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Methodology Draft - Effective Instructional Techniques for Using Weblogs
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The Efficacy of Technology-Enhanced Instructional Strategies Used to Promote Critical
Thinking in Middle School Mathematics
Catherine Henderson
EDRS8000/W08
Dr. Thomasina C. Adams and Dr. Beryl A. Otumfuor
December 8, 2014
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Results from National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) provide insight into student achievement in mathematics in the United States as
well as individual states. These findings indicate that math education in the United States is not
as effective as math education in other countries. For example, according to the 2013 NAEP,
only 35 percent of 8th
graders in the United States were proficient in mathematics (National
Center for Educational Statistics, 2014). 15 year-old students in the United States performed at
the 27th
rank, below average in math among nations in the 34 member nations belonging to the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2012). According to the Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS, 2011), the average mathematics score for 8th
-grade students in the
United States has not increased significantly since 2007.
Researchers associate the low performance of U.S. students with the low expectations set
by states under the 2002 federal law, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) (Bandeira de Mello, 2011;
Peterson & Kaplan, 2013). Based on a comparison to the 2011 NAEP standards and state testing
standards in reading and math, Georgia was ranked as the state with the lowest expectations
(Peterson & Kaplan, 2013). In 2010, the Georgia State Board of Education adopted new
mathematics content standards, Common Core Georgia Performance Standards (CCGPS), in
order to improve student achievement in a manner that prepares students for college and
careers. Georgia Milestones, a new state assessment system will be administered for the first
time in spring 2014 to measure the effectiveness of CCGPS (Beaudette, 2014).
The Georgia Milestones assessment will measure the success of instructional strategies
that represent a shift in the way that students learn mathematics. The Common Core State
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Standards Initiative (2014) describes one of the main changes in mathematics education as the
need to increase rigor that focuses equally on conceptual understanding, procedural skills and
fluency, as well as application. Educators will need to adapt research-based strategies that
support “the critical-thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills students will need to be
successful” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014). The delivery and intent of
instructions will need to adapt to new standards that require more than rote memorization of
static processes with shallow levels of content knowledge. The Common Core standards “focus
on skills in critical thinking and problem-solving that will require non-traditional technology-
based strategies” (Roblyer & Doering, 2013, p. 17). Researchers assert that Web 2.0 tools such
as weblogs enhance critical thinking skills in the classroom (Li, 2010). Research has been
conducted to examine the effectiveness of weblogs to facilitate reflection (Anderson, Rohrer,
Taylor, & Trimarco, 2006).
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to determine the efficacy of technology-enhanced instructional
strategies (weblogs or blogs) in increasing critical thinking in middle school mathematics. The
Common Core State Standards not only require disciplinary knowledge, but also set expectations
for students as critical thinkers who analyze information in the completion of daily activities
(National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School
Officers, 2010). Ennis (1987) refers to critical thinking as a reasoning process where reflection
determines actions or beliefs.
Researchers have established that the use of weblogs can facilitate the critical thinking
associated with reflective learning (Muncy, 2014). Weblogs are often used as communication
tools with the potential to bring the student together to collaborate, share knowledge, reflect and
explain (Dos & Demir, 2013). Sevelj (2006) says that, modern technology such as weblogs
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provides opportunities to improve how students think. Weblogs facilitate strategies such as
journal writing and peer feedback which promote deep thinking and learning. (Xie, Ke, &
Sharma, 2008).
Research Questions
This study was designed to examine the following research questions:
• How effective are weblogs in increasing the level of critical thinking in mathematics
classrooms?
• When critical thinking is a criterion for assessment, will the quality of the weblogs used
with collaborative, problem-solving activities increase?
• In what ways do blog environment supplement classroom teaching and contribute to an
improved learning experience?
Importance of the Study
The goal of this research is to conduct a rigorous and relevant mixed-methods study to
analyze and explain the best-practices for using weblogs to increase critical thinking in
mathematics. This study is important because it will inform how we support instructional
strategies that promote deeper conceptual understanding in middle school mathematics, the
foundation for algebra and advanced high school mathematics. “Completing advanced math
courses in high school has a greater influence on whether students will graduate from college
than any other factor, including family background; students who take math beyond Algebra II
double their chances of earning a bachelor’s degree” (Adelman, 2006). In fact, future earnings,
regardless of college degrees, grades, family background or any other factors are higher for
students that have completed advanced high school mathematics (Rose & Betts, 2004).
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Developing critical thinking skills in middle school mathematics is essential to developing
learners who recognize patterns, see relationships, form generalizations, and master Algebra.
This study investigates the relationship between weblogs that assessed for evidence of
critical thinking and the level of critical thinking that results. Given the online implementation
of high-stakes, constructed-response testing based on the Common Core standards-based
mathematics curriculum, providing strategies that are support critical thinking with weblogs is
timely and practical. Schools such as the one that will host the study are faced with unique
challenges because they have received a focus school designation. Focus schools have an
achievement gap between the highest-achieving subgroups and the lowest-achieving subgroups
within the school (The State of Georgia, 2014).
Based on current research, weblogs are not always effective in increasing critical thinking
(Li, Bado, Smith, & Moore, 2013; Richardson W. , 2010). Richardson (2010) states that
students engage in blogging, but critical thinking, analytical writing and reflection are not
evident. Although clear communication of objectives is a significant factor in the success of
weblogs, critical thinking is not an important factor in scoring them (Hsaio, Chen, & Hu, 2013;
Zhang, 2013).
Definition of Terms
Critical thinking is knowledge generation using analytic and quantitative reasoning,
problem-solving, and writing (Benjamin et al., 2013). Critical thinking skills are desirable
outcomes of education (Dewey, 1910). They are required for analyzing the information that is
necessary to understand the complex challenges of the 21st century workplace (The New
Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, 2006; The Secretary’s Commission On
Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991). Reflection is a cycle of inquiry for the purpose of making
meaning or finding solutions for a troubling situation or question (Xie, Ke, & Sharma, 2008).
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“Weblogs, or ‘blogs’, as they are called, can best be defined as Web sites that are easily created
and updated by those with even a minimum of technology know-how” (Bookhart, How To
Assess Higher-order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom, 2010). Richardson (2004) describes the
use of blogs as a new genre of writing in learning, which is a valuable tool for developing
writing skills, information literacy, and critical thinking skills.
Literature Review
Search terms
The search terms that were used access articles for this literature include: weblogs, blogs,
asynchronous communication, academic discourse, journaling, constructed response, critical
thinking, cognitive processes, learning theories, and secondary education.
Background
A significant theme of this research review was student learning and specifically the
ways that a student approaches learning. As a result, I identified a theory that focuses on the
relationship between a person and the situation. Biggs (1993a) suggests that student learning
occurs within a model of teaching and learning measured by process inventories within an open
system.
Two instruments have been designed to measure the how students approach learning
tasks that promote critical thinking. The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire for secondary
grades has been simplified to examine two of three approaches used prior to the revision. The
table in Appendix A lists the subcomponents of the two approaches, the Surface Approach, and
the Deep Approach. The Surface Approach and the Deep Approach defined in the context of the
Presage-Process-Product (3P) model of student learning (Biggs, 1987a, 1993a, 1993b). The 3P
model refers to the relationship between prior knowledge (Presage factor), the student approach
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to the task and level of engagement (Process factor). The last factor in the 3P model is a product
or learning outcome. This framework attributes the learning outcome to both the teacher and
student.
Based on the literature, two themes that emerged that demonstrate the Efficacy of Enhanced
Technology Instructional Strategies. They are critical thinking skills and teaching with blogs.
Critical Thinking
In this study, Kim promoted blogs as a critical thinking tool. Focus group and survey were the
instruments used to determine the affect of peer commenting on critical thinking. The study
lasted for eight weeks and had a minimal number of participants. Even so, it yielded a more
effective framework for implementing blogs. (Kun, Niamboue, Smith, & Moore, 2013)
Current Research on Critical Thinking Facilitated by Online Discussion
Cognitive density and higher order thinking skills relationships were investigated, comparing
two populations, in a quantitative analysis. (Lee, 2014). The results were there is no correlation
between cognitive density and higher order thinking skills (Lee, 2014). In a mixed methods
study that utilized online discussion, and compared the effect of instructional techniques on
critical thinking and critical thinking disposition, a similar conclusion was reached. Instructional
techniques Role Playing, Socratic Seminar, Six Thinking Hats, Brainstorming, and Anyone Here
an Expert, were utilized. The results concluded the scores between pre-tests and post-tests of
critical thinking dispositions did not differ between the two groups, in the quantitative study.
Current Research on the Assessment Methods That Identify Critical Thinking
Bookhart (2010) detailed the background information necessary to assess methods that
identify critical thinking skills. He also investigated the effect of these skills on the growth and
development of academics. Since he required students to engage in quality discourse that
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produced exceptional performance, Bookhart provided details on how to intentionally plan for
students to do so (Bookhart, 2010).
System utility, training, and support are harbingers of a favorable perception of classroom
blogs. Software platform and expectations are also considerations that the author mentions.
Zhang suggests that blog objectives are clearly defined, for optimal success. He further
elaborates that the clearly defined objectives will optimize the blog as a feedback tool, and
enhance student success and satisfaction (Zhang, 2013).
A debate, case-based discussion, and an open-ended (or topical) discussion form the three
instructional strategies of this online discussions study. Mixed method, the study details
“… Critical thinking levels as defined in the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework and
analyzed in the Practical Inquiry Model (PIM). The study evaluated (1) the contribution
of demographic criteria and student background to students' preferred instructional
strategy, (2) participants' preferred instructional strategy and rationales for the selection,
(3) based on the Practical Inquiry Model's (PIM) indicators, the contribution of students'
strategy preferences in determining level of critical thinking, , and (4) comparisons of
participants' critical thinking levels across instructional strategies” (Richardson & Ice,
2010, p. 150).
Teaching with Blogs
Using online blogs as a teaching tool was examined in this mixed method case study. The
group behavior of a group of cross-cultural students was its focus. The study measured
participation rates and content. The novelty of the blogging experience created value for the
students, according to the qualitative data from the study (Meinecke, Smith, & Lehmann-
Wellenbrock, 2013). In the section of his book that focuses on education theory, Sturm concurs
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that using blogs in the classroom creates an authentic learning experience for students (Sturm,
Kennell, & McBride, 2009) .
Asynchronous and synchronous tools differed in purpose and types of learning supported,
purports Hrastinski. Blogs are asynchronous; states Hrastinski Asynchronous discussion tools
facilitated learning over extended periods of time. When issues require time for reflection or are
complex, asynchronous e-learning and media is preferable to synchronous (Hrastinski, 2008).
Synchronous discussion tools facilitate collaborative learning and allow students to become
acquainted socially. These include messaging and chat. Subrahmanyam’s (2009) research
confirmed this social aspect of blogging. His researchers used coding to analyze the format,
content, tone and style of blog posts. They concluded that adolescents who blog, use the tool for
off-line life themes such as identity, romance, and the future, as well as on-line themes.
(Subrahmanyam, Garcia, Harsono, Li, & Lipana, 2009). Alvermann, (2008) agrees. His
research focuses on analyzing online literacies of adolescents for research and classroom
purposes. Alvermann theories state that adolescents in the United States use of social media
for blogging, sharing photographs, artwork, videos, or stories, and working on web pages. He
states that 93% of U. S. adolescents between 12 and 17 used the Internet for social reasons.
Methodology Design
This study will be completed using quasi-experimental, mixed methodologies at
Tomorrow Middle School, a public middle school in the Clayton County Public School
district. Tomorrow Middle enrolls 716 students in sixth through eighth grade. Students at the
school come from culturally and economically diverse backgrounds; 88% are eligible for free
or reduced price lunch, about 12% are students with disabilities and 7% have limited English
proficiency. The student population consists of 61% African-American, 18% Asian, 15%
Hispanic, 3% Caucasian, and 3% Multi-racial students.
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This study will use mixed methods design (Creswell, 2012). The analysis of the results
will include a comparison of the achievement of the participants in the treatment group and a
control group. The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (Kember, Biggs, & Leung, 2004),
an analytic rubric and weblog analysis will inform the data analysis.
The site of the study will be a middle school classified as a focus school. According to
the Georgia Department of Education, “a focus school has the largest within-school achievement
gap between highest- and lowest-achieving subgroups” (The State of Georgia, 2014). Stratified
sampling will be used to insure that students that perform in the lowest-quartile on the 2014
CRCT are
To facilitate the potential for growth in the lowest-achieving subgroup, low-performing
students based on scale scores from the 2014 administration of the Criterion-Referenced
Competency Test (CRCT) in mathematics. 200 study participants, selected from 6th
, 7th
and 8th
grade homerooms, will be randomly selected after dividing the 716 students into two groups.
from among 716 students at Morrow Middle School. Students will then be randomly divided
into two groups of 100, ensuring that each group contains a roughly equivalent number of boys
and girls
Participants
Tomorrow Middle School enrolls 716 students in sixth through eighth grade. Students
at the school come from culturally and economically diverse backgrounds; 88% are eligible
for free or reduced price lunch, about 12% are students with disabilities and 7% have limited
English proficiency. The student population consists of 61% African-American, 18% Asian,
15% Hispanic, 3% Caucasian, and 3% Multi-racial students.
Approximately 200 study participants, selected from 6th
, 7th
and 8th
grade homerooms,
will be randomly selected from among 716 students at Morrow Middle School. Students will
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then be randomly divided into two groups of 100, ensuring that each group contains a roughly
equivalent number of boys and girlsApproximately 200 middle schools students will participate
in the study. 50 students will be classified as gifted, 50 students will be English Language
Learners, and 50 participants will be students with disabilities. 50 students will be classified as
economically disadvantaged. Approximately 65 students will be from each of the 6th
, 7th
and 8th
-
grade levels. Six groups of 32-34 students from three teachers will participate in the study. One-
half of the students from each group will be randomly assigned to either a control subgroup or
the subgroup that receives a treatment.
Because the participants will be under the age of 18, all students will sign an assent form
and all parents will sign a consent form before students become participants. The blog messages
will be viewable by other participants. However, the association between participants,
assessments and questionnaires will remain confidential. This information will not be available
to teachers.
Instruments
The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F)
The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire uses two scales measured by a total of 22
items. The first scale is the deep approach, and the second scale is the surface approach.
According to Biggs (1993b), the goal of teaching is to transition students from a surface
approach to processing a task to a deeper more contextual approach to learning. Appendix B
shows The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F). Appendix C features the
components of the scales, the historical sets of subscales as well as the methods for calculating
scale scores.
Weblog analysis
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The weblogs will be analyzed to identify the critical thinking skill categories. According
to Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2001), the analysis of higher-order thinking processes is
possible using specific categories, indicators, and social- cognitive processes. Reference an
inventory of these leaning factors in Appendix D.
Pretest and Posttest
The pretest and posttest assessments are compatible with the Common Core Standards for
eighth-grade math. Reference the tests and instructions may in Appendices F-G. Pearson (2010)
describes the AIMSweb® probes as Curriculum-Based Measures (CBM) of math performance
and notes that results of the test can predict the outcome on state tests.
Data Collection Procedures
Initially, all students will be given a questionnaire and asked to complete a pretest to
assess critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Students in the treatment group will be asked
to complete a blog assignment three times a week for 6-8 weeks using a rubric to define the
requirements. An analytic rubric will also be used to rate the blogs using a scale score.
At the end of the evaluation period, students will be given the questionnaire again as well
as the posttest. Measurements of the changes in the treatment and control group achievement
levels based on the assessments will be compared to results of an analysis of the responses to the
questionnaire. Appendix D shows the descriptors used to analyze the weblog posts.
Reliability and Validity
The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F)
The two scales, the deep approach, and the surface approach achieve Cronbach alpha
values of 0.82 and 0.71. Because the values are above the accepted cut-off values, the two
scales have to be accepted as reliable. According to Kimber et al. (2004), the R-LPQ-2F, is
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recognized as an instrument with acceptable psychometric properties, suitable for classroom
evaluation.
AIMSweb® Assessments
The source of the pretests and posttests is the AIMSweb® assessment system. Pearson
states that numerous criteria were used to choose the most psychometrically-sound equivalent
probes for the system. Pearson’s evaluation of the internal consistency of the probes, Cronbach’s
alpha, and split-half reliability produced the results listed in Appendix D. Appendix D also
reposrts the aggregated means and SEMs.
“Probe selection was based on the evaluation of these statistical properties and the
comparison of the probe mean scored to the aggregated mean for each grade. Analysis of
the confidence interval at the 99% level using the standard error of measurement (SEM)
showed no statistically significant difference among the final selected probes, which were
statistically equivalent to each other in the grade.” (NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010, p. 48)
Critical Thinking Analytic Rubric (CTAR)
The CTAR has six rubric categories, including interpretation, analysis, evaluation,
inference, explanation, and disposition. The basis of the inter-rater reliability is the scoring of
four sets of performance-based student work samples by two trained raters. The work samples
were from two separate studies. Research results show that the CTAR is a reliable instrument
for scoring student work consistently (Saxton, Belanger, & Becker, 2012).
Table 1 of Appendix J shows the results for inter-rater reliability. The results for the
inter-rater reliability demonstrate levels of consistency of at least 0.70 in all rubric categories
(Saxton, Belanger, & Becker, 2012). For intra-rater reliability, the analysis category had
different levels of consistency. One rater showed a consistency of .91, which is excellent, but the
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other rater showed a poor consistency of .56 in the analysis category. In the remaining five
rubric categories, the intra-rater reliability was at least 0.71 (Saxton, Belanger, & Becker, 2012).
Table 2 of Appendix J shows the results of the intra-rater reliability of each category.
To use this table, first
assign unique numbers to all individuals in the population (say, a
population of 100 first graders). Then, starting anywhere in the
random numbers table, match the numbers on your list to the
numbers in the table. Start at the upper left of Table 5.1 and go down
the column. You might choose the first six first graders from the
population of 100, having the numbers 52, 31, 44, 84, 71, and 42.
This would continue down the column until you have chosen the
number of children needed for your sample (later in the "Sample
Size" section, we will consider how many first graders you would
need).
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Appendix A
The Surface and Deep Approaches of The Revised Learning Process Questionnaire
Adapted from “Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the
development of a revised version of the learning process questionnaire” by D. Kember, J. Biggs,
and D. Leung, 2004, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, p. 262.
Appendix B
Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F)
From “Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the development of
a revised version of the learning process questionnaire” by D. Kember, J. Biggs, and D. Leung,
2004, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, p. 277-278. Copyright 2001 by John Biggs
and David Kember.
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Appendix C
Scales in the Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F)
From “Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the development of
a revised version of the learning process questionnaire” by D. Kember, J. Biggs, and D. Leung,
2004, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, p. 278-279. Copyright 2001 by John
Biggs and David Kember.
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Appendix C (continued)
Scales in the Revised Learning Process Questionnaire (R-LPQ-2F)
From “Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the development of
a revised version of the learning process questionnaire” by D. Kember, J. Biggs, and D. Leung,
2004, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, p. 278-279. Copyright 2001 by John Biggs
and David Kember.
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Appendix D
Critical Thinking Categories, Indicators, and Sociocognitive Processes
From “Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education,”
by D. R. Garrison, T. Anderson, and W. Archer, 2001, The American Journal of Distance
Education 15(1), p. 15-16.
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Appendix E
Descriptive and Reliability Statistics for AIMSweb® Probes
From “Mathematics Computation: Administration and Technical Manual “ by NCS Pearson,
Inc., (2010). Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix F
8th
Grade Math Pretest
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 4” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix F
8th
Grade Math Pretest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 4” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix F
8th
Grade Math Pretest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 4” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix F
8th
Grade Math Pretest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 4” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix F
8th
Grade Math Pretest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Answer Key, Grade 8,
Probe 4” by NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix G
8th
Grade Math Posttest
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 33” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix G
8th
Grade Math Posttest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 33” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix G
8th
Grade Math Posttest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 33” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix G
8th
Grade Math Posttest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Grade 8, Probe 33” by
NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix G
8th
Grade Math Posttest (continued)
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Progress Monitor Answer Key, Grade 8,
Probe 33” by NCS Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN.
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Appendix H
8th
Grade Math Administration Directions
From “AIMSweb® Math Concepts and Applications: Math Administration Directions” by NCS
Pearson, Inc., 2010. Bloomington, MN., p 11.
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Appendix I
Critical Thinking Analytical Rubric (CTAR)
Adapted from “The Critical Thinking Analytic Rubric (CTAR): Investigating intra-rater and
inter-rater reliability of a scoring mechanism for critical thinking performance assessments” by
E. Saxton, S. Belanger, and W. Becker, 2012, Assessing Writing, 17, p. 267-269.
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Appendix J
From “The Critical Thinking Analytic Rubric (CTAR): Investigating intra-rater and inter-rater
reliability of a scoring mechanism for critical thinking performance assessments” by E. Saxton,
S. Belanger, and W. Becker, 2012, Assessing Writing, 17, p. 261.
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Appendix K
From “The Critical Thinking Analytic Rubric (CTAR): Investigating intra-rater and inter-rater
reliability of a scoring mechanism for critical thinking performance assessments” by E. Saxton,
S. Belanger, and W. Becker, 2012, Assessing Writing, 17, p. 261.
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Appendix L
Table L.1. Power Analysis Table: Approximate Sample Size Per Group at Alpha=.05
Power Criterion
Effect Size .80 .90 .95
.20 395 525 650
.30 175 235 290
.40 100 130 165
.50 65 85 105
.60 45 60 75
.70 35 45 55
.80 25 35 45
Adapted from “Design Sensitivity: Statistical Power for Experimental Research” by M. W.
Lipsey, 1990, Sage Publications, Inc., p. 137.