methods of research written

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Methods of Research

And

Research Protocols

Submitted to:

Dr. Olegario Clemente

Submitted by:

Kristina Corazon L. Robles

41-DGD


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METHODS OF RESEARCH AND RESEARCH PROTOCOLS

Definitions of Research

Careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature andconditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution of a problem(Good,p.464)

A careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch ofknowledge. (Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English)

The process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientificmanner (Manuel and Medel)

In simple terms, research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison andexperiment, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to

a problem, the systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory.

Objectives of Research

The principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality ofhuman life; to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.

The purpose of research is to serve man, and the goal is the good life. Good and Scates

Characteristics of a Research

Systematic- It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth,solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered

Controlled- All variables except those that are tested are kept constant

Empirical- All procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by allobservers.

Analytical- There is critical analysis of all the sata used so that there is no error in their interpretation Objective, unbiased, & logical- All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data

and no effort is made to alter the results of the research

Employs hypothesis- This is to guide the investigation process. Employs quantitative or statistical methods- Data are transformed into numerical measures and are

treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.

Original work Done by an expert- The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering

instruments, and valid data.

Accurate investigation, observation and description- All conclusions are based on actual evidence Patient and unhurried activity-This is to ensure accuracy. Requires an effort-making capacity- Research involves much work and time Requires courage-Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergo hazards,

discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also,

disagreements with colleagues may arise


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Classifications of research

HISTORICALprocess of selecting the area or topic to write the history about, and collecting dataabout the events that occurred in it; It describes the present situations in terms of past events.

COMPARATIVE-comparison of peoples experience of different societies. Either between times inthe past or in parallel situations in the present

DESCRIPTIVE-relies on observation as a means of collecting data; distortions in data can occur inbiased questions in interviews, questionnaires, etc.

CORRELATION-describes the statistical measure of association or the relationships between twophenomena.

Relational-investigates the possible relationships between phenomena Prediction-carried out in research areas where correlations are already known; attempts to predict

possible outcomes

EXPERIMENTALRelevant conditions are isolated and controlled so as to observe the effects whenthe conditions are manipulated. Types:

o Pre-experimental: unreliable assumptions are made despite the lack of control over variableso True experimental: rigorous check of the identical nature of groups before testing the

influence of a variable on a sample under controlled circumstances

o Quasi experimental: Not all conditions can be fulfilled but the shortcomings are identifiedo Correlation and ex post facto: cause and effect relationships between two sets of data

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

One of the characteristics of research is systematic. It follows the scientific method which includes the

following steps

1. Determining the problem2. Formulation of hypothesis3. Doing the library search (Related Literature)4. Designing the study5. Developing the instruments for collecting data6. Collecting the data7. Analyzing the data8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings9. Making recommendations for further research

The Research Problem

The elements of a research problem are aim, purpose, subject matter or topic, place or locale, periodor time, and population or universe.

Answers questions starting with why, what, where, when, and who or from whomEXAMPLE OF A PROBLEM:

To determine the status of teaching science in the high schools of Province A during the SY 2012-2013

TITLE:

The teaching of Science in the High Schools of Province A as perceived by the science teachers and

students during the SY 2012-2013


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Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning of theinvestigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question

Formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based Serves as a basis for determining assumptions, relevance of data, and for the explanation or

discussion about the data gathered

Related Literature

Composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopaedias, professional journals,

magazines, and other publications.

Characteristics are:

o Must be as recent as possibleo Objective and unbiasedo Relevant to the studyo Genuinely original and true factso Sufficient enough to give insight to the study

Sampling Design

must contain the size of the population, the study population, the margin of error and the proportionof the study population used, the type of technique of sampling used (pure random, systematic

random, stratified random, cluster sampling, or a combination), actual computation of the sample,

and the sample

Collection of Data

Data- collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as bases for drawing conclusions ormaking inferences

1. Primary data- are gathered from primary sourceso Individual persons, organized groups or organizationso Established practices such as marriage, religious rites, legal system, economic system,

democracy, system of morals, etc.

o Documents in their original forms such as the Constitution, laws, orders, proclamations,treaties, contracts, census, etc.

o Living organisms such as animals, fowls, and other lower forms of living things.o Man-made material thingso Natural objects and phenomena

2. Secondary datao Books including dictionaries, encyclopaedias, almanacso Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publicationso Unpublished masters theses and dissertations, and other studieso Monographs, manuscripts, etc


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Methods of obtaining data

In any form of research, you will be required to either count things and/ or talk to people. We canbroadly classify research methods using this distinction. These two types of research method and

their output data are classified as:

o QUANTITATIVE - concerned with quantifyingthings asks questions such as how long, how many or the degree to which. seeks to quantify data & generalise results from a sample of the population may also measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample

for example or aggregate results.

o QUALITATIVE concerned with a qualityof information attempts to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for

actions

establishes how people interpret their experiences and the world around them provides insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Quantitative methods are research techniques that are used to gather quantitative data which can besorted, classified, measured.

o Quantitative surveyo Secondary data collation and analysiso Statistical analysis

Quantitative surveyo a popular method of collecting primary data.o The broad area of survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve

asking questions to respondents.

o useful means of gathering data from businesses, community organisations and residentso It is important to understand what format of survey you are looking to undertake. There are

broadly two survey formats that you may use and it is important to understand which you

are using:

Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population at a singlepoint in time. (e.g. a questionnaire that collects data on peoples experiences of a

particular event.)

determine the relationship between two factors (e.g. impact of a program ofactivity on the level of benefits)

Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period of time. This would allow analysis of changes in the population over time and

attempt to describe and/or explain them.

The three main types are trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies Surveys can be delivered in a variety of ways:

postal surveys telephone surveys email/internet surveys street surveys/administered surveys


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Secondary data collation and analysis

refers to the review of existing information and may involve the manipulation of statistical data. differs from primary research techniques in that the researcher does not collect the data directly and

cannot control the actual data collected, but can bring to bear new insights through interpretation or

presentation.

useful for contributing to the analysis and commentary throughout a research report.What types of data sources are there?

There are a number of different types of secondary information. Some of the most common types are

identified as follows:

Official statistics - This refers to national data sets relating to issues such as population,employment and unemployment and businesses. Much of this information can be acquired from the

Office for National Statistics

Other statistics - A wide range of other types of numerical data can be drawn on for evaluationpurposes. e.g. project monitoring information of beneficiaries, funding information, service data.

Statistical analysis

a mathematical method of interrogating data. This is done by looking for relationships between different sets of data. There are two types of statistics:

Descriptive statistics: numerical summaries of samples (what was observed); Inferential statistics: from samples of populations (what could have been or will be

observed).

When to use?

Descriptive statistics -if you want to summarise some data into a shorter form Inferential statistical- when you are trying to understand a relationship and either generalise or

predict based on this understanding.

Statistical analysis, through a range of statistical tests, can give us a way to quantify the confidencewe can have in our inferences or conclusions.

What to consider in Statistical Analysis:

Variables-are measured on an ordinal, interval, or ratio scale Inference-(conclusion) is a generalization with calculated degrees of certainty Confidence & Significance

o The confidence interval is an interval estimate of a population parameter, this is the plus-or-minus figure reported in. (e.g. newspaper or television opinion poll results)

o Significant means probably true, and not important.The findings of your research may beproved to be true but this does not necessarily mean that the findings are important.

Statistical tests

Parametric tests include Mean, Standard Deviation, t test, analysis of variance(ANOVA), Pearson correlation, regression (linear and non linear);


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Non-parametric tests include Median, interquartile range, Spearman correlation,Wilcoxon test, Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Friedman test.

Parametric tests

Mean - more commonly called the average Standard Deviation - measures the spread of the data about the mean value; useful in comparing

sets of data, which may have the same mean but a different range.

t test - assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other;appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups.

Parametric tests Analysis of variance (ANOVA) used to test hypotheses about differences between two or more

means, however when there are more than two means, analysis of variance can be used to test

differences for significance without increasing the error rate (Type I).

Pearson correlation common measure of the correlation between two variables. A correlation of+1 means that there is a perfect positive linear relationship between variables. A correlation of -1

means that there is a perfect negative linear relationship between variables.

Regression (linear and non-linear) - used for the modelling and analysis of numerical data; can beused for prediction (including forecasting of time-series data), inference, hypothesis testing, and

modelling of causal relationships.

Non-parametric tests Median - is the middle of a distribution: half the scores are above the median and half are below the

median

Interquartile range - (IQR) is the distance between the 75th percentile and the 25th percentile. It isessentially the range of the middle 50% of the data.

Spearman correlation - used to test the direction and strength of the relationship between twovariables. In other words, its a device to show whether any one set of numbers has an effect on

another set of numbers.

Wilcoxon test - compares two paired groups of data. It calculates the differences between each set ofpairs, and analyses the list of differences. Non-parametric tests Mann-Whitney test used to assess whether two samples of observations come from the same

distribution, testing the null hypothesis that the probability of an observation from one population

exceeds the probability of an observation in a second population.

Kruskal-Wallis test used to test equality of population medians among groups, using a one-wayanalysis of variance by ranks.

Friedman test - compares three or more paired groups.

Data Analysis

Qualitative methods are generally associated with the evaluation of social dimensions.o provide results that are usually rich and detailed, offering ideas and concepts to inform your

research.

o Can tell how people feel and what they think, but cannot tell you how many of the targetpopulation feel or think that way as quantitative methods can.


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1. Social surveys/questionnaires2. Interviews3. Discussion Groups4. Workshops5. Observation6. Visual Techniques

Questionnaire surveys

o can be used in a wide range of settings and to gather a variety of different types ofinformation.

o A small-scale qualitative survey may be conducted to explore in more detail the findings ofqualitative research.

o Social survey - less statistical rigour is required, where sample sizes are not as large, andwith results not expected to be significant of the wider population.

Interviews

Conducting interviews is an interpersonal process and as an investigator you must be very aware ofyour own behaviours and assumptions in the context.

Interviews are not neutral social spaces and you must be respectful and maintain appropriateboundaries

often used to obtain the interviewees perceptions and attitudes to the issuesHow to analyze the data:

Thematic generation - identifying and drawing upon common themes across the interviews;

Citation - directly quoting parts of the interview in the main body of the report.

Discussion groups

(also known as focus groups) are an example of a technique widely used in political circles to roadtest policies.

A discussion groups consists of a number of individuals you invite to discuss their views on aparticular topic, typically involving between 6 and 12 people, which is conducted specifically to get a

group of peoples views on a subject.

Workshops

a group-based method of research in which there is an emphasis on activity-based, interactiveworking.

The focus is on everyone participating and undertaking the work. Therefore, when using this type of research technique, the researcher acts as a facilitator, rather than

leading the discussion or activity

When should it be used?

Raising awareness Capturing views and information Building consensus


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Developing skills and capacityObservation

consists of a mix of techniques:o informal interviewso direct observationo participation in the life of the groupo collective discussionso analyses of personal documents produced within the groupo self-analysiso life historieso Notes, diaries and transcripts

Visual techniques

Visual techniques in social research offer an interesting, stimulating and interactive approach togathering information.

Visual methods such as drawing, painting, video, photography and hypermedia offer increasinglyaccessible and popular resources for research.

o Cartoon test presented with a picture of a cartoon depicting a specific situationo Completion technique using the cartoon test above, the character is shown thinking or

saying something but the sentence is left uncompleted. Participants are given the

opportunity to make suggestions to complete the sentence.

o Collage/concept boards uses a range of images that can be used to represent or describethe subject for discussion

o Ideas board this board invites participants to jot down their ideas on post-it noteso Mind mapping visually representing information in an interesting format without the

limits or formality of standard written text.

o Money well Participants are given a certain amount of fake money, which they can place onthe options displayed.

o Graffiti or ideas wall The participants are able to write comments about a research topicor discussion statement.

o Photographic research The use of photographs in research can be used to evoke feelingsor trigger memories that lead to perspectives and explanations that would not have been

unlocked using a more conventional research technique.

o Film and video - video cameras are particularly well suited as data gathering technologiesfor ethnography, participant observation, oral history, life history, etc, preserving things that

are not preserved in even the best researchers field notes.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, & RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY-a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or respondents,the period of the study, method used, research instrument, and the design

CONCLUSIONS-are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, generalstatements, and generalizations based upon the findings


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RECOMMENDATIONS-are appeals to people concerned to solve or help solve the problemsdiscovered in the inquiry

RESEARCH PROTOCOL

What is a protocol?

A detailed plan of a scientific or medical experiment, treatment, or procedure The protocol is the detailed plan of the study. Every research study should have a protocol, and the

protocol should be written.

Importance forces the investigators to clarify their thoughts and to think about all aspects of the

study;

is a necessary guide if a team is working on the research; is essential if the study involves research on human subjects or is on experimental

animals, in order to get the institutions ethical approval;

is an essential component of a research proposal submitted for funding. It should be adhered to strictly and should not be changed. Violations of the protocol can discredit the whole study. If the violations are minor, at least that part of the study should be excluded from

the analysis.

An additional step is to develop what may be called the operations manual for thestudy.

This will include detailed instruction to the investigators to assure a uniform andstandardized approach to carrying out the study with good quality control.

CRITERIA

A well-thought out and well-written protocol can be judged according to three main criteria. Is it adequate to answer the research question(s), and achieve the study objective? Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study? Does it provide enough detail that can allow another investigator to do the study and arrive at

comparable conclusions?

Format for the protocol

Project title Project summary Project description:

Rationale Objectives Methodology

Data management and analysis Ethical considerations Gender issues


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Expected outcome Budget summary References

Project title

The title should be descriptive and concise. It may need to be revised after completion of the writing of the protocol to reflect more closely the

sense of the study.

Project summary

The summary should be concise, and should summarize all the elements of the protocol. It should stand on its own, and not refer the reader to points in the project description. Summary should be concise but must be sufficient to orient the reader to the main purpose of the

study, how it would be conducted and its expected benefits.

Project description

Rationaleo This is equivalent to the introduction in a research paper. It puts the proposal in context.o It should answer the question of why and what: why the research needs to be done and what

will be its relevance.

o A brief description of the most relevant studies published on the subject should be providedto support the rationale for the study.

Objective(s)o Specific objectives are statements of the research question(s).o Objectives should be simple (not complex), specific (not vague), and stated in advanceo After statement of the primary objective, secondary objectives may be mentioned.

Methodology- It is the most important part of the protocol. Research design: The choice of the design should be explained in relation to the

study objectives.

Research subjects or participants: the following questions should be answered: What are the criteria for inclusion or selection? What are the criteria for exclusion? In intervention studies, how will subjects be allocated to index and

comparison groups?

What are the criteria for discontinuation? Interventions: If an intervention is introduced, a description must be given of the drugs or devices

to be used, and whether they are already commercially available, or in phases of experimentation.o For drugs and devices that are commercially available, the protocol must state their

proprietary names, manufacturer, chemical composition, dose and frequency of

administration.

o For drugs and devices that are still in the experimental stage, the approval of the drugregulatory agency in the country is generally needed before implementing the study.

Observations: Information should be provided on the observations to be made, how they will bemade, and how frequently will they be made.


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o If the observation is made by a questionnaire, this should be appended to the protocol.Laboratory or other diagnostic and investigative procedures should be described.

o For established procedures, reference to appropriate published work is enough.o For new or modified procedures, an adequate description is needed, with a justification for

their use.

Sample size: The protocol should provide information and justification about sample size.o The basis on which sample size is calculated should be explained in the methodology section

of the protocol.

o Calculation of sample size has been made easy by computer software programs. But theprinciples underlying the estimation should be well understood.

Data Management & Analysis

The protocol should provide information on how the data will be managed, including data coding forcomputer analysis, monitoring and verification.

Information should also be provided on the available computer facility. The statistical methods used for the analysis of data should be clearly outlined.Ethical considerations

All research protocols in the biomedical field, particularly if it involves human subjects, must includea section addressing ethical considerations.

This includes two components:o The first is a written approval of the appropriate ethics review committee, together with a

written form for informed consent, where appropriate.

o The second is a special section, preferably in the format of a checklist, to address all possibleethical concerns.

Ethical considerations

Approval by ethics review committeeso For studies in humans (or involving human biological materials), the protocol must be

approved by the local, institutional or equivalent ethics committee and/or national ethics

committee.

o For animal studies approval is required from the animal welfare committee of the instituteor its equivalent.

Ethical considerations Informed decision-making

o A consent form, where appropriate, must be developed and attached to the protocol.o It should be written in the prospective subjects mother tongue.o The consent form has two parts:

a statement describing the study and the nature of the subjects involvement in it; a certificate of consent attesting to the subjects consent. Both parts should be

written in simple language so that the subject can easily understand the contents.

Ethics checklisto The protocol must describe the measures that will be undertaken to ensure that the

proposed research is carried out in accordance with the World Medical Association

Declaration of Helsinki on Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects


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o A checklist must address ethical concerns that could be raised about the methodology,including the research design, selection of subjects, the interventions introduced and the

observations to be made.

Gender issues

It was only recently that attention was drawn to the importance of addressing gender issues inresearch protocols.

"Ensure, where indicated, that clinical trials of pharmaceuticals, medical devices and other medicalproducts include women with their full knowledge and consent and ensure that the resulting data is

analysed for sex and gender differences.-The Commission on the Status of Women

It is well known that genetic and hormonal factors modify the prevalence, behaviour and treatmentof diseases of body systems in men and women. But what is less known is that culturally evolved

gender-related differences in lifestyle behaviour are also powerful determinants of womens healthand account for major differences in the disease burden between males and females, probably more

than genetic or hormonal factors. Both biological and gender-related differences can influence the

outcome of the research for men and women.

EXPECTED OUTCOME

This section restates the justification for the study in terms of the anticipated results. It will specify the following points: The implications of the potential results How the results of the study may be useful to the policy makers, community at large and for future

research

BUDGET SUMMARY

A brief outline of the budget requirement showing head-wise expenditure for the study should begiven in this session. (e.g. manpower, logistics, transportation etc.)

A detailed budget estimate showing all the expenditures under various heads can be placed inannexure.

References

The protocol should end with relevant references on the subject. In this section list of the various references quoted while formulating protocol may be listed in a

sequential manner.


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REFERENCES

1. Kendall MJ and Hawkins C. Planning and protocol writing. In: Hawkins C, Sorgi M, eds.Research: How to plan, speak and write about it. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1985: 1228.

2. CALDERON, J., (1993), Methods of research and thesis writing.National Bookstore Inc.Philippine copyright.

3. Kothari, CR., (2004), Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques., New age international(p) limited, publishers. New Delhi, ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2488-1

4. MacDonald, S. & Headlam, N., (2008), Research Methods Handbook-Introductory guide toresearch methods for social research., Centre for Local Economic Strategies- European

Research Network, Manchester, ISBN: 1870053656

5. Enarsan DA, Kennedy SM & Miller DL: Getting started in research the research protocol, IntJ Tuberc Lung Dis, 2004, 8, 1036-1040.