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Dr. William A. SnowHong Kong University of Science & Technology

Department of Management of Organizations

College of Business & Management

Managerial LeadershipMGTO 234 - 7

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From Then (1940s) to Now (2001): From Then (1940s) to Now (2001): Brief Overview of Leadership Brief Overview of Leadership

EvolutionEvolution Ohio State Leadership Studies: Task and

Relationship (1940s-Ralph Stodgill) Initiating structure: A type of leader behavior

that describes the extent to which a leader is task oriented and directs subordinates’ work activities toward goal achievement

Consideration: A type of leader behavior that describes the extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects their ideas and feelings, and establishes mutual trust.

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Leader BehaviorLeader Behavior

Leader finds time to listen to group members

Leader assigns group members to particular tasks

Leader is willing to make changes

Leader asks group members to follow standard rules and regulations

Leader is friendly and approachable

Leader lets group members know what is expected of them

Consideration Initiating Structure

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Leadership Grid-Production Leadership Grid-Production and People (1960s-Blake & and People (1960s-Blake &

Mouton)Mouton) Concern for people Concern for production 5 distinct styles of management-

preferences – Impoverished Management (1, 1) – Country Club Management (1, 9) – Authority-Obedience Management (9, 1) – Organizational Man Management (5, 5) – Team Management (9, 9)

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Chapter 3Chapter 3

Contingency Theories of Leadership

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Normative Decision ModelNormative Decision Model

The Normative Decision Model, is directed at determining how much input subordinates should have in the decision making process.

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Decision-making processesDecision-making processes

To determine which situational and follower factors affect the level of participation and group performance, Vroom and Yetton investigated the decision-making processes leaders use in group settings.

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Continuum of decision-making Continuum of decision-making processesprocesses

Leader

Followers Situati

on

Decision process

B. Does leader have sufficient information?

A. Quality requirement?C. Is problem structured?

D. Acceptance important for implementation?

E. If decision made is solely by leader, will it be accepted by subordinates?

F. Do subordinates share organizational goals?

G. Is conflict over preferred solution likely?

Outcomes:

Decision quality

Decision acceptance

Subordinate development

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The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory

The Path-Goal Theory:deals with:

– expectancy– performance-to-outcome

probabilities, and– assigned valences or values to

outcome.

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The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory– Expectancy - If I study for 12 hours,

what is the probability I will get an A on the exam?

– Performance-to-outcome probabilities - If I get an A on the final, what is the probability of getting an A in the course?

– Assigned valences or values to outcome - How much do I value a higher GPA

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Path-Goal Theory and Path-Goal Theory and Interactional FrameworkInteractional Framework

Outcomes:

Acceptance of leader

Follower motivation

Follower satisfaction

Leader

FollowersSituation

Traits

Skills and abilities

expectations and work perceptions of own group abilities

Leader behavior: Directive, Supportive, Participative, Achievement-oriented

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Contingency Model-Contingency Model-Situational (late 1960s-Situational (late 1960s-

Fiedler)Fiedler) Three major situational variables:

– Leader-member relations – Task structure – Position power

Task oriented leaders tend to perform best in group situations that are either very favorable or very unfavorable to the leader

Relationship oriented leaders tend to perform best in situations that are intermediate in favorableness

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3-D Management Style 3-D Management Style Theory-Situational (1970s-Theory-Situational (1970s-

William Reddin)William Reddin)

The effectiveness of leaders depends on how appropriate their leadership style is to the situation in which they operate

A variety of styles can be effective or ineffective depending on the situation

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The third dimension in Reddin’s model is effectiveness

Effectiveness/environment – Interaction of the leader’s style with the “place” of work

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Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership

Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, & Dewey E. Johnson, Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources. (1996.) 7th Edition. Prentice-Hall Publishers, Upper Saddle River, NJ., USA. Page 7.

“Management is the process of working with and through individuals and groups and other resources (such as equipment, capital, and technology) to accomplish organizational goals.”

“Leadership occurs whenever one person attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason.”

“Leadership is a broader concept than management.”

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L = f (l, f, s)L = f (l, f, s) The leadership process is a The leadership process is a function of the leader, the function of the leader, the

follower, and other situational follower, and other situational variables.variables.

Variables: Job, Situation, People

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No mention of the type of organization Could be business, educational

institution, hospital, political organization, or family

Anytime an individual attempts to influence the behavior of someone else that individual is the potential leader-boss, colleague, subordinate, friend, relative, or group

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Chapter 12Chapter 12

Followers and Followership

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Effective followers Effective followers

Effective followers “have the vision to see both the forest and the trees, the social capacity to work well with others, the strength of character to flourish without heroic status, the moral and psychological balance to pursue personal and corporate goals at no cost to either, and, above all, the desire to participate in a team effort for the accomplishment of some greater purpose.”

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Characteristics of FollowershipCharacteristics of Followership

CohesionSupporting top leadershipRaising issues with top leadershipTaking initiativeTaking personal responsibility for

performance

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Five Style of FollowersFive Style of Followers

Alienated FollowersConformist FollowersPragmatist FollowersPassive FollowersExemplary Followers

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PartneringPartnering

Partnering deals with the quality of relationships between leaders and followers rather than on characteristics of leaders and followers.

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Situational CharacteristicsSituational Characteristics

CrisesTask InterdependenceInnovationMore Receptive to ChangeOrganizational Downsizing

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Chapter 15Chapter 15

Characteristics of the Situation

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HistoricallyHistorically

Historically, researchers maintained that the situation, not someone’s traits or abilities, plays the most important role in determining who emerges as a leader. They also believed that leaders were made, not born, and that prior leadership experience helped forge effective leaders.

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More recentlyMore recently

Leadership theories have explored how situational factors affect leaders’ behaviors.

a leader’s behavior was said to be depend on a leader’s perceptions of several critical aspects of the situation– rules and regulations governing the job– role expectations of subordinates– peers, and superiors– the nature of the task– and feedback about the subordinates’ performance.

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The Congruence Model is a systems The Congruence Model is a systems model with inputs, processes, and model with inputs, processes, and

outputs.outputs. Input, which consists of the

environment, resources, and history. Processes, which consist of the work,

people, formal organization, and informal organization.

Output, which consists of the system, unit, and individual.

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Congruence ModelCongruence Model

The core of the Congruence Model has four components: – the work, – the people, – the formal organizational, – the informal organization.

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Congruence ModelCongruence Model

The work is “what is to be done” by the organization and its component parts.

The people refers to the leader and followers and their skills, knowledge, experience, expectations, needs and preferences.

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Congruence ModelCongruence Model

The formal organization addresses how the level of authority, organizational structure, organizational design, lateral interdependence, and organizational culture affect leaders’ and followers’ behavior.

The informal organization refers to its culture (shared backgrounds, norms, values, or beliefs.)

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Environmental characteristicsEnvironmental characteristics

Environmental characteristics concern situational factors outside the task or organization that still affect the leadership process. These include technological, economic, political, social, and legal forces.

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Situational Leadership (1970s-Situational Leadership (1970s-Hersey & Blanchard)Hersey & Blanchard)

Task, Relationship, Effectiveness Task behavior: Extent to which leader

engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilities of an individual or group

Relationship behavior: Extent to which leader engages in two-way or multiway communication.

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Follower readiness: 2 types – Ability: knowledge, skills, experience – Willingness: confidence, commitment

and motivation to accomplish specific task

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Relationship between Leader Behavior and Follower Readiness

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Lead Self Instrument Directions for Scoring Correct Answers Video, “12 Angry

Men”