) should be even for the full length of yarn. If the twisting is not done properly, then we will face problems during knitting.

The prices of grindle yarns depend on the colours, counts, etc. The above prices can be referred to get approximate idea.

KNITTING OR FABRICATION

There are 2 types of knitting. One is Circular knitting (Tubular knit). Another is Flat knitting. Circular knit is used to knit body fabrics. Flat knit is used to knit Collars & Cuffs.

There is another type of flat knit machines, which are used to make Sweaters (Tricot garments). With these machines, the body fabrics, sleeves and necks are being made. And they are joining together with the help of linking machines. We have to note that the attachments of these parts are done with the main yarns. No separate sewing threads are used for joining. Buyers use to call these garments as Knitted garments or Tricot garments or Sweaters. Mostly acrylic and wool yarns are used. Lower counts like 2s, 4s, 6s, etc are used.

T-shirts, polo shirts are also called knitted garments. As the body, sleeves, collars, cuffs are cut separately and joined together, some buyers use to call these garments as Cut & Sewn Garments.

When we discuss about Knit garments, there are many things to be taken care of. Yarn counts, suitable knitting machines, machine gauge, machine diameter, numbers of feeders, grey fabric GSM, loop length, grey fabric diameter, etc should be well considered before start knitting.

The fabric before processing is called Greige fabric. It is also called Grey fabric (kora fabric).

Machine Gauge:

There are different types of fabric structure like Jersey, Pique, Interlock, Rib, French rib (loop knit), Flat back rib, Fleece, Herring bone, etc.

Knitting machines are available in different gauges. 2GG, 3GG, 4GG, 5GG, 7GG machines are used for sweater knitting (Tricot knit).

Fabrics like Jersey, Pique, Rib and Interlock are knitted on 14GG, 16GG, 18GG, 20GG, 24GG, 26GG, 28GG, and 30GG suitably. The fabric is knitted according to the cam design. If we need any different type of knitting, the cams in cylinder and dial should be adjusted accordingly.

The number of needles per inch means Gauge. For example, 24GG machine will have 24 needles per inch; 30GG machine will have 30 needles per inch. If we need more needles per inch, we have to go for higher gauge machine.

As the higher Gauge machines are having more needles per inch, the fabric will be knitted tightly. And the fabric will have lesser shrinkage and better feeling.

According to the machine gauge, the yarn counts to be selected and used. If the Gauge is higher, the thinner yarn can be used. If the Gauge is lesser, the thicker yarn can be used.

When making knitting program, our aim must be to make tight knitting with better fabric feeling and less shrinkage. Accordingly we must plan to use the higher yarn counts and higher gauge knitting machines. So the yarn count selection is more important according to the selected Gauge machine. Also the machine Gauge to be selected according to the selected yarn count.

For example, for Jersey fabric, we can achieve 140GSM either by using 34s yarn & 26GG machine or by using 30s yarn & 24GG machine. To get better quality fabric, it is preferable to use 34s yarn & 26GG machine.

Texture:

As warp and weft are making woven fabrics, there are 2 things making the knit fabric. They are Wales and Course. Wales is the vertical yarn. Course is the horizontal yarn.

The machine gauge fixes Waless lines. This cannot be changed. Adjusting in the machine can alter coarse lines. This is called Texture.

By adjusting this texture, the required fabric GSM (Grey or kora) can be achieved.

Diameter:

As the knit fabrics are made in tubular form, the patterns for making garments are being made according to tubular fabrics. Hence the diameter of fabric is very important.

When we talk about Diameter, we must take care of various diameters. They are diameter of the machine, diameter of the grey fabric, diameter of the processed fabric and diameter of the finished fabric. These diameters will not be the same. Our ultimate aim is to get the required diameter of the finished fabric according to the patterns. So we have to check these diameters carefully at every stage.

Diameter of the machine will not be changed. But after knitting, each type of fabric will be in different diameters. For example, if Jersey fabric is knitted in 30 diameter machine, the grey fabric diameter will be plus or minus 1. That is, between 29 and 31. But if Pique fabric is knitted in 30 diameter machine, the grey fabric diameter will be 37. Likewise, each type of grey fabric will be in different diameter according to the knitting method and nature of the fabric design.

During processing, the fabrics will be soaked in dyes for more than 5 hours. So the fabric will shrink both in widthwise and lengthwise depends on fabric texture. And the diameter will be changed accordingly. If the fabric is knitted with lower texture, the fabric will grow in widthwise during processing. Hence the diameter will be increased enormously. If the fabric is knitted tightly by using higher yarn counts, higher gauge machines and with higher texture, we can minimise this difference.

After processing also, each type of fabric will be in different diameter. For example, if the grey fabric diameter of Jersey is 30, then the diameter after processing will be 29. But if the grey diameter of Pique is 37, then the diameter after processing will be 34.

Diameter of the finished fabric should be suitable for patterns and for cutting. If this diameter is smaller than the pattern, then we cannot cut the fabric as per our program. If this diameter is larger than the pattern, then there will be more fabric wastage. If there are 1 or 2 inches difference, it can be corrected during compacting or other finishing process.

So the fixing of finished fabric diameter is based on pattern requirements. Finished diameter is based on processed diameter; processed diameter is based on grey diameter; grey diameter is based on machine diameter; machine diameter is based on the fabric nature. Hence the selection of machine diameter is very important to get required finished fabric diameter.

Also as we have seen earlier, we have to pay more attention to fix the yarn counts, machine gauge, texture and grey GSM.

Approximate knitting charges per kg in Rs.:

Jersey 8

Pique 15

Interlock 18

1x1 rib 15

Jersey with Lycra 25

Pique with Lycra 25

Rib with Lycra 30

Feeder stripes Jersey 12

Feeder stripes Pique 18

Feeder stripes Interlock 20

Feeder stripes rib 15

Engg stripes Jersey 40-60

Engg stripes Pique 50-70

Engg stripes Interlock 40-60

Engg stripes Rib 110-130

Regarding yarn stripes, if the repeat width of stripes is below 3.5cms, it can be knitted in normal machines. Colour yarns should be feed in according to the stripes. As the yarn feeders adjust the stripes, it is called Feeder stripes. We have to note that a maximum of 3.5cms of repeat width of stripes is possible to knit with the ordinary machines.

If the repeat width is more than 3.5cms, then it is called Engineering stripes or Auto stripes. These engineering stripes can be knitted with special kind of machines. The knitting charges for these engineering stripes are very higher.

KNITTING WITH ELASTAN (SPANDEX):

Knitting of 100%Cotton yarn is easy. As poly cotton yarns are blended in fiber stage itself, we get the single yarn with blends. Hence knitting of these blended yarns is also easy.

When we knit the fabrics with different quality of yarns together, we have to be careful of their counts. Generally the synthetic yarns like polyester, viscose, polyamide (nylon), and elastan (spandex) are measured in Denier. But the cotton yarns are measured in Counts. We need the thickness of both yarns to be the same. So when we knit cotton yarns with these synthetic yarns, we must be sure of using the suitable denier yarn.

To select suitable denier, we can use following conversion formula.

Counts = 5315 Denier

Denier = 5315 Counts

Let us see an example of knitting Cotton/Lycra (Elastan) fabric. If we use 38s counts of cotton yarn, then we have to use same 38s counts of Lycra yarn. Then only the knitting will be even. In order to select the suitable denier, we use the above formula. We see that 140 Denier is equal to 38s counts. So, 140-denier Lycra yarn is to be used for this fabric.

Also, during knitting, the number of feeders of Lycra yarn is to be decided according to the required percentage of Lycra. This is the same procedure for the other synthetic yarns too.

PRE-PROCESSING

We are making the fabric, wishing to get the finished fabric with following qualities.

GSM (as per Purchase Order)

Diameter (as per Pattern)

Shrinkage (as per the tolerance normally below 5%)

Colour (shade, fastness as per approval)

Fabric feeling (as per requirement)

To fulfill all these important things, we have to check following things before knitting.

GSM during knitting, before processing, after processing, before finishing or compacting, after compacting (on cutting table).

Diameter machine diameter, before processing, after processing, before finishing or compacting, after compacting (on cutting table).

Shrinkage before compacting and after compacting.

Colour shade and fastness before and after finishing.

Fabric feeling should be controlled during knitting, processing and compacting.

We must be aware the fact that even if we use the same mill yarn, same knitting machine, same dyeing factory and same finishing process, we will not get the same result every time. For example, even if we use the same mill yarn but with different yarn lots, we will get different results. Likewise we will get different results due to knitting machine make, gauge, processing methods, qualities of dyes & chemicals, processing timing, processing water quality, compacting method & temperature, etc. So it is not possible to define the entire system with 100% conformity. Hence regarding knitted fabrics, we always expect different results every time and every time we must be prepared for avoiding the differences or deviations.

Due to the above reasons, after processing, there will be shade variations between lots. If we take more care during processing, these variations can be limited. But we cannot avoid shade variations between lots 100%.

At the same time, we must be aware that there should not be shade variation between body, sleeves, collar and cuffs in one garment. Also there should not be shade variation between garments of different sizes, which are packed in one carton. This is very important.

Even though the buyer knows that the lot to lot shade variations can not be avoided 100%, they will expect at least no shading between garments packed in one carton.

To avoid shade variations, we have to follow the following procedures.

To avoid shading between body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, rib, rope, twill tape:

1. Grey fabrics for body, sleeves and grey collars, cuffs, rib, rope, twill tape should be knitted with same mill yarn from the same yarn lot.

2. Fabric for body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, etc., should be dyed or processed in one lot only.

3. Body and sleeves should be cut in the same fabric roll. Fabric program should be made accordingly. (If this is not possible or not suitable due to more wastage or any other reason and if the body and sleeve fabrics are in different diameters, they should be dyed or processed as one lot only).

4. All the parts of one garment (body, sleeves, collars, cuffs, pockets, patches, ribs, etc) should be numbered during cutting. Numberings should be followed till the full garment is made.

To avoid shading between different sizes of garments in one carton:

1. We must study the packing methods clearly. If the packing is assorted sizes in one carton, before sending the fabrics for processing, each lot to be made according to assorted sizes. Number of assortments of one lot is to be decided according to the dyeing vessel capacity.

2. If the packing is Solid size in one carton, before sending the fabrics for processing each lot to be made with the Size wise fabrics. Weight of the fabric of one lot is to be decided according to the dyeing vessel capacity.

3. Collars, cuffs, ribs, twill tapes, ropes, etc should be added in to the above fabric lot, so that all necessary fabrics and accessories are being dyed at one time.

To avoid shading between fabric lots:

1. Water temperature, processing time, quantity of water and quality of dyestuffs are the defining factors of dyeing. These should be consistent to get even dyeing and consistency in shades. As it is not possible in traditional manual winch dyeing, we should dye the fabrics only with latest soft flow dyeing machines.

2. Same mill yarn from the same yarn lot to be used.

3. When we have to use yarn from different lots, the grey fabrics from one yarn lot should be sent for processing separately. Fabrics from the second lot should be sent separately. Mixing of lots should be avoided.

4. Approved lab dips should be followed for the 1st fabric lot ONLY.

5. When the colour shade in the first fabric lot is approved, the same shade to be followed for the second and further lots too. First lot cutting swatch to be followed for further lots. This cutting swatch to be sent along with the other grey fabrics lots when they are sent for processing.

6. Once 1st lot is approved, only this lot cutting to be referred and followed for further lots. Lab dips should not be referred. This is very important.

PROCESSING

AZO DYESTUFFS:

When we discuss about processing, we must be aware of Azo dyestuffs. In April 1996, German Government had banned import of consumer products using one or more of carcinogenic aromatic amines in textile and leather articles, which have the possibility of direct contacts with the human skin. They are clothing, bedding, towels, hairpieces, wigs, hats, diapers and other sanitary items, footwear, gloves, watch straps, belts, purses, wallets, briefcases, chair covers and toys.

Nowadays other developed countries are also following the ban of azo dyestuffs. Following are the 24 banned azo dyestuffs.

4-Aminobiphenyl,

Benzedrine,

4-Chloro-o-toluidine,

2-Naphthylamine,

o-aminoazotoluene,

2-Amino-4-nitorotoluene,

P-Chloroaniline,

2,4-Diaminoanisole,

4,4-Diaminobihenylmethane,

3,3-dichlorobenzidine,

3,3-Dimethozybenzidine,

3,3-Dimethylbenzidine,

3,3-Dimethyl-4,4-diaminobiphenylmethane,

P-Cresidine,

4,4-Methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline),

4,4-Oxydianiline,

4,4-Thiodianiline,

O-Toluidine,

2,4-Toluylendiamine,

2,4,5-Trimethylaniline,

O-Anisidine,

P-Aminoazobenzene,

2,4-Xylidine,

2,6-Xylidine.

If the garment supplied by a supplier, is tested and proved that it contains any of these banned dyestuffs, the buyer has the right to reject the goods or even to sue a case against the supplier for not following the regulations. Hence, even if the buyer has not specifically mentioned about this, we have to use Azo Free dyestuffs only.

Since the dyeing factory cannot determine whether the dyestuff is azo or azo-free, it is safer to get the confirmation from the dyestuff manufacturer. It is important to note that different dyestuffs with the same colour index number can produce different results due to differences in the purity of the raw materials and contamination by impurities.

Some buyers will ask their suppliers to certify that they are not using azo dyestuffs. In this case, before certifying to buyers, it is safer for the supplier to get the certificate from their dyeing factories and their dyestuff suppliers.

Some buyers will ask their suppliers to submit lab test reports for azo free dyestuffs for each colour of the garments they are producing for them. The lab test charges for azo dyestuffs are very high. It is approximately Rs.7, 000 per colour.

BLEACHING:

There are 2 qualities of bleaching. One is Chlorine Bleach. Another is Peroxide Bleach.

Chlorine Bleach:

Chlorine bleach is cost wise cheaper and lesser in quality. It will have lesser whiteness. If a garment is made of Chlorine bleached fabric, the whiteness will vanish after washes and will become pale white or Offwhite. The fabric will have Chlorine smell. Also it will give irritation to body. Above all, as Chlorine contains azo dyestuffs, it is banned in most of the countries.

Chlorine bleaching charge: By open winch or open tub: Rs.10 12 / kg.

Peroxide Bleach:

So the other option is Peroxide bleach. Any bright shades like Milk white; Snow white can be achieved by Peroxide bleach. The brightness will be forever even after many washes of garments. There will not be any smell. Also it will not give irritation to body.

Peroxide bleaching can be done in 3 methods. They are by using open winches, soft flow machines and continuous bleaching machines.

Winch bleach is the traditional method. Peroxide bleach can be made only with hot water. Hence we have to be sure that the bleaching factory is having boiler and whether they are using boiling water for our job.

Some bleaching factories will say that they will use Peroxide bleach in winches. But they will use Chlorine bleach and will do Peroxide coating to minimise their cost. But this is not acceptable. If we smell the fabric deeply, we can smell Chlorine. If this fabric tested for azo contents, the result will show that it contains azo dyestuffs. Also after ironed and packed the garments into a polybag and kept for some time, we can smell Chlorine immediately after removing and smelling the garments from the polybag.

So it is better to bleach the fabrics either by soft flow machines or by continuous bleaching machines. By using Continuous bleaching machine, we can get consistent Whiteness throughout the entire lots.

Peroxide White charge if made by winches: Approx Rs.22 24 / kg depending on shade.

Peroxide White charge if made by continuous bleaching machines: Approx Rs.3035/kg.

FABRIC DYEING:

There are 3 qualities of dyeing. They are Reactive dyeing, Pigment dyeing and Discharge dyeing.

1. Reactive dyeing:

When we call dyeing, it means Reactive dyeing only. This is the normal dyeing. The dyes used for dyeing are called Reactive Dyes. As we discussed above, only Azo Free dyes should be used.

2. Pigment dyeing:

In this type of dyeing, the Pigment dyes are to be used. Pigment dyeing is used when the fabric is to be stone washed or acid washed or enzyme washed (like Jeans). Pigment dyes are mainly used for printing. Generally this pigment dyeing is made in Jigger machines. By using these dyes in dyeing, the fabric will be very stiff, as if the fabric is pigment printed on both sides 100%. After this, the fabrics will be washed in special soft flow machines for getting special effects like stone wash, acid wash, enzyme wash, etc.

Nowadays, there are advanced soft flow machines with simplified methods from which we get better results. We will have more discussions on this, in the chapter Garment Dyeing.

3. Discharge dyeing:

For this type of dyeing, Discharge dyes are to be used. Some dyes are having the quality of discharge. Discharge dyeing is required only when the fabric is to be Discharge printed. We will discuss about this later when we discuss about Discharge printing.

LAB DIPS:

Before proceeding dyeing, the Lab dips are made in the laboratory. 2 to 4 lab dips are made similar to the required shade. According to the approved lab dip, bulk dyeing will be done. As each yarn will have different dyeing absorbency and as each fabric type will have different dyeing absorbency, the lab dips should be made in the same fabric, which we want to dye the particular colour. Then only we will get required results. For example, if we want to dye Jersey fabric for bulk, the lab dips should be done in the same Jersey fabric bits. Even, other Jersey fabric, who is made with different yarn, should not be used.

When lab dips are made, the combination of dyes & chemicals are noted well in the books. This combination is called Recipe. The same combination is used in bulk dyeing proportionately.

There are 2 types of dyeing. One is Winch dyeing. Another is Soft flow dyeing.

WINCH DYEING:

Winch dyeing is a traditional method of dyeing. Fabric rolls will be joined together by knotting them. During dyeing, the fabrics will roll on winches. When a motor rotates the winch, dipping in diluted dyes will roll the fabrics. The dyes are diluted with hot boiled water and kept in the bottom of the vessel. After checking whether the required shade is attained, fabrics will be removed from the winches.

The dyeing process will take different timings for different colours. Some dark colours will take approximately 8 hours. As the winch is kept opened, the temperature of water will not be consistent. Temperature in the 4th or 5th hour will not be the same in the 1st hour. It will be much lesser. Hence the absorbency of colour will not be even. Also as the fabric rolled in folded form on winches, the colour patches will be occurred on the fabrics.

For the regular shades, the dyes are available in suitable shades. These dyes are called direct dyes.

For some shades, the direct dyes will not be available. In these cases, dyes of some 2 or 3 colours are to be mixed proportionately to get the required shades. These are called Combination colours. Each dye will have different solubility and reactivity. When 2 or 3 different dyes are mixed together, fabric may not absorb some colours properly. Due to this, the particular colour will not have the total required shade and colour fastness.

The dyeing charges by open winches: Light colours: 20 25

Medium colours: 30 40

Dark colours: 45 50

Darkest colours: 55- 60

Royal: 70 80

SOFT FLOW DYEING:

It is also called Jet dyeing or Closed Winch dyeing. These types of machines are used in recent years. It is a closed winch. Temperature, dyes & water capacity, fabric capacity, timing, everything is computerised. Due to this, the temperature is consistent. Hence the fabric absorbs the dyes evenly. Also the colourfastness will be better.

Though soft flow dyeing is more expensive than winch dyeing, this is the best way to get required shade exactly with better colourfastness. There will not be any colour patches. Also the fabric wastage will be lesser than open winch dyeing. In open winch dyeing, the fabric rolls are joined by tying the ends. So after dyeing, the fabric wastage will be more due to the rejection of these roll ends. They have to be cut and rejected. But in soft flow dyeing, as the fabric rolls are joined with over lock stitches, the fabric wastages can be reduced considerably.

Shades and charges:

There are too many shades in each colour. It is difficult to give exact definition for light colours or dark colours by their names. Anyhow let us have a rough idea about colours.

Offwhite, Light Grey, Lt Blue, Lt Pink, Lt Yellow, Lt Orange, Lt Green, etc are Light colours.

Blue, Orange, Blue, Light Red, Yellow, Medium Green, Grey, etc are Medium colours.

Navy, Dark Blue, Green, Brown, etc are Dark colours.

Black, Red, Olive Green, Military Green, Dark Navy, etc are the darkest colours.

The costliest colour is Royal. (It is too expensive, as the direct dyes for Royal to be used to get the brightness. Sometimes if the shade is lighter and if the customer cooperates to reduce the cost, the shade can be achieved with the combination of Blue, Black, Red, etc. By these colours, we can get similar shade; but it will have poor colourfastness. So it is advisable to use direct dyes only).

For the darker shades more dyestuffs are to be used. Due to this and due to more processing time, the dyeing charges for darker shades are higher than the lighter shades.

The dyeing charges by soft flow machines: Light colours: 30 40

Medium colours: 40 - 50

Dark colours: 60 70

Darkest colours: 70 - 80

Royal: 90 100

FABRIC MERCERISING:

This is a special process. The fabrics made by gassed yarns or gassed mercerised yarns have to be mercerised to strengthen the fabric and to get permanent shiny look and brightness. The fabric will be treated with caustic soda under perfectly controlled tension. After this mercerising process the fabric will become tight and the diameter of the fabric will be much reduced. So it is advisable to knit the fabrics with the knitting machine not less than 26 diameter.

Due to this mercerising, the fabric gets not only very good strength and improved luster; but also improved colour absorbency. Hence the consumption of dyestuffs and processing time are reduced. Due to this, the dyeing cost will be reduced by 15 to 20% from the normal dyeing charges.

To do the fabric mercerising, the fabric is not needed to be made by gassed or mercerised yarns. Any normal fabric also can be mercerised to strengthen the fabric and to improve luster. Though we have to bear with the mercerising charges, we can get 15 to 20% reduction in dyeing charges, if mercerising and dyeing is done in the same processing mill.

The dyeing quality will vary depending on mercerising quality. If the mercerising is not been done properly, the dyeing quality will be inferior. Hence it is always safer to do the mercerising and dyeing in the same processing mill under same roof.

Approximate fabric mercerising charge is Rs.45 to 50 per kg. We can get some reduction from the mill, if we do both mercerising and dyeing together with them.

FABRIC WASHING:

We make some fabrics with dyed yarn or mlange yarn. But after knitting, these fabrics have to be washed with soft cold water to remove the smell and dusts of yarn. Also to avoid the handling stains, these fabrics are to be washed.

Not only the fabrics. The collars, ribs, twill tapes, ropes made with dyed yarns or mlange yarns also to be washed to avoid stains, smell and to get softer hand feel.

The washing charge is normally Rs.5 per kg.

FINISHING & COMPACTING

CALENDERING:

After bleaching or dyeing or washing and after drying, the fabrics will have wrinkles and creases. To remove these wrinkles, the fabric is to be ironed to enable easy cutting. Technically we call this ironing method as Calendering. This is done with steam pressure to get smooth, glossy finish of fabric. Also this will help the fabric to maintain its diameter.

Steam calendering charge: Rs.1.50 to 2.50 / kg.

COMPACTING:

Nowadays it is not enough to calender the fabrics. When we calender the fabrics, it will only remove wrinkles and will maintain the diameter. But it will not control the shrinkage or fabric weight (GSM). There are no facilities in calendering machines. As the shrinkage and GSM are important things, we have to compact the fabrics with the latest compacting machines.

With these compacting machines, we can adjust following things.

1. Diameter.

2. GSM.

3. Shrinkage.

But all these 3 things cannot be adjusted simultaneously. We can adjust either diameter or GSM or shrinkage. We must be aware of this important fact. We can get better result from these compacting machines, if we use this machine for only controlling shrinkage. To get required GSM and finishing diameter, we must take more and more care during yarn selection and knitting. If we failed to take preliminary steps for GSM and diameter, we will be in trouble in the end while finishing the fabrics. If we try to achieve these 3 things together, nothing can be done.

Charges for Tubular compacting: Rs.6 per kg.

STENTERING:

The compacting machines are used to compact the knit fabrics in tubular form. Some times, we will have to compact the fabric in open width form. These open width fabrics can be compacted by Open Width compacting machines or Stenter machines.

Generally these Stenter machines are used for compacting woven fabrics. From these machines, we can get the same good result for knit fabrics also.

Charges for Open width compacting: Rs.12 15 per kg.

Charges for Open width Stendering: Rs.15 20 per kg.

HEAT SETTING:

The 100% Cotton fabrics are normally very soft, as cotton is the natural fiber. But if the fabric is made or blended with synthetic or artificial fibers like Polyester, Polyamide (Nylon), Elastan (Spandex), Acrylic, Viscose, etc, the fabric will be very stiff and hard. These fabrics cannot be used with these stiffness and hardness. Hence to get softer hand feel and flexibility, these blended fabrics have to be Heat Set.

Heat set can be done both in open width and tubular form. But to get better result, it is better to do heat set in open width form.

As 100% Cotton fabrics dont need this heat set process, they can be used for cutting in tubular form itself. But for the blended fabrics, the heat set process is a must. So generally the blended fabrics and synthetic fabrics are finished in open width form only.

Charges for Heat set: Rs.25 30 per kg.

FABRIC RAISING OR BRUSHING:

Some fabrics need to be raised on one side or both sides. Especially, the heavy fabrics made for winter seasons, require to be raised to get softer hand feel or to get rich look. Loop knit (French rib), fleece, and flat back rib fabrics are usually raised. After dyeing and after drying, the fabric is to be raised by a suitable machine.

The raising is to be done to the same direction of the fabric. If the fabric is raised in the opposite direction of fabric, the raising effect will not be good and it will damage the fabric structure.

Charges for one side raising: Rs.10 per kg.

PRINTING

There are two different prints. They are all over prints and chest prints.

ALL OVER PRINTS:

All over prints can be made both manually (table prints) and by machines. Fabrics are spread on long tables and printed manually with screens. Printing is done one colour by one colour. We can print the second colour, only after drying the 1st colour. As the fabric has to dry after printing of each colour, it will take more time for multi colour printing. The print quality depends on the printers stroke. If the stroke of the printer differs, the print quality will differ. Hence the application of colours will not be even and consistent. Also the registration (placement) of all colours will not be perfect.

Hence nowadays-Rotary machines are used for all over printing. Though it is little expensive than manual table printing, we have many advantages in rotary printing. They are as follows.

1. Quick and time saving.

2. Up to 10 colour designs can be printed simultaneously.

3. Perfect registration (placement).

4. Consistent printing colours and quality.

5. Immediate drying.

6. Less wastage.

For printing in Rotary machines, tubular screens are to be made for each colour. The films and screens are to be made with great care to get perfect accuracy, seating and registration. Some times, we will have to make the films with the help of computers. Even though it will cost more, we can achieve perfection in printing.

Rotary screens are in tubular form. The diameter of the screen is 64.1cms. Hence the repeat of print will be 64.1cms. To avoid visibility of the repeat joint after printing, more care to be taken while making films, BLD (Bright Light Duplicating) and engraving screens. Extra care to be taken for geometric designs like multi checks with inner designs. Though the films are made with computer, screens are also to be made accurately with more attention not showing the repeat joints in screens.

There are some machines available to print with 90cms screen width. These machines are very rare in use.

We have to be sure that softener should not be added during dyeing or bleaching. If the softener is added, the fabric will have shiny look (like waxing). Due to this, the fixing of printing on fabric will be affected. Then the printing will look blurred. When we drop one or two drops of water on fabric, if the fabric absorbs the water, it means the fabric does not have softener. If the fabric does not absorb the water, it means the fabric has softener. If the fabric has softener, it should be removed from the fabric by washing the fabric again.

Also before printing, we have to be sure that the fabric is dried completely. If the fabric is even slightly wet, when we print on rotary printing in tubular form, the first side printing will be in lighter shades. After printing, as the continuous process, the fabric will get completely dried. So when we print the same fabric on the second side, the print will be better than on the first side. So there will be difference between both sides in shades and registration. This will create major problem in garmenting. Hence the fabric is to be completely dried before printing.

Pigment prints, Reactive prints and Discharge prints can be printed with Rotary machines.

PIGMENT PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):

This is the regular print. For this, Pigment dyes (inks) are used. This can be printed either in tubular form or in open width form.

Procedure to print in tubular form:

1. Grey fabric to be bleached or light colour dyed.2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.

3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing.

4. Required printing colours are mixed with the turpentine base, which is a petroleum product. Due to the higher cost and scarcity of turpentine, kerosene is used as an alternate.

5. Fabric is printed according to the designs and colours of each screen. As the continuous process, the printed fabric will go through the drier machine. Then the printed fabric will come out in thoroughly dried form.

6. Then the fabric is to be rolled on the other side and the other side is to be printed.

7. As the petroleum product (turpentine or kerosene) is used as the base, after the print, the fabric will have the smell of this base fluid. Hence after printing on both sides, the fabric should be cured to remove the smell from the fabric.

8. If the print has more than 20% print coverage or printed with dark colours, the fabric is to be washed after curing. This wash will help for better fixation of colours; avoid smell, better shrinkage and better colourfastness. If we need softer hand feel after printing, the printed fabric can be enzyme washed.

9. Then, as the normal procedure, the fabric is to be compacted to control shrinkage and to remove wrinkles and creases. But some print designs may lose its shape after compacting. For example, a square design may change into a rectangle; a round design may change into an oval shape. The fabric washing will help to avoid these problems and to retain the print designs.

Advantages:

1. Cheaper cost.

2. Any shade is possible.

3. Selection or mixing colours are easier.

4. Print shades can be checked and corrected during printing.

5. Printing colours will be the same before and after printing.

6. Can be printed in tubular form and open width form.

7. Less process after printing.

Risk factors:

1. Will have lesser colourfastness especially in rubbing and sun light.

2. Print smell.

3. Rough hand feel.

Print in open width form:

If we print the fabric in tubular form, we will get shade variation of printing colours between both sides. Also at least 1 fabric on each edge of each printed side will be wasted due to the merging of printing inks, etc. So totally at least 4 width of fabric will be wasted. Also due to the double job, the charges will be little higher than open width printing.

Hence it is preferable to print in open width form to avoid shade variation between sides, to minimise the fabric wastage and to minimise the printing charges.

Procedures are the same for tubular print and open width print.

Water base prints:

As turpentine or kerosene is used as the base fluid, the fabric will smell after printing. Also the printed fabric will have slightly rough hand feel. As an alternative for this, water is used in place of turpentine or kerosene. This is called water base prints. Water base colours are to be used as printing inks. But this kind of water print is very rarely used, because of dull look and blurred print effect. Printing charges are almost the same as pigment prints.

Organic dyeing & printing:

As the dyes and chemicals are synthetic, there is another way of using natural substances for dyeing and printing. They are called organic dyes. They are made mainly from the vegetables. But this is very expensive and very rarely used.

All over prints (Pigment print) charges per kg in Rs.:

Table printing (manual printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 25 30

30 to 50% print coverage: 45 50


Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 20 30





Printed fabric washing with slight enzyme: 8 10

Printed fabric washing with heavy enzyme: 10 12

REACTIVE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):

This is a special kind of print. For this, Reactive dyes to be used. (We have to remember that Reactive dyes are used for fabric dyeing also).

Procedures:

1. Grey fabric is to be bleached or light colour dyed.

2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.

3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing.

4. As the print dyes will penetrate into the fabric, there may be print impression on third page of fabric. It is called Third page image. To avoid this, it is better to print in open width form only.

5. The preparation of printing colours is not easier. Shade masters will prepare one shade; but after printing we will get entirely new shade. Hence it needs very good knowledge and experience for getting the required shades.

6. Before bulk printing, small length of fabric is to be printed for checking the shades. One bit of this printed fabric is to be tested with hot silicate to see the final shades. Accordingly the dyes can be fixed or altered for bulk printing.

7. Printed fabric is to be kept under silicate storage for 10 12 hours.

8. Then the fabric is to be washed and rinsed in running water. To remove the print dusts, this wash is essential. If the fabric is washed in winches or tubs, the print dusts will stick to the fabric again. Hence the fabric has to be washed in running water. As the water should not be recycled, it is better to wash the fabric in rivers. It is called River Wash.

9. Then fabric is to be dried.

Advantages:

1. Best colour fastness.

2. Brightness of colours even after many washes.

3. Longer life for prints.

4. Very soft hand feel. By touch, we cant find difference between the printed and unprinted areas.

Risk factors:

1. Very expensive.

2. Too many important processes to be followed.

4. Too much care to be taken in every process.

5. Very difficult to get all the required shades exactly.

All over prints (Reactive print) charges per kg in Rs.:

Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 60 70





DISCHARGE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):

This is also a special kind of print. For this, Discharge dyes (Remazol dyes) are to be used.

If we have to print dark colours on White or Light colour background, we can easily use Pigment printing. It means, if the printing colours are darker than the base colour, we can use pigment printing.

But if we have to print light colours on Dark colour base, we have to use Discharge printing.

(In some cases, in pigment printing, if we have to print White colour or very light colour on dark base, Gadi is added with the printing colour to stick on the fabric. But this will not have better fastness. Print will vanish even by rubbing or washing. Prints will be so rough when touching the printed area. Importantly, as Gadi contains azo dyestuffs, it is not used widely. It is better to avoid this).

We have to remember that not all the dyes have discharging qualities. Only discharge dyes are having discharging qualities. Hence it is essentially important that the fabric is to be dyed with Discharge dyes (Remazol dyes).

Procedures:

1. Fabric is dyed with discharge dyes ONLY.

2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.

3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing. 4. As the print dyes will discharge the dyed portions and penetrate into the fabric, there will be print impression on third page of fabric. It is called Third page image. To avoid this, the fabric is to be slit opened compulsorily before printing. That is, the fabric to be printed only in open width form.

5. Before bulk printing, the printing dyes to be checked whether the required colour shades are achieved. This is very important as during printing, the printing shades will not be visible (like Reactive printing).

6. Printing to be done with discharge dyes. When printing, the printing dyes will first remove the dyed portions where the print is needed. Then they will let the required colours to be fixed in the same places. These two things will take place at one time simultaneously due to the special quality of discharge dyes.

7. After printing is completed, the fabric is to be stored in silicate storage for 10 -12 hours for fixation of colours.

8. After printing, the fabric is to be washed Normal washing. No river wash is needed.

Advantages:1. Only possible best way to print on dark colour base.

2. Better colour fastness.

3. Better soft hand feel.

4. Long lasting print quality.

5. Can be printed manually too.

Risk factors:

1. Expensive print cost.

2. All colour shades cannot be achieved.

3. So much care to be taken before printing in selecting suitable colours.

4. All the pre-processes and post-processes to be done with much care.

5. Can get better print quality only on some base colours like Black, Red, Green, and Navy.

Some tips:

If the printing colour is only White, the fabric is to be peroxide bleached before dyeing. Then after discharge printing, after the removal of dyeing colour, the base colour White will be visible as printed.

If White is one of the printing colours, the same procedure to be followed to get the White colour.

If the printing colour is only Offwhite, the fabric is to be half bleached before dyeing. Then after discharge printing, after the removal of dyeing colour, Offwhite colour will be visible as printed.

All over prints (Discharge dyeing + Discharge print) charges per kg in Rs.:

As we see, the fabric is to be discharge dyed. Therefore, it is better to dye and print in one factory itself. Accordingly let us see the printing cost including dyeing cost. These costs will differ according to the dyeing shades, number of colours, etc. Hence the below costs are to give you a rough idea only.

Table printing (winch dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 60 70



Rotary printing (dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 90 100




CHEST PRINTS:

Chest prints can be printed both manually and with machines. Nowadays only the machine prints are used. Like all over printing on rotary machines, printing spot prints on chest printing machines too have many advantages. They are as follows.

1. Perfect colours and shades.

2. Perfect placement and registration.


4. Better smoothness and sharpness.

5. No smell. No stain in unprinted areas.

6. Quick production.

7. Multi colour facilities (10 colours at a time).

8. Less wastage.

9. Longer life for prints.

There are 2 types of machines. One is called Octopus automatic machine (MHM). Other one is Semi-automatic machine. Octopus machine will print automatically. This machine is very costly (about Rs.40 lakhs). Hence the printing cost will also be higher. But prints will have the best quality.

But nowadays the Semi-automatic machines are used widely. These machines are made locally at cheaper prices (about Rs.1 lakh). With these machines, we can get better quality prints at cheaper cost.

There are different quality chest prints namely Pigment prints, Plastisol prints, Glitter prints, Flock prints, Water prints, Non-PVC prints, Foil prints, Foam prints, Reflective prints, Perfume prints, Motif prints, Embossed prints, Sugar prints, Transfer prints, Sticker prints, etc.

Chest printing charges:

Chest prints can be printed both in garment form and bit form depending on the print design and area. The printing cost is generally based on the number of colours, print area and coverage.

Manual printing (table printing) charges:

Only pigment prints should be printed by manually.

Up to 2 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 2 per pc

Up to 10cm x 10cm: 4 per pc



For more than 2 colours, 10% of charge per colour can be added with above charges.

It is advisable to print maximum 4 colours by manually.

After the manual printing, the printed fabric or garment is to be cured to remove the print smell. The cost of curing is approximately Rs.5 per kg.

Machine printing (Plastisol inks) charges:

The printing cost also depends on the print quality like plastisol, flock, foil, sugar, glitters, foam, etc. Here we will see the print cost for normal print namely Plastisol print.

To get the cost of other special quality prints, it is better to check with the printers.

Up to 3 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 3 per pc




For above 3 colours, 10% of cost per colour is to be added with the above costs. 8 to 10 colours can be printed with machines.

After plastisol print, as there will be no print smell, the fabric or garment is not needed to be cured. But the printed part is to be fused to have better fixing and colourfastness. Fusing cost is included in the above costs.

The garment or fabric bits can be with softener finish. It does not matter, whether the garment or the fabric bits are having softener or not. Print quality will not be affected and will be the same.

SPECIAL PROCESSES

There are some other special processes like Tie & Dye, Batiks, Garment Dyeing (Garment wash), etc.

TIE & DYE:

This process can be done manually only. Reactive dyes or Discharge dyes can be used. It is better to use Discharge dyes. This tie & dye process will give special dyeing effect.

It can be done in garment form or bit form according to the design and style.

Procedures:

1. Only 100%Cotton fabrics can be tie & dyed manually (in India).

2. The fabric is to be Peroxide bleached for better result. (If it is Chlorine bleached, the result will not be good).

3. If we do tie & dye in garment form, the garment to be made in bleached fabric. Important thing is that the garment to be stitched with 100%Cotton Grey thread only. As Polyester thread will not get dyed, only 100%Cotton threads to be used for stitching.

4. As the garment will shrink during tie & dye, the bleached fabric is to be compacted well before making the garment.

5. After the tie & dye process, nothing can be done about measurements, shrinkage and shape of garment. Hence some sample garments to be tested before bulk tie &dye, by taking note of all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid problems in measurements, shrinkage and shape.

6. If we do tie & dye in bit form, the fabric bit is to be cut with shrinkage allowance and cutting allowance in lengthwise and widthwise.

7. When we cut the fabrics either for making garment or for bit form, the fabric is to be cut in Wales (vertical) direction perfectly. Though this is the regular procedure for all garments, this has to be followed compulsorily for Tie & Dye, essentially for keeping better dimensional stability of garments after tie & dye.

8. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To Match), the embroidery should be done with 100%Cotton thread only. Then only the embroidery threads will be dyed suitably. If we use normal embroidery threads, they will not get dyed.

9. If the embroidery colour is not DTM, the embroidery can be made with normal embroidery threads.

10. Fabrics for body, sleeves, neck rib and other accessories to be dyed simultaneously according to the requirement.

11. If there is any other base colour except White, the garment or bit to be dyed to the required base colour. And to be dried under shades naturally.

12. Garments or bits are tightly tied with ropes according to the required design. It may be stripes or any other design.

13. Then the tied portions or untied portions will be dipped into the required colour dyes. This is the dyeing process. The dipping will be done manually. It will take few minutes only.

14. Then the ties are removed and the garments or bits to be dried under shades.

15. Then the garments or bits to be tied again for the next colour(s) and to be dipped in the next colour(s) and to be dried under shades. And so on.

16. We have to remember that so far, the fixing agent is not added with the colour dyes. If the fixing agent is added during these above processes, the other colours will not fix properly.

17. After the completion of dipping of all required colours and after the garments or bits dried after the final colours, the garments or bits to be fixed with fixing agent.

18. Then the garments or bits are to be dried under shadows.

19. As the fixing agent is fixed now, the colours are fixed in the garments and fabric bits. (In case of emergency, now the garments or bits can be dried with machines too. But to get better result, it is better to dry them in shadows).

20. Before cutting the bits for garments, the steam lines are to be carefully found out, as the designs will be slightly confusing due to symmetrical effect.

Advantages:

1. Enormous designs can be made.

2. Very attractive and suitable for high fashions.


4. As it is done manually, can be made at affordable prices.

Risk factors:

1. As all the processes are done manually, there will be less consistency of designs and quality.

2. Much time consuming process especially due to natural drying.

3. More and more care to be taken at all stages starting from knitting, cutting, garmenting, processing, etc.

4. During and after the process, the fabrics can be dried only naturally. Drying by machines is not possible. No alternative can be made in rainy seasons. Shipments may be delayed if we dont plan properly expecting the natural problems.

5. For larger quantities, many dyeing factories to be engaged accordingly. By this, due to different dyes, methods, etc., we will get different qualities and results.

Approximate Tie & dye charges per kg in Rs.:

If it is to be tie & dyed in bit form, the charges will be based on number of colours, GSM, length and width of the bits. Approximately, for 2 colours, 70cm length x 60cm width (tubular) bit, the charge may be Rs.18 to 20.

Approximate charge for 2 colours may be around Rs.70 to 80 per Kg either fabric form or garment form.

BATIKS:

This is also done manually. This is almost like tie & dye. This is like printing. This is also called Wax printing.

The printing designs like stars, flowers, etc., will be made by wax. The procedures are the same as for tie & dye. The print designs made by wax are stuck to the fabrics and over dyed. The fabric beneath the wax designs will not get dyed. Hence after removing the waxes, the fabric will look like the designs are printed.

Though it is being done for woven and knitted fabrics, mainly it is used for Woven fabrics. Mostly used for sarees, churidars, curtain cloths, bedspreads and lungies.

The prices for batiks are almost same as Tie & Dye charges. The charge of making wax designs will cost more, depending on the design.

GARMENT DYEING:

This is one of the expensive and special processes.

We had seen that winches dye the fabrics and closed winches (soft flow machines). After the fabrics are dyed, they will be cut as per the patterns to make the garments. Then body, sleeves, collars, cuffs are attached together. Since many parts are attached, there may be shade variations between these parts, even though we have taken more care. Also the garment may have more shrinkage to washing. To avoid this and to have special washed effects on the garments, garment-dyeing method is followed.

This garment can achieve dyeing following special effects.

1. Stone wash.

2. Acid wash

3. Enzyme wash

4. Faded wash.

5. Denim (Jeans) wash, etc.

Procedures:

1. Fabric for body, sleeve, collar, cuff, neck rib, rope, etc., to be made from the same mill yarn and from the same yarn lot.

2. All these fabrics and accessories to be scoured (half bleached) together.

3. The garments to be made from these scoured fabrics.

4. Garments should be stitched with 100%Cotton threads only. Buttons and buttonholes are to be made with the same 100%Cotton threads only.

5. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To Match), the embroidery should be done with 100%Cotton thread only.

6. When we cut the fabrics for making garment, the fabric is to be cut in Wales (vertical) direction perfectly. Though this is the regular procedure for all garments, this has to be followed compulsorily for garment dye, essentially for keeping better dimensional stability of garments after garment dye.

7. After the garment dyeing, nothing can be done with the garments for measurements, shrinkage and shape. Hence some sample garments to be tested before bulk garment dyeing, by taking note of all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid problems in measurements, shrinkage and shape.

8. By these sample garments dyeing (pre-bulk dyeing), the washing method and washing effect are to be checked and confirmed.

9. The garments are dyed in soft flow machines with Pigment dyes.

10. As the garments are dyed in vessels, the stitched areas will get the washed or the faded effect. This effect will be more in some places where many fabrics are attached together - mainly at neck seam around collar, shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side slits and pockets. (Depending on the required effect, the substances are to be used. For example, for stone washed effect, some special pebbles are used during washing to get stonewashed effect).

11. If the garment is processed more than enough, the garment will get damaged in some areas mainly at neck seam around collar, shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side slits and pockets. Hence the garments should be washed very carefully according to the required effect.

12. Recipes of approved lab dips to be followed exactly.

13. Washing methods and timings to be noted well and to be followed carefully.

14. Each vessel (soft flow dyeing machine) will have different capacities. The garments, dyed from one machine at one time, are called Lot. There will be difference in shades and washing effect between lots. Hence quantity of garments to be divided into lots according to the packing method. This is important to avoid shade and effect variation between garments in one carton.

Advantages:

1. There will not be any shade variation between body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, etc.

2. As the shrinkage is controlled completely, there will not be any shrinkage further.

3. Washed look can be achieved.

4. Different qualities of washes are possible.

Risk factors:

1. It is not possible to get the exact shades 100%.

2. Shade variation between lots cannot be avoided fully.

3. Due to the damages in garments, rejections of garments will be high. Hence average cost of garments will be increased.

4. Due to the special effects and quality, it is expensive.

5. Much more care to be taken in all stages to avoid rejections and problems.

Approximate garment dyeing charges per kg in Rs.:

Scouring: 30

Light and medium shades dyeing: 80 100

Dark shades dyeing: 100 130

EMBROIDERY

Embroidery can be made by manually and by computerised machines.

As all the machines are fully computerised with most advanced technologies, nowadays embroidery is being done with the best finishing and consistent quality. With these machines it is possible to make any complicated design even in 9 colours.

Other types of embroidery are Applique and Acoba embroidery (all over embroidery).

Applique:

This is made as decorative embroidery. Some piece of same fabric or contrast fabric is to be attached with the garment and embroidery to be made on or around this fabric cutting.

Acoba embroidery (all over embroidery):

With the above said embroidery machines, size of the embroidered area is restricted to some extent. This will vary from machines to machines. But to make the embroidery all over the fabric, some other special machines to be used.

In these special acoba embroidery machines, all over embroidery can be made. (Like the fabric is printed in rotary printing machines).

Though acoba embroidery can be made on woven and knitted fabrics, the best results can be achieved in woven fabrics. Because of its own quality nature, knit fabrics will get more damages and holes by acoba embroidery.

Acoba embroidery is commonly made in sarees, blouses, designers fabrics, decorative fabrics, curtain cloths, etc.

Embroidery charges:

Embroidery cost based on the number of stitches, number of colours and sizes of embroidery.

Due to competition, nowadays the embroidery cost has come down as around Re.1.00 per 1000 stitches. But the minimum cost is around 2.50 per garment, though the number of stitches is lesser.

Applique embroidery cost is based on the fabric cutting cost, fixing cost, etc in addition to the number of stitches, number of colours and sizes of embroidery.

ACCESSORIES

Buttons, Zippers, Twill tapes, Ropes, Elastics, Badges, Labels, Hang tags, Inner boards, Tissue papers, Packing pins, Polybags, Inner cartons and Outer cartons are called accessories.

The prices of accessories are based on the quantity and quality. Also each accessory has many dimensions, qualities, specifications, etc. So it is difficult to discuss here about their prices in details. It is better to check the current prices with the suppliers.

Anyhow, for making costing, we must have a basic knowledge about the costs. Hence let us see approximate prices of them as below.

Cost of Buttons:

Ordinary design of shirt buttons (chalk): Rs.8 to 10 per gross (12 dozens).

(Imitation) Horn buttons: Rs.10 to 15 per gross.

Special designs of shirt buttons: Rs.15 to 40 per gross.

Shirt buttons with engraved letters (inside design): Rs.50 to 70 per gross.

Shirt buttons with embossed letters (inside design): Rs.40 to 60 per gross.

Metal buttons, wooden buttons Varies as per design, quantity, etc.

Cost of Zippers:

No5 (5mm width) Nylon 7 length: Rs.7 per zip.

No5 Nylon 24 length: Rs.24 per zip.

No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 7 length: Rs.5 7 per zip.

No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 24 length: Rs.22 24 per zip.

For adult garments, No.5 zippers are used. For children garments, No.3 zippers are used. Cost of No.3 zippers is lesser than No.5 zippers.

Lock quality is to be checked. Mostly the auto lock zippers are used. In these auto lock zippers, if we leave the puller when the zipper is halfway opened, the auto lock will lock the zipper. Even if the tapes are pulled, the zipper cannot be opened. It can be further opened or closed only by pulling the pullers. These auto lock zippers are used because they are very safe.

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