Foreword

This CD comprises a compilation of forty papers by presenters of MICELT 2012 Conference, held in Ipoh, Malaysia, on 8 – 10 October 2012.

The theme of MICELT 2012 is "Aligning ELT classroom practice with real world needs".This theme is timely because of the importance of making classroom activity relevant to the demands of the modern world. English language teaching and learning has many challenges to overcome and a conference such as MICELT is a humble attempt to share experiences and expertise in order to face and overcome such challenges.

The papers published in this CD can be categorised into seven main themes, namely: a)English Language Teaching, b)utilisation of technology in language teaching, c)Curriculum, Programmes and Projects in TESL, d)motivation and affective variables in learning English, e)Applied Linguistics, f)assessment and measurement in English Language Learning, and g)others.

Although the papers published in this CD are not truly representative of all the issues discussed at the MICELT 2012 Conference (as many more presenters have not submitted their papers for this publication), we, the editors, believe and hope that the articles presented in this compilation can still contribute to the realm of knowledge in our discipline i.e. Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching.

Thank you.

th th

http:www.micelt2012.upm.edu.my8-10 OCTOBER 2012ISBN NO: 978-967-960-326-2

The Malaysia International Conference on English Language Teaching

MICELT 2012

MIC

ELT

2012

“ALIGNING ELT CLASSROOM PRACTICE WITH REAL WORLD NEEDS”

PROCEEDINGS

Organised by:

Department of Languages & Humanities Education,Faculty of Educational Studies, UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA43400, UPM, SERDANG, SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN.TEL: 03-89467278 FAX: 0389450455

VENUE: KINTA RIVERFRONT HOTELS & SUITES, IPOH, PERAK.

The Malaysia International Conference on English Language Teaching

MICELT 2012M

ICEL

T 20

12

“ALIGNING ELT CLASSROOM PRACTICE WITH REAL WORLD NEEDS”

PROCEEDINGS

Edited by:

Habsah Hussin

Charanjit Kaur a/p Swaran Singh

4 October 2012

Department of Languange & Humanities EducationFaculty of Educational Studies, UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

43400, UPM, SERDANG, SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN.TEL: 03-89467278 FAX: 0389450455

Proceedings of the 9th Malaysia International Conference on English Language Teaching MICELT 2012 was published on 4 October 2012. th

Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

TEL: 03-89467278 FAX: 03-89450455

All rights reserved. No part of this proceedings may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the permission of the copyright holder.

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Data Pengkatalogan-dalam Penerbitan

Habsah Hussin

Charanjit Kaur a/p Swaran Singh

CONTENTS

NO TITLE PAGE

1 Writing Like The Ning Nang Nong

Hawanum Hussein & Evelyn Yeap

1 – 5

2 Iranian Perspective on Source Using and Source Citing in Academic

Writing

Hossein Saadabadi M, Arshad Abdul Samad & Roselan Baki

6 – 9

3 Collaborative Writing Assessment as a Supplemental Tool to Enhance

EFL Teachers’ Critical Thinking: Insights into Think aloud Protocols

Reza Ghafar Samar & Masoume Ahmadi

10 – 13

4 Error Correction In 2nd

Language Writing

Yvonne Gruberska

14 – 18

5 Wikinomics Of Collaborative Writing

Tan Bee Hoon

19 – 22

6 Interactional Metadiscourse in Research Article: A Marker of

Academic Discipline

Mohsen Khedri, Seyed Jamal Ebrahimi & Chan Swee Heng

23 – 26

7 Needs Analysis Of Ipg Students For A Web-Based Argumentative

Writing Resource: A Case Study In Ipgm Kampus Perempuan Melayu

Melaka

Jai Shree Bipinchandra, Parilah Mohd. Shah

and Sharifah Nor Puteh

27 – 31

8 Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills of ESL Teachers Towards

Cooperative Learning Strategies in Writing Classroom

Siti Rahimah Ahmad

32 – 36

9 Effect of Model Essays on the Improvement of IELTS Candidate

Writing Ability

Mohamadreza Jafary, *Nooreen Nordin,Arshad.Bin.Samad, Roselan Baki

37 – 45

10 The Effect Of Direct Versus Indirect Cultural Texts On Iranian Efl

Learners’ Reading Ability

Zahra Sadat Roozafzai

46 – 53

11 The use of metacognitive reading strategies in academic reading among

ASASI TESL students.

Nor Atifah Mohamad

& Nazarul Azali Razali

54 – 58

12 The Role Of Cultural Nativization In Comprehension Of Anecdotes In

EFL Reading Contexts

Razieh Assi

59 – 64

13 The Influence Of Content Schemata On Second Language Reading

Amizura Hanadi Mohd. Radzi & Noor Hashima Bt. Abdul Aziz

65 – 69

14 The Effectiveness and the Efficiency of the Phonics Approach in

Improving Primary School Children’ Reading Ability

Yusnamariah Md Yusop

70 - 73

15 Tertiary students’ perceptions of the impact of Reader Theatre

activities in an ESL classroom

M.Indrani, P.Dhayapari, Intan Safinas Mohd Ariff Albakri, Noria Ismail

74 – 76

16 Poker Card Game: A Chatting Booster To Assist Esl Students In

Group Discussion

Razanawati Nordin

77 – 80

17 It’s Just English In The Classroom

Kalairani Nadasan & Jeswant Kaur

81 – 83

18 Motivation For Students And Teachers In The Esl Classroom

Sumitra Ravindran Naidu & Deeya S. Menon

84 – 90

19 Teaching English Trough Drama

Mohd Ezwan Hussein bin Husni

91 – 92

20 Poetry Alive

Moomala binti Othman

93 – 97

21 Learning Together or Alone: On the Effect of Using 2 Types of Cloze

Tasks on Gaining Knowledge of Grammatical Features in EFL

Classrooms

Naser Sabourian Zadeh & Masoume Ahmadi

98 – 101

22 A Study of the Use of the “Learning Element” to Teach English in

Selected Malaysian Primary Schools

Sachithanantham Tachina Moorthi & Ambigapathy Pandian

102- 105

23 What Else Can We Do With A Poem Besides ‘Torture A Confession

Out Of It?’

Hawanum Hussein & Chong Seng Tong

106 – 109

24 Teaching English Through Literature (C.L.I.P.S- Children’s Literature

In Primary School) To Develop Communication And Writing Skills : A

Scaffolding Technique

Sarala A/P Subramanyam

110 – 114

25 Vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary knowledge: match and/or

conflict

Ali Almagtoof Aljdee

115 – 118

26 Consciousness-raising tasks for teaching grammar in Language

Learning

Ali Nezami & Mohammad Reza Vatanparasrt

119 - 122

27 The Use of Cognitive Apprenticeship in the Teaching of Past Tense

Forms among ESL Learners

Gan Shiau Hui & Dr. Ng Lee Luan

123 – 127

28 Learning Together or Alone: On the Effect of Using 2 Types of Cloze

Tasks on Gaining Knowledge of Grammatical Features in EFL

Classrooms

Naser Sabourian Zadeh & Masoume Ahmadi

128 – 133

29 The status of theme in research article abstracts: A cross-disciplinary

study

Seyed Foad Ebrahimi, Tan Bee Hoon & Chan Swee Heng

134 – 139

30 Issues in implementing Portfolio as an Assessment Tool in Two

Malaysian Secondary Schools

Charanjit Kaur a/p Swaran Singh & Arshad Abdul Samad

140 – 143

31 The Interfaces Between Media And Technology In Esl Classroom

Saabdev Kumar Sabapathy and Agelyia Murugan

144 – 146

32 Analysing the Reported Speech in Papua New Guinea’s Newspapers:

Implications for Teaching English for Journalism

Johnson Agwu Kalu

147 – 151

33 A Generalized English For Academic Purposes (Eap) Needs Profile Of

Undergraduate Students

Soo Ruey Shing

152 – 156

34 Speak Right: Practical Teaching Of Suprasegmental Features Of

Pronunciation For Accent Reduction In Esl

Nate Conrad

157 – 162

35 Excellent Students' Voice: English Public Speaking Activities are Fun!

Evelyn Yeap Ewe Lin1, Hawanum Hussein2, Mohd Anwar Muslimen3 and

Mohd Ariff Ahmad Tarmizi

163 – 168

36 Iranian EFL learners’ listening performance and listening test item

formats

Majid Nematpour

169 – 179

37 Baptism of Fire into the Teaching Profession: Tips from the Practicum

Habsah Hussin

180 – 184

38 The Making Of Debaters

Moomala binti Othman

185 – 192

39 Malaysian postgraduate teachers use of Facebook in the ESL

classroom: Friend of foe?

Nooreen Noordin & Sharmila Ganapathy

193 - 197

40 Pragmatic strategies and linguistic structures in making ‘suggestions’:

Towards comprehensive taxonomies

Hossein Abolfathi asl & Ain Nadzimah Abdullah

198 – 206

MICELT 2012

1

WRITING LIKE THE NING NANG NONG

Hawanum Hussein

&

Evelyn Yeap

Universiti Tenaga Nasional

Malaysia

hawanum@uniten.edu.my

The typical writing classroom in many schools in Malaysia has not changed much since CLT

(communicative language teaching) became the prevalent approach in TESL since the late

1970s. The communicative approach places great emphasis on meaning and less on learning

grammatical structures. Year after year, hordes of SPM leavers enter tertiary institutions with

functional informal English which is severely limited in lexis and syntax. Many teachers at

institutions of higher learning face challenges trying to improve the standard of English. Some

English teachers are even chided by their supervisors for wanting students to use correct English

in their classes and are told to be more accepting of mangled English so long as meaning can be

understood. In essence, it does not matter if ‘the cows go bong,’ as everyone knows cows

actually go ‘moo.’ Thus, academically pressured but linguistically disadvantaged, many

university students struggle with their written assignments and sometimes resort to plagiarizing

text from various sources as they are unable to produce a decent paraphrase of the texts. Written

reports often contain numerous major errors more serious than ‘Can I borrow you?’ as

humorously depicted on TV. The students’ inability to adequately master good language can

negatively affect academic achievement and later employment. This paper describes a quasi

experimental research that uses a new writing approach combining task based activities adopted

from communicative language teaching (CLT) and collaborative problem solving adapted from

problem based learning (PBL) called the problem solving approach (PSA). Results from an

earlier yet unpublished study by the writer show that this approach significantly improved

writing achievement of Middle Eastern EFL students enrolled in a fourteen week intensive

English course at a private university in Malaysia. It is the writers’ contention that the PSA could

also be a viable approach to improve writing skills among Malaysian students.

Literature review.

The approaches for teaching writing in an ESL/EFL class have undergone many changes.

Writing teachers began adopting the process approach in the 1970s. In this approach, the

attention is on the writer as a learner and creator of text. There is less focus on accuracy and

grammatical forms and more on process, making meaning, inventions and multiple drafts. A

decade later, a more academic oriented approach to writing was adopted by writing teachers to

prepare students for writing at tertiary level. The writing course is perceived as one that will

prepare the student for other academic writing assignments they will encounter in their courses

(Shih, 1986).

MICELT 2012

2

A more recent trend in writing sees a swing back towards a more balanced approach between

accuracy (form) and fluency (meaning). A number of researchers have highlighted the

significant differences between learning to write in L1 and L2. This new information casts

doubts on the efficacy of past writing approaches and methods that were primarily based on L1

learners (Frodesen, 2001; Hinkel, 2003; Silva, 1993). Hinkel (2003) discovered that advanced

L2 writers could only write simple texts with severely limited lexical and syntactic repertoire

even after years of ESL and composition training. Writing experts warn that too much emphasis

on meaning and too little on accuracy can be detrimental to students in their vocational,

academic and professional careers as they will be judged on their language control and writing

ability (Celce-Murcia, 2001; Christie, 1998; Martin, 1992).

Thus, based on this current trend towards a more balanced teaching emphasis, the writing

syllabus must focus on both accuracy and meaning. The collaborative problem solving approach

(PSA) was designed to meet these pedagogical needs. In the PSA, task based activities were

used to provide language scaffolding to the EFL learners. The PSA also incorporated group

problem-solving adapted from problem-based learning (PBL). Ill-structured problems were used

as they are problems with no ready solutions and therefore make the problem solving task more

cognitively challenging for the EFL learners. This is an important aspect of the PSA as

educational psychologists such as Salomon (1993) and Sfard (1998) believe that when learners

are taught to solve problems in groups, they are trained to think intelligently by drawing upon

their own skills, knowledge and their supportive environment resulting in more intelligent

thinking. Besides intelligent thought, the collaborative problem solving approach would help the

learners learn the course material and improve their writing skills (Ng, 2008). Collaborative

learning through group problem solving also provides a positive affective learning environment

(Fitz-Gibbon & Reay, 1982; Littlejohn, 1983; Long & Porter, 1985). A positive affective

learning environment makes the writing class less daunting and less stressful for the EFL

learners.

Method.

Sample

The sample for this research was two classes of International students enrolled at Universiti

Tenaga Nasional’s Intensive English programme. Both classes were of comparable intermediate

proficiency and consist primarily of a mix of male, Middle Eastern undergraduate and

postgraduate students. One class was randomly assigned as the treatment group (n=31) and the

other as the control group (n=29).

Treatment

Before treatment began, a pre test was given to both the groups to collect baseline data and to

assess homogeneity. The experiment lasted for four weeks and the treatment group received the

combined task based and collaborative problem-solving approach. Each fortnight, the treatment

group used materials that incorporate task-based activities for language acquisition and were

given an ill-structured problem to solve. Students were then put into small groups of four and

given an ill-structured problem to solve. Groups then presented their solutions to the class and

MICELT 2012

3

received feedback from both their classmates and the teacher. After the feedback session,

students planned and wrote their essays individually based on group ideas. The first essays

allowed the teacher to select common mistakes which were highlighted and discussed in class.

These essays were returned to the students and the students rewrote their essays, self –correcting

errors pointed out but not corrected by the teacher. The second final essay on how students can

help solve security problems on campus was used as the post test.

The control group received the traditional process approach to writing of generating ideas,

planning, drafting, revising and writing the final draft. The control group used the same handouts

on opinion essays but did not receive any additional vocabulary, grammar input or collaborative

problem solving activity.

Data

Data was obtained from pre and post writing tests from both control and treatment groups. The

pre and post tests are similar in complexity and form and are based on the IELTS academic

writing task 2. They were scored using the IELTS scheme for Academic writing task 2.

ANCOVA was used to compare the scores from both groups.

Results and discussion

The objective of this research was to examine if a collaborative learning environment provided

by the PSA would be effective in helping EFL learners write better academic essays. To

examine the effects of the PSA on writing achievement, a one-way between group analysis of

covariance or ANCOVA was used on the writing post test scores.

Table 2 shows the results of ANCOVA on writing achievement.

After adjusting for pre-treatment scores, results indicate a significant difference in mean scores

between the treatment group and the control group, F (1, 57) = 7.9, p=.006, partial eta squared =

.12.

Table 2: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects using ANCOVA for writing

Dependent Variable: post

Source Type III

Sum

of Squares

df

MS F

Sig.

Partial

Eta

Squared

Corrected

Model 15.303

a 2 7.65 27.37 .000 .49

Intercept 3.205 1 3.20 11.46 .001 .17

pre 14.605 1 14.60 52.26 .000 .47

group 2.232 1 2.23 7.98 .006 .12

Error 15.930 57 .27

Total 3199.500 60

Corrected Total 31.233 59

a. R Squared = .490 (Adjusted R Squared = .472)

MICELT 2012

4

Implication of the PSA study for Malaysian writing classes

Many English teachers would agree that teaching International students from Middle Eastern

countries in the Intensive English programme can be an extremely challenging task. ‘Sharing’ of

answers even during tests and assessments can be prevalent. What the research with the PSA

show is that most of these EFL students can improve themselves if they are put into a non

threatening, non competitive and collaborative learning environment. Collaborative learning

through problem solving allows peer correction and peer learning to occur informally within the

group discussions, away from the teacher’s pedagogical glare. As difficult as they can be, these

EFL learners were able to pick up vocabulary and grammar items to improve their writing

significantly.

If this could happen for the EFL learners, it would appear logical that it will work for Malaysian

students as well. A few caveats must be in place for the PSA to work in the typical tertiary

Malaysian classroom. One, each group must have an EFL learner who can be elected the leader

to ensure all discussions are done in English. Two, all essays and written assignments must be

done individually to ensure that learning occurs and no ‘passengers’ are present. Three, the

teacher must impress on the students that poor or good grades are entirely their choice, not the

teacher’s. Four, administrators must support an evaluation criteria that only awards high marks

for writing which is both accurate in form (grammar) and meaning.

Conclusion

This paper describes a combined approach of task based language activities and collaborative

problem-solving which has been proven effective in helping EFL learners write academic essays.

In addition, it would appear that grammar and vocabulary input combined with collaborative

learning through solving of ill-structured problems can enhance language acquisition. The

findings of this research provide empirical data that explicit teaching of grammar and vocabulary

can be effective in improving written language quality when coupled with meaningful,

cognitively challenging problem solving activities that support as well as strengthen the language

input. Further research using a larger sample of Malaysian students or with a longer time period

would provide interesting insights and information on how the collaborative problem solving

approach can be used effectively for classroom instruction and to improve the standard of

English among Malaysian students.

References

Bacha, N.N. (2002) .Developing learners’ academic writing skills in higher education:

A study for educational reform. Language & Education, 16(3), 161-177.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd

edition). Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Christie, F.(1998). Learning the literacies of primary and secondary schooling. In F.

Christie 8c R. Misson (Eds.), Literacy and schooling: New directions . London:

Routledge.

Fitz-Gibbon, C.I., and D.G. Reay. (1982). Peer-tutoring: brightening up FL teaching in

an urban comprehensive school. British Journal of LanguageTeaching, 20(1), 39-44.

Frodesen, J. (2001). Grammar in writing. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as

a second or foreign language ( pp. 233-248). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Hinkel, E. (2003). Simplicity without elegance: Features of sentences in L2 and LI

MICELT 2012

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academic texts. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 275-301.

Khalil, A. (2000). Syntactic devices for marking information structure in English and

Arabic. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies, 1(1), 133–56.

Kharma, N. and Hajjaj, A. (1997). Errors in English among Arabic speakers. Beirut:

Librairie Du Liban.

Littlejohn, A. P. (1983). Increasing learner involvement in course management.

TESOL Quarterly, 17, 595-608.

Long, M. & Porter, P. (1985). Group work, interlanguage, and second language

acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 207-228.

Martin, T. (1992). English text: System and structure. Philadelphia: Benjamins.

Ng, P.C.L. (2008). Promoting problem based learning through collaborative writing. The

English Teacher, 37, 49 – 60.

Rababah.G.( 2003).Communication Problems facing Arab learners of English: A

personal perspective. TEFL Web Journal 2(1), 15-30.

Salomon, G. (1993). No distribution without individual’s cognition: A dynamic

interactional view. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and

educational considerations (pp.111-138). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University

press.

Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing only one.

Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13.

Shih, M. (1986) . Content-based approaches to teaching academic writing. TESOL

Quarterly, 20, 617-648.

Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL

research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657-677.

Zafar Syed. (2003). The sociocultural context of English language teaching in

the Gulf. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 337-341.

MICELT 2012

6

Iranian Perspective on Source Using and Source Citing in

Academic Writing

Hossein Saadabadi M. (University Putra Malaysia)

Arshad Abdul Samad (University Putra Malaysia)

Roselan Baki (University Putra Malaysia)

A phenomenon like plagiarism has so far been studied and interpreted through the eyes of

lecturers, supervisors and other education officials. This top-down method of treating plagiarism

has neither been enough nor effective so far due to the contingent nature of plagiarism. The

results of these studies have just been many regulations and laws of deterrence and punishment

with no impact on the issue. This paper is an attempt to discover the patterns of the academic

writing culture among Iranian graduate students who write their graduate thesis in English as a

second language.

A survey of students’ comments and a review of the literature related to plagiarism show

that the root of most textual borrowing in thesis writing among Non-native speakers of English

(NNSE) students is to improve the writing quality (Howard 1992; Leary 2010). These students

borrow from other resources to facilitate the writing process or improve their writing skill as well

as the quality of their product, but quite unintentionally, they convey a disapproving image of

themselves as plagiarizers. In other words, for NNSE students plagiarism is a technique to

improve a failure to write well rather than refusal to engage legitimately in the writing process at

all (Deckert 1993; Rinnert and Kobayashi 2005; Shi 2006; Pecorari 2010). However, some cases

of plagiarism resulted from ambiguity in definitions. Despite years of debate about plagiarism

and fair use, there is still no clear-cut definition for the concept (Sharkey 1992), and this has

resulted in a plurality in understanding and using the rules.

Iranian students had had no training in academic writing in general and more

specifically in academic writing in English before they enter graduate programs. Influenced by

their past learning environments, these students identify what is considered in Malaysia

plagiarism, a positive technique that helps them improve many writing problems. One very

common example of this claim among students is what Pecorari (2002), following Howard

(1995), labels patchwriting. That is to say, this group has either a mistaken or a different

perception of plagiarism.

This study is based on a premise that plagiarism among Iranian graduate students who study at

English medium universities abroad is not intentional, to obtain illegal benefit or to cheat their

supervisors; rather, plagiarism has its roots in students’ cultural and educational background.

Unlike Chinese who seem to have a plagiarism tradition different from that of the west

academia (Bloch 2008), Iranian graduate students follow the western model in their academic

writing while writing in their first language (Jalilifar 2012).

MICELT 2012

7

This study investigates, through multiple discussions, how Iranian graduate students

understand academic plagiarism policy, as well as how they write from other sources and how

they cite the sources they use. To obtain these goals, the following questions will be addressed

qualitatively:

How do students conceptualize writing from other sources?

How do students conceptualize textual borrowing and plagiarism?

Plagiarism is a contextually contingent concept. Different academic cultures around the world

especially as different as Asian countries in the east and Europe and North America in the west

show different attitude and understanding of borrowing from others’ sources. It also differs from

discipline to discipline (Hyland 1999; Bloch 2012). Plagiarism covers a range of inferences from

western rules of ownership and authorship to memory work and textual borrowing in the

academia of the east (Chandrasoma, Thompson et al. 2004). In an attempt to deal with some

complexities of the concepts of text, ownership and plagiarism, Pennycook (1996) argues that

“the way ownership and creativity are understood within European and U.S. contexts needs to be

seen as a very particular cultural and historical development”. He reviews the history of

authorship and challenges of this notion in the west from Plato to the present era to ask how we

consider the notion of textual borrowing or plagiarism when that ‘meanings are in a sense in

circulation”, and “when language is constantly cycled and recycled” (Pennycook 1996).

While academics in the east, especially in China, borrow texts to construct personal

academic identity (Abasi, Akbari et al. 2006) through relying heavily on memory work and

textual borrowing (Chandrasoma, Thompson et al. 2004; Bloch 2012), or copying,

memorization and reproduction (Howard 1995), western academia emphasize rules of

ownership and authorship (Chandrasoma, Thompson et al. 2004), and encourage using multiple

sources of information (Lillis and Turner 2001) in academic writing.

What remained unanswered in the debate, due to lack of empirical research, was that how

Iranian scholars and students with a blend of cultural heritage of the east and academic heritage

of the west form and treat the concepts textual borrowing, plagiarism and writing from sources.

This is what this paper particularly aimed at.

The required sample for this research was purposefully selected from among Iranian graduate

students of science and engineering at Universiti Putra Malaysia. Since the target population was

not centrally located, the network or chain sampling method (Ary, Jacobs et al. 2010) was

employed for selecting samples. Each participant was interviewed twice and each interview that

lasted 30 minutes was recorded. All interviews were transcribed to ensure accuracy, and the

themes were generated and categorized.

The study revealed different weaknesses in the participants’ academic skills. The most

important of these weaknesses was lack of knowledge in writing from sources which paves the

ground for threatening the integrity of the whole work.

MICELT 2012

8

All participants believed that referring to other sources for every detail disturbs the

reading and comprehension process, and turns away the writer’s focus from the subject. They

believe that only introducing the sources used in the study in a reference list is sufficient both to

acknowledge the authors and provide the learners with a list of related resources for further

reading; therefore, the participants thought that any resource that could help the readers should

be cited in the reference list although not used in the study.

These findings, although need further investigation and support, should ring the bell for

Malaysian academia. As there are many Iranian students in Malaysian universities, to ensure the

quality, courses should be planned to teach Iranian students and improve their academic skills

before they are involved in doing their academic research.

References

Abasi, A. R., N. Akbari, et al. (2006). "Discourse appropriation, construction of identities, and

the complex issue of plagiarism: ESL students writing in graduate school." Journal of

Second Language Writing 15(2): 102-117.

Ary, D., L. C. Jacobs, et al. (2010). Introduction to research in education. Belmont, CA,

Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Bloch, J. (2008). Plagiarism in an intercultural rhetoric context. Contrastive rhetoric : reaching to

intercultural rhetoric. U. Connor, E. Nagelhout and W. V. Rozycki. Amsterdam;

Philadelphia, John Benjamins Pub.: 258-274.

Bloch, J. (2012). Plagiarism, intellectual property and the teaching of L2 writing. Bristol, UK;

Buffalo, Multilingual Matters.

Chandrasoma, R., C. Thompson, et al. (2004). "Beyond Plagiarism: Transgressive and

Nontransgressive Intertextuality." Journal of Language, Identity & Education 3(3): 171-

193.

Deckert, G. D. (1993). "Perspectives on plagiarism from ESL students in Hong Kong." Journal

of Second Language Writing 2(2): 131-148.

Howard, R. M. (1992). "A Plagiarism Pentimento." Journal of Teaching Writing 11(2): 233-245.

Howard, R. M. (1995). "Plagiarisms, authorships, and the academic death penalty." College

English 57(7): 788-806.

Hyland, K. (1999). "Academic attribution: citation and the construction of disciplinary

knowledge." Applied linguistics 20(3): 341-367.

Jalilifar, A. (2012). "Academic attribution: citation analysis in master's theses and research

articles in applied linguistics." International Journal of Applied Linguistics 22(1): 23-41.

Leary, C. (2010). "Composing the Anthology: An Exercise in Patchwriting." Writing Spaces:

Readings on Writing: 225.

Lillis, T. and J. Turner (2001). "Student Writing in Higher Education: Contemporary confusion,

traditional concerns." Teaching in Higher Education 6(1): 57-68.

Pecorari, D. (2002). Original Reproductions: An investigation of the source use of postgraduate

second-language writers. unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham.

Pecorari, D. (2010). Academic writing and plagiarism : a linguistic analysis. London,

Continuum.

Pennycook, A. (1996). "Borrowing Others' Words: Text, Ownership, Memory, and Plagiarism."

TESOL Quarterly 30(2): 201-230.

MICELT 2012

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Rinnert, C. and H. Kobayashi (2005). "Borrowing words and ideas: Insights from Japanese L1

writers." Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 15(1): 15-29.

Sharkey, P. B. (1992). "What to Tell Your Students about Copyright." The Clearing House

65(4): 213-214.

Shi, L. (2006). "Cultural Backgrounds and Textual Appropriation." Language Awareness 15(4):

264-282.

MICELT 2012

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Collaborative Writing Assessment as a Supplemental Tool to Enhance EFL Teachers’

Critical Thinking: Insights into Think aloud Protocols

Reza Ghafar Samar

Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

Masoume Ahmadi

Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

As is well known, education is of paramount importance for development of society and

individual growth of people living in that society. The more developed and civilized one country

is, the more well-educated people there are and vice versa. Although societies are developing at a

surprising speed, the content and manner of our teaching, somehow, are not. There is still a long

way to be taken to achieve our educational ideals. A great deal of attention in learning and

pedagogy should be given to the sociohistorical and political forces residing in both the

meanings of the linguistic resources and the social identities of language users, as Hall (1997)

has argued. Regarding the manner of teaching, Quian (2007) explained that teachers’ role as

transmitters of knowledge has been taken for granted and has proclaimed them as absolute

authorities in the classrooms and students are not supposed to challenge such authorities and

foster opinions and thoughts. Teachers as both victims and practitioners of this long term

educational practice find it burdensome to face novel ideas and viewpoints of students and even

themselves. Regarding the undeniable role of teachers in classrooms, it goes without saying that,

teachers should be considered as one of the key factors in determining the success of education

and more specifically language teaching. Accordingly, it is not surprising if a broad range of

language research endeavors has addressed the characteristic features of successful language

teachers. Regarding teaching as an interactive process between society and classroom,

considerable debate has taken place over enhancing teachers and learners’ critical thinking

abilities in EFL/ESL context in recent years. Unfortunately, in this attempt, the teaching

community has not been successful in evolving indigenous critical tools without which

empowerment remains only a far–reaching dream.

Ennis (1992) has mentioned that his concept of critical thinking encompasses seeking a

clear statement of the thesis or question, seeking reasons, trying to be well-informed, taking into

account the total situation, keeping in mind the original and/or basic concern, being open-

minded, and so on. Numerous findings (Canagarajah, 2005; Mirhosseini & Ghahremani Ghajar,

2005) in the field of education have led a number of professional organizations to stand for

highlighting the significance of critical thinking in classroom and to urge teachers to assist their

learners in developing higher level thinking skills. Many techniques such as journal keeping,

writing, reading comprehension have been introduced thanks to their effect on enhancing critical

thinking abilities in EFL classrooms. Learners’ Collaborative learning has been put as a

subcategory of these techniques too. Gokhale (1995) advocated the role of collaborative learning

in enhancing pupils’ critical thinking. The result of the study carried out by Quitadamo, Brahler,

and Crouch (2009) revealed that peer–led team learning has a small but positive impact on

critical thinking gains in some science courses which consequently result in improving grade

performance and retention. At yet, there is little empirical evidence on its effectiveness for

teachers. This study examined the effectiveness of individual assessment versus collaborative

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assessment in enhancing teachers’ critical thinking skills. The research Literature reveals that a

positive and social climate is of paramount importance in developing and sustaining

collaborative assessment. Regarding writing assessment, collaborative assessment recedes the

traces of the subjectivity and bias of writing assessment and provides a relatively agreed-upon-

criteria on which learners can rely after long and short discussions. To bridge the mentioned

gap–lack of research on enhancing teachers’ critical thinking – the current research has taken

over the mission to find out whether there is any significant difference between teachers’ critical

thinking abilities before and after being involved in individual and collaborative assessments.

As many as 24 Iranian male and female adult teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL)

were given instructions which clarified what they were supposed to do such as: scoring IELTS

writing samples, providing comments on texts, scoring individually and collaboratively, and

thinking aloud while assessing texts. Raters, at first, scored the writing individually while

verbalizing their thoughts in Persian or English without any time limit set for the task of scoring.

Moreover, they provided the researchers with some comments on writing papers. Participated in

this step, they were asked to score collaboratively a blank copy of the same writing samples in

paired groups. The introspective verbal protocols were recorded and subsequently transcribed by

researchers. The coded data provided a source of information to be analyzed. Chi–Square

analyses were conducted to investigate significant differences between individual and

collaborative groups. The content analysis of think aloud protocols provided further support.

The coding categories for the present study were developed based on Toulmin’s (1985,

mentioned in Brown and Keeley, 1994) because they counted these abilities as components of

critical thinking. This model is what Stapleton (2001) has described as a logical way for

measuring critical thinking. Based on this model, transcribed texts were finally analyzed for the

following components: number of arguments; extent of evidence: recognition of opposition;

corresponding refutations; and. number of fallacies

Total number of assertions which were based on critical thinking components was equal to

(n=226) statements for individual raters out of a 216-minute transcription and (n=241)

statements out of a 79–minute transcription in collaborative group. Although no significant

discrepancies was observed regarding each individual components except refutations (x2=11.7 >

x2

critical = 3.84), the total amount of Chi–square observed value (x

2=33.02, df =4, p=.000≤ .05) is

much more higher than the critical value of 9.48 at 4 degrees of freedom. Therefore, it can be

concluded that there are significant differences among critical thinking components of both

groups of raters.

As it is displayed in Table1, collaborative raters exceeded the expected rate in employing

some components of critical thinking such as ‘arguments’ and ‘refutations’. They have used

‘arguments’ 0.8 times more than expected and ‘refutations’ as much as 16.7 times while their

selection of ‘evidence’, ‘recognition of opposition’, and ‘fallacy’ choices are lower than the

expected rate. Interestingly, they have recognized the opposite views about 11 times more than

expected rate and consequently, ‘recognition of opposition’ was placed as the lowest component

of critical thinking used by collaborative raters.

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Table2. Observed, Expected and Residuals in collaborative assessments

Observed N Expected N Residual

Collaborative

assessment

Argument 152 151.2 +.8

Evidence 15 19.09 -4.09

Recognition

of

opposition

29 40.25 -11.25

Refutation

42 25.28 +16.72

This study was an attempt to find out whether one form of alternative assessment, namely

collaborative assessment, is influential in fostering critical thinking abilities. The results revealed

that raters become more critical while rating collaboratively rather than individually. Some other

researchers (Gokhale, 1995; McConnell, 2002; Quitadamo, et al., 2009) second the findings.

Tsui (1999) has also accentuated the role of discussion on improving critical thinking abilities

and skills.

The findings of this study presented insights into how raters operate across individual or

collaborative assessment. The major findings emerging from theses analyses reveal that how

enhancement of critical thinking abilities in collaborative assessment will facilitate raters with

undeniable benefits. Before starting with how to test writing, we must start with attempting to

define what we mean by writing ability. This is a big deal since as, researchers in L1 and L2

have pointed out, the uses of which writing is put out by different people in different situations

therefore, and no single definition can cover all situations. Raters may apply not necessarily the

same criteria to the scripts, and even when they apply the same criteria, their evaluations and

judgments may differ. Teachers bring their teaching experience to the task of judging and engage

themselves as active readers trying to make common sense with students’ writings. Weigle

(1994) counted rater variation as an undesirable problem that causes error variance and this

problem should be eliminated or reduced, but there are some problems in achieving this goal.

Moreover, it can be observed that collaborative raters have the lower rate of using fallacies

comparing with individual ones; however, the difference is not eye–catching. Fallacies are

erroneous thinking which play trick on one’s critical thinking. Ramasamy (2011) has mentioned

that informal fallacy as one of the dimensions of critical thinking can distract people in thinking

critically because “they tend to appear reasonable and their unreliability is not apparent on the

surface” (p. 1). Based on this claim, the finding of this study on enhancing critical thinking while

assessing collaboratively can be approved of. A good critical thinker has the ability of

recognizing these fallacies and reasoning them out before deciding or concluding certainly.

At this point, a word regarding limitations of this study is worth mentioning. The findings of

this study should be taken cautiously due to gathering of information just through think aloud

protocols. Observations, diaries, retrospective process, and interviews can help next researchers

to triangulate the data. Further comparisons could reveal more about the relationship between

critical thinking skills and other prominent pedagogical solutions in ELT.

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References

Brown, M. N. & Keelley, S. M. (1994). Asking the right questions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Canagarajah, S. (2005). Critical pedagogy in L2 learning and teaching. In E. Hinkel (Ed.),

Handbook on research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 931-950).

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ennis, R. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory into Practice, 32(3), 179–187.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology

Education, 7(1), 22–30.

Hall, G.S. (1997). Redefining the Syllabus: An investigation into whether syllabuses can meet

learners’ linguistic and social needs’. Essay for CCLL1 Module, MA ELT, Lancaster

University.

McConnell, D. (2002). The experience of collaborative assessment in E-learning. Studies in

Continuing Education, 24 (1), 2002, 73–93.

Mirhosseini , S. A. & Ghahremani Ghajar, S. (2005 ). English class or speaking about everything

class? Dialogue journal writing as a critical EFL literacy practice in an Iranian high

school. Language, Culture and Curriculum,18 (3), 286-300.

Qian, L. (2007). Critical thinking and educational ideal. US-China Education Review, 4(1), 174-

202.

Quitadamo, J., Brahler, J., & Crouch, G. J. (2009). Peer-Led Team Learning: A Prospective

Method for Increasing Critical Thinking in Undergraduate Science Courses. Science

Educator, 18 (1), 29–40.

Ramasamy, S. (2011). An analysis of informal reasoning fallacy and critical thinking dispositions

among Malaysian undergraduates. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.

ED525513).

Stapleton, P. (2001). Assessing critical thinking in the writing of Japanese university students:

Insights about assumptions and content familiarity. Writing Communication, 18 (4), 506–

548.

Tsui, L. (1999). Courses and instruction affecting critical thinking. Research in Higher Education,

40 (2), 185–200.

Weigle, S. C. (1994). Effects of training on raters of ESL compositions. Language Testing, 11,

197–223.

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ERROR CORRECTION IN 2ND

LANGUAGE WRITING

Yvonne Gruberska

ELS Language Centres

yvonne.gruberska@els.edu.my

This workshop is based on research carried out by ESL specialist Dana Ferris and published in

her book: “Treatment of error in second language student writing” (University of Michigan

Press, 2002). Dana Ferris is Professor and Associate Director for Lower-Division Writing in the

University Writing Program at the University of California, Davis. She oversees the UWP 1

course and teaches upper-division writing courses, pedagogy courses and Ph.D. seminars on

second language writing and other areas of interest. Dana is also a participating faculty member

in the Graduate Group in Education, the Graduate Group in Linguistics, and the Designated

Emphasis in Writing, Rhetoric, and Composition Studies.

Introduction

Aims:

To help teachers acquire strategies to successfully deal with a variety of errors in student

writing.

To help students to take more responsibility for the accuracy of their writing.

1. Why is error treatment necessary for L2 writers

Second language acquisition and its implications for error correction.

o Foreign language acquisition takes a considerable amount of time, particularly

when it is for academic purposes.

o Some students will never attain native-like mastery of the language. SLA occurs

in stages.

o Language acquisition can take place in different stages.

o The types of errors made by 2nd language learners are different from those made

by native speakers.

Objections to error correction in L2 writing classes.

o In the 1970’s and 1980’s the focus was not so much on grammar but on the ability

to express ideas and get your message across. Recently, the emphasis has moved

towards grammatical accuracy in writing. In addition, there has also been

significant debate about the effects of error correction on students’ accuracy in

writing. However, it has been proven that, in the short term, error correction does

have a number of beneficial effects on students’ writing.

2. Preparing L2 writing teachers to treat student error

Teachers need to study aspects of grammar that are particularly problematic for

non-native speakers of English.

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o Many types of errors are unique to particular languages, e.g. lack of articles in

Russian, lack of indefinite article in Arabic, lack of tenses in Malay. Therefore if

teachers are aware of their students’ backgrounds they can be better prepared for

dealing with the specific types of errors those students will make.

Teachers need practice in recognizing and identifying errors in student writing.

o Teachers need to have a good grounding in grammar themselves in able to error

correct effectively. Unfortunately, many teachers still lack the necessary basic

grammatical knowledge to help their students properly.

Teachers need practice in developing lessons and teaching grammar points to

students.

o Grammar mini-lessons can be an effective tool in teaching writing. Not full-

blown grammar lessons, but mini-lessons which can focus on specific

grammatical problems affecting a class.

Teachers need to understand the principles of 2nd

language acquisition and of

composition theory.

o It is important that teachers are aware of second language acquisition theory.

Teacher should understand that differences between L1 and L2 forms may lead to

student errors in writing and that individual differences in learning styles and

motivation may affect students’ responsiveness to grammar-teaching techniques

and to editing strategy training. Also, writing teachers need to consider the

relative importance of error correction in student writing processes. While we

should not neglect accuracy and clarity in writing we also should also not give it

more attention than it merits.

3. Perspectives on error correction in L2 writing and responding to student errors

What are the effects of teacher.correction on student writing?

Do writing teachers give accurate and complete feedback on students’ errors?

o There have been several research reports which claim that teachers’ feedback is

inadequate and inconsistent. The accuracy of corrections made has also been

called into questions. However, there has been no significant research carried out

to prove that this is the case in general.

Do students attend to teacher feedback and attempt to utilize it in revisions of

their texts?

o One criticism of teacher error correction and of written feedback in general is that

students do not pay attention to it. However, in studies carried out in which

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students have been given in-class time to correct errors highlighted by the teacher

it has been found that they can correct anywhere from 60% to over 90% of their

errors. The important fact is that students need to be given in-class time or

assigned such tasks (e.g. redrafting) for homework.

Do students who receive teacher feedback on their errors make accurate changes

in their revisions?

Yes in the majority of cases – 70-80%.

Do students who receive error feedback improve in written accuracy over time?

Not enough research has been done about the long-term effects of error correction.

Students do improve in general but this could also be attributed to other factors such

as increased writing practice, more exposure to English, changes in study practices

etc. However, it can be argued that error correction, together with the above

strategies, are necessary in general to increasing levels of accuracy.

Does it matter what types of feedback students receive (e.g., direct or indirect,

error location versus error identification, coded or uncoded, written or verbal?

Direct feedback is when the teacher not only highlights the error but actually corrects

it for the student. Indirect feedback is when the teacher indicates that an error has

been made but leaves it to the student writer to correct the error. It has been argued

that indirect feedback is more helpful to student writers in most cases.

Coded versus uncoded: Students and instructors feel that more explicit (i.e. coded)

feedback is preferable. However, certain studies have also shown that there is no real

significant difference between the effectiveness of coded and uncoded error

correction. The important fact is that the error is highlighted for the student, but not

necessarily identified as to the type of error it is.

Are certain types of error more “treatable” by means of error feedback than

others?

Treatable and untreatable errors – Certain types of error are more “treatable” by

students themselves, e.g. verb endings, articles etc. However, certain types of errors

such as word choice errors cannot always be corrected by the student.

4. What are the effects of other types of classroom intervention on the accuracy of

student writing? Other successful techniques to help students improve their accuracy in writing are:

o Teacher-student conferences

o Peer editing sessions

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o Revision/rewriting after receiving feedback

o In-class grammar instructions tailored to specific structural problems

o Maintenance of error logs

Does required revision after receiving feedback facilitate student progress?

There is not compelling evidence that the presence or absence or revision makes a

difference in the long run. On the other hand, some researchers have suggested that

revision, along with other forms or writing practice, is the key to long-term student

improvement. This is certainly a major area for further research.

Does in-class grammar instruction help students to improve their writing?

It has been proposed that, if mini grammar lessons are carefully tailored to the needs

of students and linked and applied to the writing being done in class, it will certainly

have a beneficial effect. However, there have been no studies that have looked solely

at grammar instruction and its effects on the accuracy of writing.

Does maintenance of error logs or charts help students to become more accurate

over time?

Error logs help students to focus on major patterns of written error and to be aware of

the relative frequency of various types of errors. However, research in this area is

minimal so no real judgments can be made about the effectiveness of error logs. On

the other hand, in the short term, it has been proven that error logs do help students

become more aware of and attend to the types of errors they make.

5. What are students’ views and perceptions about error treatment in their writing?

Do L2 student writers value error feedback, or do they resent it and find it

discouraging and demotivating?

Students feel that teacher feedback on grammar and errors is extremely important to

their progress as writers;

Do students value feedback on errors as much as feedback on other aspects of

writing (e.g., ideas, organization)?

Students in the most recent students also see value in other types of teacher feedback

(on ideas and organization);

What specific feedback styles or mechanisms to do students prefer (e.g., selective

or comprehensive, direct or indirect)?

Student writers mostly favour comprehensive teacher marking of errors;

Student writers, when given a choice of teacher marking strategies, tend to prefer that

teachers mark errors and give them strategies for correcting them over either direct

correction of errors or less explicit indirect method (e.g. underlining)

Students sometimes found teachers’ marking systems confusing or cumbersome.

NOTE: Students also need to be aware of assessment criteria in order to fulfil them successfully.

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6. Beyond Error Correction

Helping students understand the importance of self-editing.

Training students in self-editing strategies.

Using peer-editing as a tool.

Training students to focus on specific issues in a text.

Encouraging students to track their progress in self-editing.

Teaching students how to edit under time pressure.

Encouraging better development of ideas in essay writing.

7. Dealing with workload and avoiding burnout

It is not essential to give written error feedback on every single paper students write.

Focus on specific errors only.

Be aware of what your students already know, find out what they want and design your

feedback strategies accordingly.

Be realistic in your goals about error feedback. Aim to make most of your feedback

indirect, focused on error location rather than identification and verbal as far as possible.

As time goes on, mark fewer errors and require the students to take increasing

responsibility for their own progress.

References

Ferris, D. (2002). Treatment of error in second language student writing. University of

Michigan Press.

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Wikinomics Of Collaborative Writing

Tan Bee Hoon

Department of English

Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication

Universiti Putra Malaysia

E-mail: tanbh@fbmk.upm.edu.my

The wiki software was created for the purpose of developing web pages collaboratively and

efficiently. The idea was originally mooted by a computer programmer named Ward

Cunningham in 1995. Wiki allows information to be added or edited freely by any user, and the

evolving information becomes available freely to the community or any selected audience. Given

the popularity of wiki as a collaboration platform or device through recent years, “wiki” has

become synonymous to “collaboration”. The term “wikinomics” was coined by Tapscott and his

co-author in two recent books that emphasize on the importance of a collaborative culture in all

spheres of human activities. They reckoned that wikinomics brings people together on the

Internet to create a giant brain, and together the group can tap from the collective wisdom to

achieve a common goal. Taking on the innovative ideas from wikinomics, the present study

investigates how wiki can be best applied for maximum benefits in ESL writing classrooms. It

draws and discusses results from three related wiki projects completed locally to illustrate the

potentials, benefits and implications of wikinomics.

Literature review

In English-as-Second-Language (ESL) contexts, students are often reluctant to write in English.

Their reluctance can be attributed to the lack of a real or compelling reason to write, the absence

of complementary support besides the teacher-fronted classroom, and the ignorance of

interesting writing tools. Yet writing in English is an essential skill for students to succeed in

their academic endeavours and later in their career. Adding to these challenges is the nature of

the current generation of learners who are are growing up with the Internet, and this has

impacted on how they live and learn. Therefore, teachers can no longer rely solely on traditional

pedagogy in English language instruction. More engaging techniques are needed to motivate

learning in view of the lack of authentic reasons for students to write in English. Besides,

problems such as big class size, limited class time and limited opportunities for students to

practice English all point to the need for new pedagogy to complement classroom learning of

English and to extend the learning beyond the classroom space and time. The problems has

instigated researchers to explore the application of wiki (an online collaborative platform)

(Chong, Tan & Mardziah, 2011) and the Writing With Wiki (WWW) approach in the ESL

writing classroom (Tan, 2009).

The potentials of wiki are realized in the writing classrooms because of its participatory and

collaborative nature. Every student gets an equal chance to contribute to the task (Lund, 2008).

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Several scholars and practitioners have articulated the potentials of wiki in supporting

knowledge-building networks especially for communities of practice who engaged in

collaborative learning (Grant, 2006). In other words, Wiki is basically useful for class or group

projects, and it helps define the curriculum as students work on the project. Wiki can also be

applied outside the classroom for learners to pursue their individual interests and research

agenda. It can be used for online publishing, and Wiki sites can function as information sources

(Mejias, 2006). In short, Wiki is best for group work that requires the input of ideas from

different people whereby everyone can contribute and edit the content independently of space

and time (Clyde, 2005).

Given the popularity of wiki as a collaboration platform or device through recent years, “wiki”

has become synonymous to “collaboration”. In 2006, the term “wikinomics” was coined from

“wiki” and “economics” to emphasize the importance of collaboration in all spheres of human

activities (Tapscott & Williams, 2006). The authors describe wikinomics as the art and science

of peer production. The metaphor has introduced a new era of mass collaboration and

participation. This new form of giant-scaled collaboration using low-cost collaborative

infrastructures afforded by Web 2.0 is changing almost all forms of human activities such as

businesses, communication and education. One good example of wikinomics can be seen in

Wikipedia that research has recognized to be as good as Britannica (Terdiman, 2005). In 2010,

Tapscott and Williams proposed five principles of networked intelligence comprising:

collaboration, openness, sharing, integrity and interdependency. The same principles can be

used to guide Wikinomics, and are applicable for collaborative learning and writing.

Methodology

The aim of this paper is to report on three studies related to wikinomics conducted in a local

secondary school and a university. The participants of the first study were secondary school

students, and the second and third studies involved university students. The studies adopted the

ethnographic research design where the learning behaviours of students were observed and

monitored over a period of time. The students were trained to use the wiki technology and to

write collaboratively throughout one academic year in completing written assignments in and out

of class. During the participants’ writing on wiki, their writing behaviours, interaction patterns,

strategies used, attitudes, and writing improvement and achievement were observed and

recorded. By the end of each study, one-to-one interviews were carried out to obtain students’

feedback regarding the use of wiki. Their collaborative writing efforts on wiki pages were

analysed. A questionnaire was administered at the end of the study to investigate students’

perceptions and attitudes toward the use of wiki after experimenting with it over an academic

year or a semester.

Results and discussion

For the first study, the secondary school students collaborated to co-construct a wiki science

dictionary. The active students felt that wiki was an interesting tool for collaborative work.

However, the inactive users perceived wiki somewhat negatively. On one hand they perceived

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that wiki was too structured and writing was difficult, but on the other they reported that the

reading done at the wiki site had helped them in acquiring new vocabulary. The active users who

claimed that they had improved in the learning of English opined that the wiki tool they used, i.e.

Tiki Wiki, failed to meet their social needs as it was overly structured for discussion. However,

this shortcoming has been corrected by more recent wiki tools such as Wetpaint that provides an

accompanying forum for users to interact online. Another interesting finding was that high ICT

knowledge and skills were not necessarily required for students to participate in a wiki project. It

was the interest and the perceived value of wiki that really mattered. If students valued the wiki

project, they would try to collaborate and contribute to the content to make the project a success.

For the second study, the tertiary students who collaborated to write the course textbook found

that the collaborative writing task motivated them to write as they appreciated the authentic

purpose of their writing. It also boosted the students’ confidence that they could be textbook

authors, besides learning to be critical thinkers in evaluating and integrating related content in

the textbook. Through collaboratively writing the textbook, students learned the craft of

academic writing such as paraphrasing, quoting, synthesizing and summarizing ideas, and the

conventions of citation and referencing, besides exacting coherence and cohesion, focus and

emphasis, and grammaticality. Observation on their writing process as well as data collected

from the exit questionnaire confirmed their positive perception and experience in using Wetpaint

as a wiki tool in the e-textbook project. The collaborative task allowed them writing to learn the

course content while learning the craft of writing. The dual purposes of writing helped them gain

confidence as English language users.

For the third study, the university students collaborated to write essays through two different

modes: face-to-face and on wiki. They recognized the usefulness of wiki and the power of

wikinomics as in the second study. In addition, the study found that the participants indicated

more preference for collaborative writing on wiki. The study is still in the analysis stage, and

further results and findings will be reported at a future conference.

Conclusion

The findings provide positive evidence to encourage an alternative approach of web-based

complementary teaching of English as opposed to the conventional methods and the backbone of

the research is students’ collaboration. The findings of the three studies are a reflection of how

the learning of English and ICT skills can happen simultaneously in a Wiki collaborative writing

environment. The successful production of the Wiki-science dictionary by the secondary

students, the wiki textbooks produced by the university students and the positive finding to

collaborative writing on wiki show that collaborative writing can be made easy by ICT, and the

interaction, synchronous or asynchronous, can be mediated by social media without the barrier of

time, location or space. It is time that educators and instructors pay attention to the potentials

and power of wikinomics in achieving higher performance in learning outcomes of students, and

in preparing them for real life tasks and the job market.

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References

Chong, M.L., Tan, B.H., & Mardziah Hayati Abdullah (2011, September). Wiki for Co-Writing

a Science Dictionary. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 11(3), 109-128.

Clyde, L. A. (2005). “Wikis”. Teacher Librarian, 32(4), 54-57.

Grant, L. (2006). Using Wikis in schools: A case study. Retrieved from

http://www.futurelab.org.uk/ research/discuss/05discuss04.html

Lund, A. (2008). Wikis: A collective approach to language production. ReCALL, 20(1), 35-54.

Mejias, U. (2006). Writing and Wikis. (Online) Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/pub/

er/erm04/ erm0452.asp?bhcp=1

Tan, B. H. (2009). WWW: Learning the Craft and the Content. Paper presented at International

Conference of Language Learning in Computer-Mediated Communication, University of

Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, 10-13 October 2009.

Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. D. (2006). Wikinomics: How mass production changes everything.

London: Atlantic Books.

Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. D. (2010). Macrowikinomics: Rebootingbusiness and the world.

London: Atlantic Books.

Terdiman, D. (2005, December 15). Study: Wikipedia as accurate as Britannica. Cnet News.

Retrieved from http://news.cnet.com/study-wikipedia-as-accurate-as-britannica/2100-

1038_3-5997332.html

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Interactional Metadiscourse in Research Article: A Marker of Academic Discipline

Mohsen Khedri , Seyed Jamal Ebrahimi & Chan Swee Heng

Univerisiti Putra Malaysia

Getting entry into any discourse community can be fulfilled through defining its particular

established goals (Bizzell, 1992) and being aware of and competent in its writing practices

(Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002). A discourse community possesses the following features

mentioned by Swales (1990): 1) Determined and fixed set of common public aims; 2)

Mechanisms and approaches for its members to communicate with each other; 3) One or more

genres in the communicative assertions of its goals; 4) And a threshold level of members with an

appropriate degree of relevant content and discursive expertise.

Swales (1990) describes further that there are plenty of established ways for any

discourse community to contribute information which give rise to different genres. The defining

characteristic of a genre is the communicative purpose it fulfills. This communicative purpose is

reflected in the rhetorical structure or organization of the genre. To Bruce (2005), genres are of

two types, social and cognitive. He figures out research article (henceforth RA) as a social genre

employed as a communicative way among members of a specific discourse community.

A generic analysis of RAs can cover a wide variety of matters such as rhetorical features.

An essential part of rhetorical features of RA is shaped through metadiscourse that is used to

make the text persuasive and reader-friendly, and it also helps authors to arrive at audiences

(Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2004) views metadiscourse as "self-reflective linguistic expressions

referring to the evolving text, to the writer, and to the imagined readers of that text" (p. 133).

Hyland asserts that metadiscourse markers are facilitating tools in social communication which

contribute to making knowledge within discipline and owing to the differential characteristics of

the discipline, the application of metadiscourse is variously applied in different disciplines (2005,

p. 143).

A number of studies have been incorporated to the notion of metadiscourse in academic

RAs disciplinarily and cross-disciplinarily. (Abdi, 2002; Abdollahzadeh, 2011; Harwood, 2005;

Hyland, 1998, 2001; Millan, 2010; Vazquez & Giner, 2008). According to the existing literature,

studies on metadiscourse in the genre of RA are extremely low. The scarcity is felt even greater

when it comes to the status of metadiscourse markers across various disciplines, and also how

these cohesive devices are manifested in different rhetorical sections of RA, especially in the

result and discussion sections. Therefore, this study aims to explore how interactional

metadiscourse markers, based on Hyland’s (2005) taxonomy, are manifested in result and

discussion sections of RAs across four different disciplines.

Method. The corpus of this comparative and contrastive research consists of sixteen

result and discussion sections of RAs (4 from each selected discipline). The details of the corpus

are as follows:

Discipline: English Language Teaching (ELT) and Economics (Eco) representing

soft sciences, and Biology (Bio) and Civil Engineering (CE) representing hard

sciences (based on Becher’s, (1989) taxonomy).

Year of publication: All RAs from which result and discussion sections were

extracted have been published in two consecutive years, 2009 and 2010.

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Journal: Social Sciences and Humanities, Economics and Management, Tropical and

Agricultural Sciences, and Science and Technology. These journals are indexed in

Scopus which are published by Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Result and discussion. Table 1 presents the frequency analysis of interactional

metadiscourse markers in each discipline. Results identified that elements which carry the

meaning of hedges are manifested more or less identically in all disciplines, though a little more

in soft sciences disciplines, 144 tokens (35.68 per 1000 words) while 139 tokens (32.28 per 1000

words) in hard-knowledge fields respectively. Such a similarity can be justified considering the

manner of soft and hard authors in article writing to display their humility and deference to

audiences and provide them some opportunities to intervene with their opinions.

In contrary, both groups of fields were statistically discrepant in the use of boosters. They

occurred much more in the soft fields, 256 tokens (62.7 per 1000 words) in soft disciplines and

163 tokens (38.76 per 1000 words) in hard disciplines. It was revealed that soft sciences authors

expressed their argumentations about the propositional content with a much higher degree of

certainty leaving little room for their addresses to mediate alternative voices and opinions.

Regarding attitude markers, to figures shown in table 1, soft writers used 69 cases (17.17

per 1000 words) while their cognates in hard sciences used fewer, especially in Bio, getting to 50

tokens (12.34 per 1000 words). Hyland (2005) comments that in hard sciences, more burden is

often put on research practices and the methodology, procedures, and equipment applied to do

the research. Hence, these writers shed more light on demonstrable generalizations with less

emphasis on individual interpretations. Conversely, soft sciences authors more often than not,

cannot claim their findings to be based on proven quantitative methods; causing them to evaluate

their arguments more explicitly (pp. 150-151).

Moreover, findings marked that, no case of engagements showed up in three disciplines

with some infrequent use in Eco, 2 tokens 0.61 (per 1000 words). This lack of occurrence is not

something odd as, in our study; we only included two rhetorical sections of the RA, namely,

result and discussion. In these two sections, we make judgment mainly reliant on the findings of

studies which could mean that visuals such as figures are likely to “talk” more and this

characteristic could predominate over prose expression thus resulting in economy of extended

writing

Last, the interesting point is that there was no presence of self-mentions in the whole

corpus of Bio and CE used in this study. This being the case, it could be inferred that no element

signals the authorial identity or writers’ presentation metadiscursively of this nature. There were

just a few cases of such attempts in ELT (2 tokens) and Eco (9 tokens), altogether 3.19 per 1000

words, leading to the conclusion that there is only very faint presence of writers exercising the

rhetorical stance.

Table 1: Frequency analysis of interactional metadiscourse markers in each discipline per 1000

words

Soft sciences Hard sciences

ELT Eco Bio CE

Row

No.

Per

1000

words

F Per

1000

words

Total F Per

1000

words

F Per

1000

word

s

Total

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Hedges 89 18.75 55 16.93 35.68 87 18.4 52 13.88 32.28

Boosters 166 35 90 27.7 62.7 86 18.2 77 20.56 38.76

Attitude markers 42 8.86 27 8.31 17.17 18 3.80 32 8.54 12.34

Engagements * * 2 0.61 0.61 * * * * *

Self-mentions 2 0.42 9 2.77 3.19 * * * * *

Total 119.35 83.38

Overall, table 2 presents results of Chi-square analysis. As the table indicates, there is no

statistically predominant difference between soft and hard fields of knowledge in terms of

interactional metadiscourse markers excepting boosters.

Table 2: Chi-square analysis of interactional metadiscourse markers across disciplines

Soft Disciplines Hard Disciplines

Xvalue df P

Hedges 35.68 32.28 0.235 1 0.6276

Boosters 62.7 38.76 5.647 1 0.0175

Attitude markers 17.17 12.34 0.862 1 0.3532

Engagements 0.61 * 1.000 1 0.3173

Self-mentions 3.19 * 3.000 1 0.0833

Conclusion. In the present research, we presented a cross-disciplinary picture of interpersonality

in academic writing accentuating interactional metadiscourse elements in the genre of RAs.

However, the results reported that there are some similarities and differences across four selected

disciplines in terms of interactional metadiscourse markers. The most significant differential area

referred to boosters that were so prevalent among soft sciences authors used to signal their full

commitment towards the thoroughness and preciseness of propositional information. Some other

interesting outcomes found in the corpus are non-existence of engagement markers and self-

mentions in hard fields, and in one of soft disciplines, ELT, there was no evidence of

engagement markers at all.

References

Abdi, R. (2002). Interpersonal metadiscourse as an indicator of interaction and identity.

Discourse Studies, 4, 139–145.

Abdollahzadeh, E. (2011). Poring over the findings: Interpersonal authorial engagement in

applied linguistics papers. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 288-297.

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Becher, T. (1989) Academic tribes and territories: Intellectual inquiry and the cultures of

disciplines. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.

Bizzell, P. (1992). Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh

University Press.

Bruce, I. (2005). Syllabus design for general EAP courses: a cognitive approach. Journal of

English for Academic Purposes, 4(3), 239-256.

Harwood, N. (2005). ‘Nowhere has anyone attempted . . . In this article I aim to do just that’: A

corpus-based study of self-promotional I and we in academic writing across four discipline.

Journal of Pragmatics, 37, 1207-1231.

Hyland, K. (1998). Persuasion and context: The pragmatics of metadiscourse. Journal of

Pragmatics, 30, 437-455.

Hyland, K. (2001). Humble servants of the discipline? Self-mentions in research articles. English

for Specific Purposes, 20, 207-226.

Hyland, K. (2004). Disciplinary interactions: Metadiscourse in L2 postgraduate writing. Journal

of Second Language Writing, 13, 133–151.

Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse: Exploring interaction in writing. London: Continuum.

Hyland, K. , & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002). EAP: Issues and directions. Journal of English for

Academic Purposes, 1, 1–12.

Millan, E. L. (2010). ‘Extending this claim, we propose…’ The writer’s presence in research

articles from different disciplines. Iberica, 20, 35-56.

Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Vazquez, I. , & Giner, D. (2008). Beyond mood and modality: Epistemic modality markers as

hedges in research articles. A cross-disciplinary study. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses,

21, 171-190.

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Needs Analysis Of Ipg Students For A Web-Based Argumentative Writing Resource: A

Case Study In Ipgm Kampus Perempuan Melayu Melaka

Jai Shree Bipinchandra, Parilah Mohd. Shah

& Sharifah Nor Puteh

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Introduction

Essay writing is a required task for academic communication. Students have to do much of their

writing for assignments and exams in colleges as well as universities. It is however, a stressful

task for many L2 learners because they have difficulty in generating ideas to discuss the essay

topic, or have inadequate time to organise their language and thoughts within the given period of

time. It is also an extremely demanding and time-consuming task for some ESL lecturers

because they may not be able give the scaffolding necessary regardless if it is an in-class or take-

home exercise.

English Language Academic (ELA) for the students from teacher training colleges is taught at

Foundation level. The non-TESL optionists require a minimum of 13 credit hours. It is intended

to achieve linguistic skills namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing as well as grammar.

In semester two of the foundation programme, students are required to write expository and

argumentative essays. Based on past experience, as an English Language lecturer, most students

(about 90%) opt to write argumentative essays during end of semester exams but only manage to

pass as they tend to only attempt modestly.

Purpose of Study

This study will first focus on the needs in learning argumentative writing of PPISMP students

who will be pursuing their Bachelor of Teaching programme in the teacher training colleges. An

analysis of student needs, often known as Needs Analysis, has been generally regarded as a

necessary factor in language curriculum reform since the 1970’s (Munby, 1978).

Research Questions

This research attempts to answer a few questions such as:

RQ1: To identify the needs of ‘argumentative writing’ students have when arriving at college.

RQ2. To explore the difficulties students experience with argumentation in academic writing.

RQ3. To discuss the limitations of current instruction and make recommendations for

improvements

Literature Review

The term ‘argument’ is used in different ways in academic discourse, ranging from the

philosophical construct of premises and conclusions (Toulmin, 1958) to diverse writing practices

(Mitchell et al., 2008). It can refer to individual claims or the whole text. Toulmin, Reike, and

Janik (1984: p. 14) define argument similarly as ‘the sequence of interlinked claims and reasons

that, between them, establish content and force of the position for which a particular speaker is

arguing’.

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Past Research

Ahmad Yasruddin Md Yassin et. Al. (2010) conducted a study to investigate the English

proficiency of civil engineering students of a Malaysian polytechnic. A questionnaire was

administered to 171 civil engineering students. Analyses of skill deficiencies revealed wide

learning gaps between the acquired and required English skill attributes. The results of this study

implied the need for curriculum changes (such as content and mode of delivery) so that

polytechnic graduates could meet the workplace expectations.

Wingate, U (2011) conducted a study on undergraduate learners’ concepts of arguments in their

essays and the type and quality of instruction they receive. The findings revealed that the learners

have only partial or incorrect concepts of argument. The researcher suggested more scaffolding

and proposed an essay writing framework. Interestingly, Englert et.al (2007) conducted an

experimental research and found that web-based scaffolding produced lengthier pieces and

higher quality essays. This was also found by a local researcher, R. Sarasvati (2011) whereby she

stated that “scaffolding gives a greater assurance of the learner acquiring the desired skill,

knowledge or ability”.

Methodology

Generally, it is a mixed-method approach. A total of 21 foundation level students (TESL) who

are currently pursuing their Foundation in Bachelor of Teaching programme were involved in

this case study. They are studying in a college in Melaka. Purposive sampling was employed to

obtain data as the sample is suitable for a case study when the researcher wants to build

understanding on a particular case without making generalisations on other cases (Patton 2002).

Research Instruments

In order to complete the data collection process, a few approaches were employed. As this is a

mixed method research, the data was collected by getting the respondents to fill in questionnaires

as well as interview sessions and document analysis (essays written by students). In this research,

the questionnaire for needs analysis was adapted from Kamaruzzaman (2012) and Mohd Zaki

Mohd Amin (2011).

Results and Discussion

A total of 21 female pre-service teachers between the ages of 19-20 were involved in the first

stage of data collection, while in the second stage, 3 were selected for interviews. As for their

level of proficiency, most of them rated themselves as good (71.4%), while 23.8% and 4.8%

rated themselves as fair and very good respectively.

Identifying the Needs Of ‘Argumentative Writing’ Students Have When Arriving At

College

a. Interest and Motivation

The pre-service teachers can be said to be quite motivated to learn how to write argumentative

essays with almost all the means to be above 3. R3 said “..umm like to write argumentative if I

know topic, but I got problem in saying..um writing…something madam Z said, uh oh,

ohhh…she say I am not coherent and cohesive..but I don’t understand what she mean..hehe”

b. The way the instructor teaches

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The way the instructor teaches has quite an average score as the means fall within the range of 3

except for the last two questions where the means fall below 3. Maybe the instructor does not use

LCD or language software often, as stated by the lecturer interviewed, “…the class is quite far

from my office and it is difficult to carry all the equipment. Sometimes, there are not enough

lcd’s to go around.” Regarding language software, “hmm, we do not have adequate funds for

these softwares”.

c. Use of Dictionary

The pre-service teachers can be said to be quite frequent users of dictionary as the means fall

above 4, therefore they agree that the use of dictionary is vital for helping them write

argumentative essays.

d. Time Allocation

It is interesting to note that the pre-service learners hardly agree to the notion that they are able to

complete all their argumentative writing exercises in class as the mean falls below an average

level of 3. According to R2, “every time we cannot finish our essays, then ahh, we finish in

hostel, sometimes, can forget also”.

e. Learning Style

The highest mean score for the above construct is the fact that pre-service teachers in this college

have a certain style for following learning content (3.91) followed by they prefer to learn

language in a group (3.86). All three respondents in the interview said they liked working in

groups.

f. Use of Internet Facilities

During their own time, these pre-service teachers have a tendency to use internet to find

information online (4.68) as well as to obtain additional information (4.68). They do not keep-in-

touch with friends via email as often (3.96).

g. Facilities

Actually the campus does not provide any facilities for language lab so obviously the means are

low for those two questions. Nevertheless, the pre-service teachers all own a laptop each and

some also have ipads and smart phones. They like to learn outside class hours (3.48) and prefer

learning in a group.

h. Argumentative Writing

Although the means for the above construct are high, according to R2, “we need proper guidance

lah, madam..sometimes so many essays to write, we forget the format and then, aiyo, very bad no

idea how to do properly.” So, they do need a resource they can fall back on each time they are

not sure about the format and other crucial matters related to Argumentative Writing.

i. Writing Strategy Use

All the strategies have been tried by the pre-service teachers and it seems on the surface they are

keen to use a variety of strategies. Based on the interview, the main thing they do is they plan out

what they intend to write and they do review but only once. They hardly ever have time to do

peer-checks.

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Difficulties Students Experience With Argumentation In Academic Writing.

As the pre-service teachers wrote an argumentative essay entitled “English Language should be

used and implemented in all subjects at the University level in order to produce quality

graduates”, the essays were marked by a team of examiners and 65% of the essays only scored a

Band 3 based on the MUET writing rubric, whereas 20% and 15% of the essays obtained a Band

4 and Band 2 respectively.

Limitations of Current Instruction Recommendations for Improvements

It seems the current instruction is rather instructor-centred and it is also exam oriented. The

learners aren’t able to relate their ideas in writing as it focuses more on the product rather than

the process of writing. Learners are also not able to grasp the skills needed due to lack of time

and lack of group-based activities for collaboration. It is strongly recommended that a Mobile

web-based resource for the learning of Argumentative writing skills be developed in order to

help these learners access it anywhere, anytime to overcome the said limitations. The resource

can also be used as teaching aid and can scaffold their learning in a comprehensive manner (R.

Sarasvati, 2011 and Englert, C.s. et.al, 2007). The predominant approach to learning support will

be remedial but enrichment activities will also be included so as not to disinterest the good

learners who can further improve themselves.

Conclusion

This research was carried out to conduct a needs analysis of the problems trainee teachers face in

their Argumentative Writing. The findings reveal that trainee teachers need a mobile web-based

resource to be developed as it can facilitate deep learning and offer more flexible learning

opportunities for the learners.

References

Ahmad Yasruddin Md Yassin et. Al. 2010 English proficiency of civil engineering students of a

Malaysian polytechnic. lAsian Social Science Journal. Retrieved on October 2nd 2011 from

http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ass/article/view/5147Andrews, R. (1995). Teaching and

Learning Argument. London, NY: Cassell.

Andrews, R. (2010). Argumentation in higher education. Improving practice through theory and

research. New York, London: Routledge.

Englert, C. S.; Zhao, Yong; Dunsmore, K.; Collings, N. Y.; Wolbers, K.; Yevgenyevna, N. 2012.

Scaffolding The Writing Of Students With Disabilites Through Facilitation : Using An

Internet-Based Technology To Improve Performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol.

30(1), 9-29. Retrieved on 16th July from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30035513

Kamaruzzaman Ismail. 2012. Pembangunan dan Perisian Bahasa Perancis Asas (Easifrench)

Berasaskan Web. Doctorate Thesis UKM, Bangi.

Patton, M.Q. 2002. Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

Mohd Zaki Mohd Amin (2011) Development and Evaluation of a Learning-to-learn English

Module for EFL Learners, Masters Thesis UKM, Bangi.

Munby, J. 1978. Communicative Syllabus Design. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sarasvati, R. (2011). Students’ reaction towards scaffolding in writing instruction. (Paper

presented during “Teaching and Learning of English in Asia 4 (TLEIA 4)” held in Hard

Rock Hotel, Penang 10-12 November 2011

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Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Toulmin, S., Reike, R., & Janik, A. (1984). An introduction to reasoning (2nd ed.). New York:

Macmillan.

Wingate, U.Dreiss, C. 2009. Developing students’ academic literacy: an online approach. Journal

of Academic Language & Learning, 3(1), 14-25. Retrieved on 6th August 2012 from

http://journal.aall.org.au/index.php/jall/article/view/65/58

Wingate, U.,2011. ‘Argument!’ helping students understand what essay writing is about, Journal

of English for Academic Purposes (2011), 11(2), 145-154. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved on 14th

March 2012 from http://dx.doi.org.www.ezplib.ukm.my/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.11.001

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Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills of ESL Teachers Towards Cooperative Learning

Strategies in Writing Classroom

Siti Rahimah Ahmad (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia)

Writing has been quite highly emphasised across all levels in school settings in language

education although it is regarded as as a complex cognitive skill and thinking process (Ching Ya

Chu, 2004). Thus, ESL teachers, as agents of change are responsible in designing the teaching

activities and choosing the most suitable approaches or methods in teaching writing to fulfil the

needs and the trends of the world (Faradibah Sudari, 2006; Nakamol Nudee, Monta Chatupote,

Adisa Teo, 2010). One of the methods recommended in teaching writing is the use of

cooperative learning (Kagan 2002) as it seems to be a potential solution and one of the teaching

methods that not only improve language learning, academic achievement (Ghazi Ghaith,2003;

Faridah Hanim.2003; Marhamah, 2005), social skills (S. Wichadee. 2005; Tzu-Pu Wang, 2007;

Rosimah Abdul Rashid. 2008; Luu Trong Tuan, 2010), and inculcate moral values during

classroom activities (Ching Ya Chu, 2004;Tok Hoon Seng, 2006; Bobbette M. Morgan, Graciela

P. Rosenberg, Lori Wells. 2010), but also improve the learners’ performance in writing

(Kirembwe Rashid Abdul-Hamed. 2004; Syafini Ismail. 2009; R.R.Mandal, 2009).

However, most teachers in Malaysia are prone to using the traditional method in teaching

writing, for they believe it can help them to control the large number of students compared to

learner centered (Faridah 2003; Tok Hoon Seng, 2006; Rosimah Abdul Rashid, 2008;

Kamaruddin, 2010). Apart from that, the time to attend to the students individually is limited and

more time is needed to correct students’ writing exercises ( Ching Ya Chu, 2007) because the

size of every class in most government schools in Malaysia mostly comprises of thirty five to

fourty five students per class (Marlinda, 2005). Due to that, quality marking and teaching writing

cannot be expected. Therefore, cooperative learning is a strategy that can be explored and used in

writing classrooms to help minimise the risks of neglecting the students. However, teachers

knowledge, skills and attitudes towards the strategy need to be investigated before it can be

implemented in ESL writing class. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to find out the level of

knowledge, skills, and attitudes of ESL teachers towards cooperative learning in writing class.

Many researches related to cooperative learning have proven that not only cooperative

learning (CL) benefit students, but also teachers. For example, a study done by Kamaruddin

Ismail (2010) on chemistry teachers have shown that there is no significant different between the

teachers’ knowledge and cooperative learning. However, in terms of their skills, teachers who

have more than 5 years of teaching experience are better in using the strategy in their classroom

and have positive attitude in using it. Similarly, Rosimah (2008) concluded that teachers who

have more than 21 years of teaching experience showed more comprehension and implement

more cooperative learning strategies, whereas those with less teaching experience have the

lowest frequency of the implementation and face more difficulties in implementing the strategies

in the classroom. Furthermore, result by Mimi Haryani Hassim. et.al (2004) on fourteen

engineering lecturers has shown that cooperative learning was accepted by the lecturers and the

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students although the inexperienced lecturers claimed that they took more time to cover a topic

in their first class compared to pure lectures approach.

As a whole, cooperative learning benefits in many ways. Although teachers may have

difficulties in implementing CL for the first time, but their positive attitudes and constant use of

CL will enhance their skills and improve their knowledge on the strategy.

Methodology

The study employed a quantitative research design where questionnaires were given to 75

randomly selected secondary English teachers in Hulu Langat district. The questionnaire consists

of structured questions which employed the 5-point Likert scale and was divided into 4 sections,

i.e. background information, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and teachers’ perceptions on their

learners’ preferences on cooperative learning. The questionnaires were analyzed descriptively

using percentage in order to find answers to all the 4 research questions planned.

Result and Discussion

The result from the study showed that most of the respondents were 69 female teachers (92%)

and only 6 (8%) male teachers. As teaching field is mostly dominated by females, the result was

somehow predicted.. Most respondent teachers were Malays 43(57%), followed by 21 (28%)

Indian teachers and 11 (15%) Chinese teachers. All the teachers were permanent teachers and

very experienced in their teaching field. 37 teachers (49%) have taught English for more than 15

years, 18 teachers (25%) have taught for 10 - 14 years, and 11 teachers (12%) have taught for 5

– 9 years, and 9 teachers (12%) have less than 5 years of English teaching experience.

From the survey done, teachers are found to have moderate knowledge on all the items tested for

it holds the highest percentage in the result; characteristics of cooperative learning (62.7 % ), the

differences and similarities of cooperative learning vs traditional learning (65.3% ), the theory

of cooperative learning strategies ( 51%), and advantages of cooperative learning (56%). The

items on teachers’ role and definition on cooperative learning also showed that teachers have

moderate knowledge on the strategy (42%).

As a whole, knowledge of the teachers involved in the teaching environment must not be

overlooked, for knowledge of the theory and the implementation are important to upgrade the

teaching practices of teachers. Teachers with lack of knowledge are certain to affect their

teaching performance (Lilia and Norlena, 2000).Thus, teachers’ knowledge and understanding

of cooperative learning (CL) strategy in terms of content and pedagogy is important if they are to

implement the strategy in their classroom, specifically their writing class.

In terms of teachers’ level of skills, the 8 items tested have indicated that most teachers

have the skills of implementing cooperative learning in their writing class where 69% of them

provided their students with opportunities to voice out their ideas and thoughts during class, 60%

of the teachers focussed their lessons on moral values and active participation. Moreover, 68% of

the respondents arranged students for easy observation, class control, and students' discussion

process, while 52% of them always divide students according to their different background .

Finally, 61% of respondents gave opportunities to their students to structure their own group and

56% prepare cooperative learning materials prior to their lessons. In addition, 65% of the

MICELT 2012

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teachers often function as facilitators during lessons and 56% of them always guide their students

with problems that occur during the learning session.

From the result, teachers were found to have the skills of implementing CL strategies in

their writing class. Although they may not be well versed on the theory and pedagogy on CL, but

experience in teaching somehow lead them into using the strategy in their writing class. Thus,

the role of teachers post a great impact on the students’ performance in writing, where the

knowledge and skills of teachers are likely to influence their teaching styles. Teachers who are

knowledgeable are effective teachers ( Kamaruddin ismail, 2010).

The result regarding the level of teachers’ attitudes towards cooperative learning in writing

class has revealed that respondents were most likely to agree to all the items. The result from the

questionnaire showed that majority of respondents ( 77.%) believed that if CL is well planned,

the teaching and learning will be more effective. 73% of them agreed that CL encourages

positive learning environment besides inculcating moral values and positive social interaction

among the learners which resulted to 65%. On the contrary, only 46% of the respondents believe

that CL can improve students' academic achievements although the pecentage was the highest

shown from the item tested. Apart from that, 72% of the respondents believed that CL can

lessen their workload and help them complete the syllabus within the time given (58%) as it

focuses more on the students and groupwork. However, 14.5% of them disagreed that their

workload will be lessen for they need time to prepare their lesson well before CL can be

implemented.. In addition, 63% of the respondents agreed that students have shown some

positive changes during the implementation of CL compared to the traditional way of learning.

However, 14.5% of the respondents believed that CL is not practical in terms of its theory and

implementation, probably because of its preparation and time needed. Nevertheless, 51%

respondent teachers have positive attitudes towards its theory and implementation and 43.42% of

the respondents agreed that cooperative learning is one of the most appropriate methods for the

teaching of writing.

Thus, positive attitudes of teachers can create positive environment in language teaching.

Teachers with positive attitudes can motivate their students into believing that writing is fun and

easy. Gardner (1985) believes that motivation is a combination of effort, desire and favourable

attitudes towards learning the language. As such, teachers with positive attitudes can instil

positive attitudes in the students besides motivating them in learning the language ( Choy, 2002).

Conclusion

The results presented in this study has shown that majority of the respondent teachers have

moderate knowledge of the theories and pedagogy of CL, but having the skills of implementing

CL in their writing class. Their attitudes towards CL are also positive. Thus, teacher’s

knowledge, attitudes, and skills in teaching writing are important elements that should be looked

into to determine the success of the implementation of the strategy which will later lead to the

success of the learners in language learning, (Guskey,1986; Kamaruddin Ismail, 2010), which is

in this study, the writing performance. An explicit knowledge and a shift of paradigm in teaching

and employing new strategies will provide new input as how language is supposed to be taught

and will give the best output, cognitively, socially, and emotionally which indirectly lead to

character development, unity and finally fulfil the global needs.

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REFERENCE

Rashidi Azizan And Abdul Razak Habib, (1995). Pengajaran dalam bilik darjah. :

Kaedah dan strategi. Kajang: Masa Enterprise.

Faridah Hanim, (2003). The implementation of ccoperative learning in Mathematics at a

secondary school: a case study. UKM. Tesis Sarjana

Kamaruddin Ismail, (2010). Knowledge, skill, and attitude towards cooperative learning method

among Chemistry teachers. Masters Thesis. UKM.

Rosimah Abdul Rashid, (2008). Pelaksanaan pembelajaran koperatif oleh guru Sains, Matematik,

dan Bahasa Inggeris di sekolah menengah di kawasan bandar Kudat, Sabah.

Ching-ya Chiu, Feng-cheng Chiang, and Shu-chuan Chung, (2007). The effects of cooperative

learning on interactive behaviours and learning attitude. Proceedings of the Independent

Learning Association 2007 Japan Conference: Exploring Theory, Enhancing Practice:

Autonomy Across the Disciplines. Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba, Japan.

http://www.independentlearning.org [7th

November 2011].

Luu Trong Tuan, (2010). Infusing cooperative learning into an EFL classroom. English

Language Teaching. 3(2) : 64 -77. www.ccsenet.org/elt. [ 1st October 2010].

Shafqat Ali Khan, (2008). An experimental study to evaluate the effectiveness of cooperative

learning versus traditional learning method. PHD Thesis. Faculty of Social Sciences.

International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. eprints.hec.gov.pk/6517/ - 19k.

S. Wichadee. 2005. The Effects of Cooperative Learning on English Reading Skills and

Attitudes of the First-Year Students at Bangkok University.

www.bu.ac.th/knowledgecenter/epaper/july_dec2005/saovapa.pdf. [10 November 2011].

Syafini Ismail dan Tengku Nor Rizan Tengku Muhammad, (2009). The effects of cooperative

learning in enhancing

writing.http://pkukmweb.ukm.my/~solls09/Proceeding/PDF/Shafini.pdf

Bobbette M. Morgan, Graciela P. Rosenberg, Lori Wells, (2010). Undergraduate

Hispanic student response to cooperative learning. College Teaching Methods & Styles

Journal. Vol.6 (1). P 7-12.

cluteonline.com/index.php/CTMS/article/download/5515/5600.

Ghaith. Ghazi, (2003). Effects of the Learning Together Model of Cooperative Learning on

English as a Foreign Language Reading Achievement, Academic Self-Esteem, and

Feelings of School Alienation. Bilingual Research Journal 27(3) : 451 – 456.

www.antiessays.com/free-essays/64675.html

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Marhamah Hj. Ahmad Hamid. 2005. Keberkesanan Pembelajaran Koperatif ke Atas

Pencapaian Pelajar Dalam Matapelajaran Bahasa Inggeris di Sekolah Menengah

Pertama Babussalam, Pekan-Baru Riau, Indonesia. Tesis Sarjana pendidikan. Bangi.

Universiti Kebangsaan.

http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC18/Johnson.htm [December 9, 2010].

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Effect of Model Essays on the Improvement of

IELTS Candidate Writing Ability

*Mohamadreza Jafary, *Nooreen Nordin, Arshad.Bin.Samad, Roselan Baki

University Putra Malaysia

During the last 3 decades, many studies have been carried out to show the effectiveness or

ineffectiveness of the common practice of most writing teachers in providing feedback to their

students. However, most of these studies were in one way or another flawed. That is why

drawing any conclusion about the effectiveness of such a practice has been, if not impossible,

very difficult. On one hand, Truscott (1996, 1999) argue that providing students with corrective

feedback is not only ineffective but also harmful. On the other hand those who argue against

Truscott’s claim do present results which are obtained from studies most of which are

problematic in their methodology. Many studies showing positive results (Chandler, 2000;

Ferris, 1995, 1997; Ferris, Chaney, Komura, Roberts, & McKee, 2000; Lalande, 1982) were

carried out without having a control group included, which makes drawing any conclusion about

the comparison of correction/no correction approaches implausible. Three studies mostly cited in

different reviews are Ashwell (2000), Fathman and Whally (1990), and Ferris and Roberts

(2001). These studies have shown positive results for the practice of providing students with CF

and they did include a control group. However, having a control group is not sufficient. What is

needed is a control group which is compatible with the treatment group in all aspects including

proficiency level, writing conditions, and instructional context (Guenette, 2007). It is a fact that

the above mentioned studies, did have a control group, but their experimental and control groups

differed in proficiency levels. Also, most of these studies were of a short duration. For example,

Fathman and Whally’s (1990) participants were required to write one essay and had 30 minutes

to correct it. The effect of feedback on learners’ accuracy in such a short time does not seem to

be conclusive at all. Moreover, most of the studies examining the effect of CF, do so by requiring

learners to work on the same piece of work, i.e., working on different drafts of the same essay.

Very few studies have examined the corrective feedback on a new piece of writing.

Corrective Feedback

Providing students with written corrective feedback has always been controversial. While some

claim that it is ineffective and even harmful (Truscott, 1996, 1999), others (e.g., Ferris, 1999)

argue for the practice. Truscott (1996) reviewing a number of research concluded that grammar

correction in L2 writing classes should be abandoned. He gave a number of reasons for that: (a)

Research evidence shows that grammar correction is ineffective; (b) this lack of effectiveness is

exactly what should be expected, given the nature of the correction process and the nature of

language learning; (c) grammar correction has significant harmful effects; and (d) the various

arguments offered for continuing it all lack merits (p. 328).

Truscott (1999) responding to Ferris’ (1999) referring to his 1996 article ‘the Case against

Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes,’ argues that her criticism are both “unfounded and

highly selective, leaving large portions of [his] case unchallenged, and in some cases, even

strengthening them” (p. 111).

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Guenette (2007) considering the debate between those who argue against and those arguing for

giving corrective feedback and its effect on students’ written accuracy tries to answer two

questions: (1) To what extent might the conflicting results of the selected written corrective

feedback studies be attributed to the research design and methodology? (2) To what extent

might these results be attributed to variables that were not considered in the design? Regarding

his two research questions, Guenette reviewed some studies done in this regard including

Ashwell (2000), Chandler (2003), Fathman and Whalley (1990), Fazio (2001), Ferris and

Roberts (2001), Goring-Kepner (1991), Polio, Fleck, and Leder (1998), Semke (1984), and

Sheppard (1992) in terms of their methodology and other factors and concluded that:

The first, and probably most obvious, is that the studies just reviewed are not necessarily

comparable because the design and methodology were not constant.

He also reminds us of one very important factor not considered in any research, i.e., the

individual differences, especially motivation. Unmotivated learners will pay little attention to

what they are supposed to do. They do not notice the feedback and do not apply the

corrections. Lee and Schallert (2008) also explain how a trusting student-teacher relationship

may be fundamental to the effective use of feedback provided. They report how one student

building a trusting relationship with his teacher faithfully used her written feedback in revision

improving his drafts whereas the other student having difficulty trusting her did not respond to

her feedback positively.

The present study

The present study as its primary objective attempts to explore the effectiveness of providing

students with corrective feedback in teaching writing courses. In doing so, it examines the

effectiveness of the use of model essays written by native speakers of English as a form of

feedback. Also, this study seeks to find out which aspect of IELTS writing rubric including the

task response/achievement, coherence and cohesion, lexical resources, and grammatical range

and accuracy is more affected by the use of model essays as a feedback tool through the use of

an analytical rubric and later the interview with the participants. Also, what makes this study

stand out is the use of model essays as a form of feedback and exploring the effect of such an

apparatus in teaching writing to the students of English as a foreign language. Moreover the

present study attempts to avoid the pitfalls of most studies carried out in this regard so far by

including a control group; judging the effectiveness of the practice based on a post test of a new

piece of writing; having homogenous treatment and control groups; and extending the treatment

over a course of 10 two-hour sessions. As such, it was attempted to answer the following two

questions:

1. Does the use of model essays, written by native English speakers, make any difference in

learners’ writing ability defined by their gain score in IELTS mock writing test?

2. Does the use of model essays, written by native English speakers, make any difference in

learners’ gain score in the four components of IELTS writing scoring rubric including

‘task response,’ ‘coherence and cohesion,’ ‘lexical resource,’ and ‘grammatical range and

accuracy’?

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Methodology

For the purpose of this study, four intact groups from two different English institutes in Tehran,

including 34 female and 28 male participants, were used. The participants’ age ranged from 21 to

34 all Iranian students of differing majors studying English as a foreign language at a post-

intermediate level. In each institute, there were two classes, as such it did not seem plausible to

randomly assign the four classes into treatment and control group because if each institute had

received one treatment group (TG) and one control group (CG), then the participants could have

been aware of the fact that they were being studied and might have behaved differently (the Halo

and Hawthorn Effect) and also they might have questioned why some receive a different kind of

instruction. Therefore, to keep participants blind to the research, only the institutes were

randomly assigned to treatment and control groups, so that the control groups and the treatment

groups were kept separate and unaware of the fact they were participating in the study. The two

treatment groups included 33 participants, 18 female and 15 male participants, and the control

group included 29 (16 female and 13 male) participants. Due to the fact that 2 participants in the

TG and 3 in the CG left the course unfinished without taking the post test, the researcher was left

with no choice but excluding their samples and results from the analysis. As such we were left

with 57 (32 female and 25 male) participants. As mentioned above, the classes in the two

institutes were first randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. A TOEFL proficiency

test as well as a writing pretest was administered in the first session for both groups. The

participants were given 40 minutes to plan and write a sample for an IELTS topic given to them.

Since participants were required to write only one piece of writing in the posttest in the final

session, and in order to avoid the ‘fatigue’ factor introduced to the program by participants’

having a proficiency test in the first session, they were required to write the sample essay before

taking the TOEFL test, so that participants’ pre and post-tests in writing could be regarded as of

comparable nature.

In order to avoid the effects of handwriting on the raters, all the gathered samples were typed by

the researcher. The researcher was cautious to type them as they were actually written by the

participants, i.e., all misspellings, wrong punctuations and other types of mistakes were typed

exactly as they had appeared in the scripts. All the participants’ information was omitted from

the samples and each sample was given only a code in order to be identified only by the

researcher rather than the raters. The samples were then given to two experienced university

faculty members to be rated. Before rating the samples, a meeting was arranged with both raters

and the procedure and the type of scoring guide were explained to them. However, they were not

clued in on the purpose of the study. The raters were required to score the samples based on the

IELTS Task 2 Writing band descriptors on a scale of 1 to 9 at intervals of 0.5. The raters were

required to score each sample individually and blind to the scores given by the other rater. For

each sample, 5 scores were given; one for the whole essay (a holistic score) and one for each

component specified in the rubric i.e., task response, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource,

and grammatical range and accuracy.

In the second session, the IELTS writing rubric and the criteria based on which participants’

writing samples were to be evaluated on the IELTS exam were explained to the students in both

control and treatment groups. The IELTS band descriptor was copied and distributed among the

students as the instructor (the researcher himself) was explaining each component. Then,

different parts of an essay (introduction, body, & conclusion) and their subcomponents (e.g.,

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topic sentence, stance, and preview in the introduction) were explained. A model essay was

given to the students in the treatment group for them to be able to better understand the

instructor’s explanations. The rest of the second session as well as the third session were spent

explaining and working on the components of an essay. During the second and third sessions

students were not required to write complete essays. Instead they were asked to write different

parts of an essay separately before being ready to write a complete essay. At the end of the third

session, students in both groups were given a topic to write a complete essay for the fourth

session.

At the beginning of the fourth session, students in the treatment group were given the model

essay for the topic they were supposed to write. Different parts of the model essay such as the

topic sentence, writer’s stance, the use of transition words, different parts of the body paragraphs

and conclusion were identified and shown to the participants in the treatment group. Then, they

were asked to read their essays part by part as the instructor explained how and why their essays

were good or bad based on the model essays. For the control group, the same thing was done but

instead of comparing their writings with the model essay, they were asked to read their essays

and the instructor commented on them and simply explained why they were acceptable or not

without any reference to a model essay. Both groups were given a topic to write about for session

5. Note that the topic given to both groups were the same and they were only the topics for which

the instructor had the models.

The fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and the ninth sessions were carried out as the previous session

with an exception. At the end of the ninth session, the treatment group was given 2 topics instead

of one to write about for the next session. The control group was required to write one topic,

similar to the treatment group’s first topic. At the beginning of the tenth session, the same thing

was done for the first topic as in the beginning of the fourth session. However, at the end of the

session, the participants in the treatment group were given the second model essay and were

asked to reflect on the model essay. Then, the participants were interviewed individually through

a set of questions about different aspects of an essay based on what had already been explained

to them in the first session. The participants were asked about the aspects to which they had paid

attention in the model essay and their own essays. The interviews were carried out in Persian,

participants’ native language and were recorded using a digital mp3 player and recorder. The

interview question set is provided in Appendix E.

The eleventh session was the posttest session, in which students in both groups were required to

write an essay for the same IELTS topic in 40 minutes. The samples gathered were typed and

then given to be scored as in the case of pre-test samples. Also the interviews in the case of

treatment group were transcribed and later analyzed. During the whole study, it was tried to keep

everything the same and equal for both control and treatment groups but for the use of model

essays, trying to avoid introducing any source of bias to the study.

The scores given by the raters for the pretest and posttest as well as the four elements of an essay

(task response, coherence & cohesion, lexical resource, and grammatical range & accuracy)

identified by the IELTS band descriptor were compared with each other for the two groups of

participants through the use of multiple independent t-tests.

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Results & Discussion

Due to practicality issues, the inter and intra rater reliability indices were calculated only for the

holistic scores given by raters to the pretest and post-tests in the study and the results were taken

as representative of the raters’ performance in scoring the four elements of an essay identified by

the IELTS writing task 2 rubric. Table 1 summarizes the results obtained through the use of

Pearson product-moment correlation:

Table 4.1

The Rater Reliability Indices for Rater 1 & 2

Pre-test Post-test

Inter-rater Reliability .92 .89

Intra-rater Reliability - -

Rater No.1 .97 .94

Rater No.2 .87 .91

The analysis of the proficiency test results showed no significant difference between the two

groups (T = 1.431, P = .158). Moreover, the independent t-tests conducted between the two

groups’ writing pretests showed no significant difference between the treatment and control

groups in terms of their overall score and their scores for the four elements. Gender was also

checked and appeared not to affect the results. Table 2 shows the results of the multiple

independent t-tests checking for any preexisting differences between the control and treatment

group.

Table 2: Independent t-tests checking for Preexisting Differences between Treatment & Control

Groups

t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pretest overall writing score -1.33 55 .189

Pretest task response -1.31 55 .306

Pretest coherence & cohesion -.917 55 .363

Pretest lexical resource -1.39 55 .171

Pretest grammatical range -1.53 55 .131

To answer the first research question, first, participants’ pretest and posttest writing samples

were rated ,and then the gain scores for each group was calculated by subtracting participants’

scores in pretest from theirs in posttest. After that, the two lists of gain scores for the treatment

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and control groups were compared using an independent t-test. The results showed that there

existed a statistically significant difference between the two groups (t = 3.671, P = .001).

For the second question, as in the case of the first one, the gain scores were calculated for each

component. For the ‘task response,’ the treatment group outperformed the control group and the

difference between their performances was significantly found different (t = 9.975, P = .000).

The same result was observed in case of the second component, i.e., the ‘cohesion and

coherence.’ The treatment group performed significantly better (t = 2.576, P = .013). However,

in case of the ‘lexical resource’ (t = 1. 547, P = .128), and the ‘grammatical range and accuracy’

(t = .637, P = .527) no significant difference was observed.

The Interview

The participants were interviewed through a set of three questions in the last session of the

course. This was done in order to see if participants’ perceptions differ from the reality reflected

in their scores in the pre- and post-tests. Interestingly enough, almost all the participants

answering to the first question stated that the ‘task response’ was the one which attracted their

attention the most. The majority chose ‘coherence and cohesion’ as the second option. Based on

the last question, the ‘grammatical range and accuracy’ stood third and before ‘lexical resource’.

Conclusion

The results showed that the participants who had received model essays as a form of feedback

during their instruction outperformed the control group who had received the same instruction

but for the use of model essays. Also, checking the four components specified in the IELTS

writing task 2 band descriptor, i.e., task response, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource, and

grammatical range and accuracy, it was revealed that the difference in learners’ performance did

lie in the case of the first 2 components, i.e., task response, and coherence and cohesion.

Although the treatment group had a larger gain score in case of the other two components, the

difference with that of the control group was not found statistically significant. Based on the

figures obtained, it is evident that the use of essays does make a difference in the learners’

achievement by affecting their overall score in general and their right use of issues specified in

the ‘task response,’ the cohesive devices, and other tools which can help someone produce a

coherent piece of writing. In the task response part of the rubric, it is examined to see if the

writer has fully addressed all parts of the task question and whether the position taken in

answering the question is presented with relevant, fully extended, and well-supported ideas. In

the second component, coherence and cohesion, it is checked whether the ideas and sentences are

arranged logically so that the reader can easily follow the flow of ideas. Moreover, in a cohesive

paragraph, sentences are well connected to each other through the use of different cohesive

devices such as the repetition of ideas and the use of pronouns and connecting words.

In the lexical resource component, raters are supposed to check if the test takers have used a

wide range of vocabulary and have a natural and good command of lexical features. Finally, in

the last component, i.e., grammatical range and accuracy, it is considered whether the writer has

used a wide variety of structures with accuracy.

Based on the definitions given and the explanations and narratives given by the participants in

their interviews, the first 2 components, i.e., task response, and coherence and cohesion, seem to

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measure or deal with abilities which are of a more global nature and are more easily identified in

a piece of writing. For example, it would be much easier to recognize the ideas which are more

directly related to the task question presented than emulating an author’s style in terms of her

variant use of grammatical structures. Also, identifying the transition words in and between

paragraphs, and how one paragraph shifts or merges into the next paragraph seems more easily

perceivable. However, having a wide range of vocabulary and a good command of grammatical

structures as well as being able to use them are not things to be possible to teach or get command

of in 10 sessions. Even if the participants do pay attention to them in the model essays, it seems

implausible to expect them to apply such items to their writings because creating a new piece of

writing on a new topic demands a different range of vocabulary and sometimes grammatical

structures gaining command over which requires much longer periods of language instruction.

This interpretation is somehow confirmed with what the participants stated in their interviews.

Almost all of them identified ‘task response’ features as the first factor to which they paid

attention when examining the model essays given to them. They were unanimous that reviewing

the model essays, they were better aware of the fact that they either give irrelevant answers to the

task questions or only partially do they address the question. It was also stated that when they

read the topic, instead of analyzing and decoding the task question and the task focus, they

simply pick up a key word in the topic about which they think they can write an essay of 250

words, and then they start developing that aspect not paying much attention to whether that

aspect is the same as the one intended by the task question.

It seems that once learners are aware of this fact and examine how different their approach to

topic development is from that of a native speaker, they can change their strategies and approach

each topic in a better and more efficient way. In addition, many learners examining the model

essays could identify the cohesive devices such as the use of connecting words and different

conjunctive adverbs which show the relationship between the ideas, sentences, as well as the

paragraphs. A few could also identify the writers’ attitude expressed through different adverbs

and adjectives throughout the essays. Some could point out how the writer had naturally moved

from one paragraph to the next.

The learners had scarcely reported on the other two factors. However, the nature of their reports

was quite different. They did recognize that the model essays did differ from their own essays in

terms of the lexical range and grammatical accuracy, but this recognition unlike the previous

ones led to frustration and disappointment. They often mentioned that they could not write as

accurate as the authors in the model essays and they do not know as much vocabulary as the

native speakers do. Some stated that their sentences were less complex and less accurate in

comparison with those in the model essays. Still some others believed that their choice of

vocabulary is more naïve comparing with that of a native speaker.

As such, it seems plausible in hypothesizing that the observation of such results in the present

study is more due to the nature of such factors. The ones which only need a kind of

consciousness raising can be improved more easily than those whose improvement needs long

term investments.

References

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Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multi-draft

composition classroom: Is content feedback followed by form feedback the best

method? Journal of Second Language Writing 9 (3), 227–257.

Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second

Language Writing 17 (2), 69–124.

Chandler, J. (2000, March). The efficacy of error correction for improvement in the

accuracy of L2 student writing. Paper presented at the AAAL conference.

Cohen, A. & Calvacanti, M. (1990). Feedback on compositions: Teacher and student verbal

reports. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom

(pp. 155–177). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R., Sheen, Y., Murakami, M. & Takashima, H. (2008). The effects of focused and

unfocused written corrective feedback in an English as a foreign language context.

System, 36, 353-371.

Enginarlar, H. (1993). Student response to teacher feedback in EFL writing. System,

21(2), 193-204.

Fathman, A. & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher response to student writing: focus on form versus

content. In: B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom.

(pp. 178–190). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Fazio, L. (2001). The effect of corrections and commentaries on the journal writing

accuracy of minority- and majority language students. Journal of Second Language

Writing, 10, 235–249.

Ferris, D.R. (2003). Response to Student Writing: Implications for Second Language

Students. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.

Goring-Kepner, C. (1991). An experiment in the relationship of types of written feedback to

the development of second language writing skills. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 305–

313.

Guenette, D. (2007). Is feedback pedagogically correct? Research design issues in studies

of feedback on writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 16, 40–53.

Hillocks, G. (1986). Research on written composition: New directions for teaching. Paper

presented at the Urbana IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills and

the National Conference on Research in English.

Knoblauch, C.H., & Brannon, L. (1981). Teacher commentary on student writing. The state of

the art. Freshman English News, 10(2), 1-4.

Lalande, J.F. (1982). Reducing composition errors: an experiment. Modern Language Journal

66, 140–149.

Lee, G., & Schallert, D.L. (2008). Meeting in the margins: Effects of the teacher–student

relationship on revision processes of EFL college students taking a composition course.

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Polio, C., Fleck, N., & Leder, N. (1998). If only I had more time: ESL learners’ changes in

linguistic accuracy on essay revisions. Journal of Second Language Writing 7,

43–68.

Robb, T., Ross, S., & Shortreed, I. (1986). Salience of feedback on error and its effect on

EFL writing quality. TESOL Quarterly 20, 83–93.

Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied

linguistics. AILA Review 11, 11–26.

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Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on

ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly 41, 255–283.

Sheppard, K. (1992). Two feedback types: do they make a difference? RELC Journal 23, 103–

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Truscott, J. (1999). The case for ‘‘the case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes”: A

response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing 8, 111–122.

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The Effect Of Direct Versus Indirect Cultural Texts On

Iranian Efl Learners’ Reading Ability

Zahra Sadat Roozafzai

Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research, IUT Branch

In accordance with different definitions two main views toward culture can be extracted:

A) our shared human models for living and interactions, day- to-day living patterns, the ways of

acting learnt through socialization;

B) our cognitive constructs, the ways of thinking, affective understanding, arts, etc.

In addition, due to many studies (e.g. Swender&Duncan (1998), Muyale-Manenji. F. (1998))

language and culture are interrelated, it can be hypothesized that if there is a positive effect of

culture teaching on EFL learners’ reading skill, there will be two ways through which ELLs

reading skill can be improved. According to two categorized views of culture above, one might

be teaching culture directly through every-day life, informative-comparative texts and the other

through literary texts as art.

Literature Review

Culture, as the matter of fact, penetrates every aspect of our beings. Nieto (2009) “culture is

complex and intricate. It cannot be reduced to holidays, foods or dances, although these are of

course elements of culture….. culture is not simply rituals, foods and holidays of specific groups

of people, but also the social markers that differentiate that group from others….”

It has been said that culture is like an iceberg, that only ten percent of it is visible and the other

ninety percent is hidden below the surface. For this reason, ESL teachers must make intentional

efforts to teach cultural understanding. Borrowing from Bachmann (1990) there can be two

“channels” to teach culture in EFL classrooms; i.e. visual and aural, in two “modes”; i.e.

receptive and productive. Different combination of these channels and modes leads to different

methods. For instance, EFL teachers can give students some cultural topics and bring a

discussion of culture into the classroom and talk about target culture or provide them with videos

and cultural internet texts and images or ask students to have a native target English speaker pen

pal to write and chat and get to know the target culture in many other ways. But the method used

in a formal EFL classroom in this study is to provide students with texts and ask them to read

and answer the questions. But what kind of texts?

There are different models and approaches which investigate the effects of culture and

interaction in target language contexts and environments like “Intercultural Interaction Model”

(Culhane, S.F. 2004) , “social interaction model of Vygotsky (socio-cultural theory) and

‘interaction approach in second language acquisition’ ( Mackey, 2012 in Williams (Ed.) ),

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‘optimal distance model’ of second language acquisition (Brown, 1980) and ‘input-interaction-

output model’ (Block, 2003). Lantolf (2012) compares SLA with SCT and summarizes that

“SLA focuses on and privileges learning over teaching. All developmental mechanisms are

inside the learner [the container], while SCT focuses on dialectical unity of teaching/learning.

Obuchenie is a central mechanism in development.”

Gay (2000) defines culturally responsive teaching as taking advantage of the cultural knowledge,

prior experiences, and performance styles of students to make learning more appropriate and

effective for them; it teaches to and through the strengths of language learners. So, one of the

best ways for teaching culture directly to students can be providing students with informative

texts and then comparing different aspects of western culture with their native culture. This style

of comparison-and-contrast through informative texts can also raise their consciousness,

cognitive attention (Tomlina and Villa, 1994) and awareness to cultural differences and culture

learning effectively enough.

On the other hand, as one aspect of culture refers to art and literature, we can select short stories

to teach culture. But since stories essentially have their own literary mission and application and

their basic function depending on the genre basically is to narrate a plot or teach a theme, they

can be indirectly used for the purpose of culture teaching to EFL students.

Research Questions

The current study has aimed to compare the effect of culture teaching via direct versus indirect

cultural texts on EFL learners’ reading ability. In other words it tries to see if the Iranian ELLs

who are taught target culture by culturally informative- comparative texts outperform or

underperform in a general reading test than the ones who are taught culture by short stories.

Methodology: Design.

The selected research design in this study was quasi-experimental in which two experimental

groups, randomly-selected, participated. One group was taught culture through culturally

informative- comparative texts and the other group was taught culture through short stories.

Participants and Materials.

From a population of Persian monocultural, Iranian female language learners, aged 20-40,

university students, the university graduated or holders of high school diploma, 4 classes of low-

intermediate language proficiency level according to International House language level, equal to

B1 according to CEF( Common European Framework), in one of the language institutes in an

urban area in Isfahan city of Iran were chosen. To determine their level of English language

proficiency, students passed a placement test consisting of two parts: a short written test, with a

handy answer sheet for quick marking, followed by a more detailed oral test, similar to CEFR

(Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) placement test – Cornelsen. All

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four classes followed the regular program (with CLT method) of the institute, teaching same

units (first two units) of one of EFL series of books (Total English, by Antonia Clare and JJ

Wilson) at intermediate level in 20 sessions. Since the number of students in each class was less

than 30, two classes were selected for each treatment.

The participants in group 1 (two classes out of four) were taught English in the same program as

group 2 but were taught cultural points through 10 texts which either gave direct cultural

information about shopping, foods, holidays, driving, schooling and education, greeting,

entertainment, party holding, exhibitions, child breeding, pet keeping, marriage and some other

social family matters of the U.K., and some American culture information texts from some

credible websites, while group 2 were taught cultural points through 10 short stories by some

writers like Langston Hughes or Pearl S. Buck and some contemporary shorter stories from

websites.

Method.

There are some techniques for teaching culture developed by researchers like Taylor &

Sorenson, 1961 (Culture Capsules, based on eight cultural categories, proposed by Taylor and

Sorensen, namely Subcultural, Technology, Economic Organization, Social Organization,

Political Organization, World View, Esthetics), Meade & Morain, 1973(Culture Clusters) ,

Fiedler et al., 1971( Culture Assimilators), Gorden's prototype 1970 (Mini-Dramas, offered as

the prototype audio-visual unit of the Cross-Cultural Communication Packet (CCCP)), Helen

Wilkes,1983 (Cultural Consciousness-Raising) and many others such as Kinesics and Body

Language, Cultoons, Audio–motor Units, Critical Incidents/Problem Solving Media/Visuals,

Celebrating Festivals etc. According to Christine Elmore (1997) in order to put teaching culture

into classroom practice, we need to follow specific strategies including: “The lecture, Native

informants, Audio-taped interviews,Video-taped interviews/Observational dialogs,Using

authentic readings and realia for cross-cultural understanding (a four-stage approach to a cultural

reading of authentic materials is very effective to lead students through the process of guided

exploration and discovery : 1- Thinking, 2- Looking, 3- Learning, 4- Integrating)”

So, in the present paper the researcher used authentic reading texts and realia, and raised EFL

students’ cultural consciousness with combination of culture capsule and Cultural

Consciousness-Raising. Thus, beside the syllabus of the term, on the basis of CLT

(communicative language teaching) direct and indirect cultural texts were taught similarly.

Results

In this study, the input of statistical analysis consisted of scores of students’ answers to 19-item

multiple-choice reading comprehension questions of two general passages selected from TOEFL

tests administered by ETS in the past. Students received one mark for each correct answer and

lose 1/3 mark for incorrect answer.

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Information about the mean, standard deviation and standard error mean of the two groups are

shown in Table 2. below

Table2. Group Statistics

Group N Mean Std. Deviation SEM

SCORES 1.00

2.00

30

30

12.2967

10.5307

2.8074

3.0718

0.5126

0.5608

The higher mean of group 1, with mean difference of 1.7660 implies that they have

outperformed on reading test over group 2. Besides, Direct group’s lower standard deviation

score shows that their scores are less dispersed from the mean value than that of Indirect group.

Table 3. illustrates the results obtained from the independent t-test application.

Table 3. Independent Sample Test

t-test for Equality of Means

t df Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

SCORE Equal variances assumed 2.3244 58 0.0236 1.7660 0.760

As the t value for equal variance is 2.3244 which with 58 degrees of freedom has the two-tailed

significance level of 0.0236 which is less than two-tailed probability vale; i.e. 0.05, the two-

tailed P value is less than 0.05, by conventional criteria, this difference of two groups’

performance is considered to be statistically significant.

Discussion

‘Implicit Learning’ and ‘Explicit Learning’ are two terms that are largely investigated and

accepted in cognitive psychology (for example, Eysenck, 2001). Implicit learning is learning

unintentionally without learner’s awareness. For instance, learners are exposed to input data for

processing meaning but being investigated for learning any L2 linguistic properties. However, it

cannot promise that learning is absolutely without awareness. Since researchers believe that any

learning is impossible without some degree of awareness (Ellis, 2008).

Explicit learning, on the other hand, is an intentional conscious process. For instance, learners

are given an explicit rule and asked to use it or they are asked to discover an explicit rule from

data provided. These two types of learning, as a result, lead to implicit and explicit knowledge.

(Ellis, 2008). Learning involves both implicit and explicit knowledge, which interact at the level

of performance.

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Although Ellis (1990), believes that implicit and explicit L2 knowledge are different in kind and

are held separately in brain he, Ellis et al. (2009), postulated three different interface kinds

between implicit and explicit L2 knowledge:

“1. According to strong interface position, explicit knowledge can be converted into implicit

knowledge when learners practice explicit and declarative rules.

2. According to non-interface position, implicit and explicit knowledge are held separate in brain

and each involves rigidly distinct mechanisms and thus cannot be converted to each other.

3. According to the weak interface position, explicit knowledge can assist the acquisition of

implicit knowledge by making some aspects of input salient and noticeable to learners.” (Rassaei

et al. (2012))

Moreover, according to Richards & Schmidt 2009, the interface hypothesis is a concept in

second language acquisition that describes the various possible theoretical relationships between

implicit and explicit knowledge in the mind of a second language learner. There are three basic

positions in the interface hypothesis: the no-interface position, the strong-interface position, and

various weak-interface positions. The no-interface position states that there is no relationship

between these two types of knowledge; in other words, knowledge that has been learned

explicitly can never become fast, automatic language knowledge. This position has been largely

discredited, and the debate has now focused on the strong- and weak-interface positions. The

strong-interface position states that explicit language knowledge can always become implicit

language knowledge, and that such knowledge becomes implicit through repeated practice. This

position is most often associated with skill-building theories of second language acquisition. The

weak-interface positions state that explicit language knowledge can become implicit to some

extent, but that these are limited by various developmental factors.

Dupuy and Krashen, 1993, investigated implicit learning of vocabulary by asking learners to

read a book and then test them to see if they learned any new vocabulary in the process. In this

study, as well, students were given culturally comparative-informative texts and short stories,

used as reading texts for the purpose of teaching target culture. As a consequence, students were

investigated for any development of their reading ability in EFL in Iran which is monocultural.

As to the interrelationship of language and culture, the outperformance of group 1, treated by

direct cultural texts, could result in improving students’ cultural knowledge more effectively than

group 2, treated by short stories as indirect cultural texts. Moreover, G 1 students’ better scores

on general reading test at the end of the treatment could be due to their more efficient implicit

learning than G 2 students’ as well. Besides, we can say students’ explicit learning and

knowledge of (learning) culture has stronger interface with their implicit knowledge of (learning)

reading in Direct group. That is using direct cultural texts for the purpose of teaching culture to

students through reading, can increase EFL learners’ both explicit knowledge; i.e. cultural

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knowledge, and implicit knowledge; i.e. knowledge of reading, more successfully than using

short stories as indirect cultural texts for the same purpose.

Conclusion

In the light of the above findings, the research question posed in the current study can be

answered that teaching culture through comparative-informative texts has more positive effect on

Iranians EFL learners’ reading skill than through short stories. In other words, the findings

indicated that teaching culture through direct cultural texts had a distinct advantage over indirect

cultural texts in improving EFL reading skill. And finally, Vygotsky (1997) has stated education

grounded in explicit mediation is ‘artificial development’ of the individual.

References

Bachmann, Lyle F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford

University press.

Block, D. (2003).The Social Turn in Second Language Acquisition. Edinburg University:

Edinburgh.

TESOL Brown, H.D. (1980). The optimal Distance of Second Language Acquisition.

Vol.14. No.2. Quarterly.

Culhane, Stephen F. (2004). An Intercultural Interaction Model: Acculturation Attitudes in

2004, Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.uage Acquisition. Second Lang

61.-Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 50

S. (1993). Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition in French as a Foreign Dupuy, B. and Krashen,

63.-: 554 Applied Language LearningLanguage.

Implicit and Explicit Ellis, R. Loewen, S. Elder, C. Erlam, R. Philp, J. Reinders, H. (2009).

. Knowledge in Second Language Learning, Testing and Teaching. Multilingual Matters

Bristol, UK.

. Oxford University udy of Second Language AcquisitionThe St Ellis, Rod (2008).

. 4-442257-19-0-978 ISBN Press.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Applied Language Studies. Blackwell - guage AcquisitionInstructed Second LanEllis, R. (1990).

Publishers

. New Haven Teachers Strategies for Teaching the Value of DiversityElmore, Christine. (1997).

Institute. Yale

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ond Edition).Psychology Press: (Sec Psychology Principles of CognitiveEysenck, M. (2001).

Hove.

Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H.C. (1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to

102.-, 55, 95Journal of Applied Psychologycultural training. -cross

. ly Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, & PracticeCulturalGay, G. (2000).

Teachers College Press. New York

ERIC Cultural Encounter In A Latin American Bank. -Gorden, Raymond L. (1970). Cross

Service: ED 040 120production -Document Re

Lantolf, James P. (2012). Sociocultural Approaches to Teaching to the Advanced Level: The

Penn State University UCLA Heritage Language Institute.Pedagogical Imperative.

n second language acquisition. In J. Williams (Ed.), Mackey, A. (2012). Interaction approach i

-Wiley The encyclopedia of applied linguistics: Cognitive second language acquisition.

Blackwell. Malden, MA.

Foreignter. . The Culture Clus)Morain. (1973 Meade, Betsy, and Genelle

8.-6(3): 331 Language Annals

(1998). The effects of globalization on culture in Africa in the eyes of an Manenji, F.-Muyale

African woman.

Nieto, Sonia. (2009). Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives (Second Ed.).

Rassaei, Ehsan; Moinzadeh, A. & Youhanaee, M. (2012). The Effect of Corrective Feedback on

the Acquisition of Implicit and Explicit L2 Knowledge. The Journal of Language

Teaching and Learning, 2012, 2(1), 59-75.

Richards, Jack C.; Schmidt, Richard, eds. (2009). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

.3-0460-4082-1-978 ISBN . Longman: New York.and Applied Linguistics

Swender, E. & Duncan, G.(1998). ACTFL performance guidelines for K12 learners. Foreign

Language Annals, 31.

Taylor, H. D & Sorensen, J. L. (1961), Culture Capsules, The Modern language Journal, 45 (8),

350-354.

Tomlina, Russell S. & Villa, Victor. (1994) .Attention in Cognitive Science and Second

Language Acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Vol. 16. Issue02. pp

183 – 203.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1997). Educational Psychology. St. Lucie Press. ISBN-13: 9781878205155

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Wilkes, H. (1983). Title Pages: A Simple Device for Cultural Consciousness-Raising in the

Teenaged Student of French, Foreign Language Annals, Volume 16. New York,

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The Use Of Metacognitive Reading Strategies In Academic Reading Among ASASI TESL

Students.

Nor Atifah Mohamad & Nazarul Azali Razali

Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka, Malaysia

University students have to read a high number of English academic texts which are written in a

more taxing manner (Kolić-Vehovec et al., 2011) to suit the demands of their learning. However,

since English is the second language (L2) learnt by most students in Malaysia, reading in L2 is

usually less successful (Cohen, 1994). This is due to lack of vocabulary and schema of the L2

learners (Grabe, 1996) and worsen by the lack of knowledge of utilizing appropriate reading

strategies (Van Wyk, 2001). This is true to university students. According to Benson (1991),

university students are unable to do selective reading, in which they are unable to extort the

important information and leave the insignificance. Many L2 readers struggle to attain a

semblance of meaning from text they are reading, do not contemplate a detailed relevance of

unfamiliar words. Indeed they created a vague meaning of what is being read. As a result,

comprehension becomes such a challenge that these readers disengage and refrain from

making meaning (Block & Johnson, 2002).

It is vital for the L2 readers to be aware in their process of understanding the text and to

exercise the mechanisms needed for their understanding and in line with this, Cabral (2002)

stated that metacognitive strategies is important to ensure the effectiveness of the reading

comprehension process. According to Baker and Brown (1989: as cited in Singhal, 2001),

metacognitive awareness is knowledge about ourselves, the tasks we face and the strategies we

employ. Knowledge about ourselves is acknowledging our achievement on certain types of

tasks or difficulty level. Knowledge about task includes knowledge about tasks or

recognizing our proficiency level. On the one hand, strategies are the elaboration of material

that assists the L2 readers in retrieving or predicting the article's content based on its topic.

Block (1992) asserted that metacognitive strategies can distinguish the proficient and less

proficient L2 readers. Studies comparing the first language (L1) and L2 showed that the

effectiveness of the reading strategy used relies on whether a strategy is used metacognitively

(Jiménez et al., 1996). Studies also showed that, the low proficiency students are not able to

apply the reading strategies as effectively and appropriately as the successful students (Garcia

et al., 1998). They are not able to effectively apply the reading strategies and therefore are rigid

in utilizing them. Thus, the low proficiency L2 readers need to be made aware and think of the

reading strategies that can be applied in their reading process so that they can comprehend the

text better.

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Previous research studies

Previous research recognizes the role of metacognitive awareness in reading comprehension.

Martinez (2008) investigates the readers’ metacognitive knowledge about reading and reading

strategies in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Spanish speaking students. The participants

were 157 non-native English speaking Spanish students from University of Oviedo. The

Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) instrument was

administered after regular class period. MARSI was designed to assess adolescents’ awareness

of reading strategies while reading academic related materials. It has three domains which are

problem solving strategies, support reading strategies and global reading strategies. Results

show that there is a high overall use of all the categories of reading strategies. Only two

domains that were highly used by the students which were problem solving strategies and global

reading strategies. It is also reported that female highly used the support reading strategies.

In another research done by Berkowitz and Ciccheli (2004), they investigated the metacognitive

strategy used in reading of gifted high achieving and underachieving gifted middle school

students in New York City. 63 students were selected as high achievers and low achievers. The

participants were chosen based on scores from the New York State English Language Arts test

(ELA). This study used MARSI, think-aloud protocols and interview. The results show that

there were no significant differences in the frequency of strategy used in which the high

achievers are more homogenous and the low achievers more heterogeneous.

Materials and Methods

The main purpose of this study is to look into metacognitive reading strategies which are

utilized by ASASI TESL students. Thus, the present study is aimed to investigate the ASASI

TESL students reading strategies in reading L2 academic text. More specifically, this study

will explore on the three issues which are to analyze the reading strategies used by high,

average and low achievers, to look for differences if any, between the number of frequency of

strategy across students’ reading proficiency and finally to determine the type of strategy mostly

used by students in academic setting.

Participants

The participants for this study were 115 ASASI TESL students from Universiti Teknologi

MARA cawangan Melaka. The participants were grouped as high, average and low achievers

depending on their reading proficiency. This is determined based on their grades in Reading

subject. The subject was taught for two semesters and compulsory for the students who undergo

the ASASI programme. The categorizations are as follow; students who got an A and A- are

categorized as high achievers, B+ as average whereas B and B- are considered as low achievers.

20% of the participants were categorized as high, 52% as average and another 28% as low

achievers.

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Data collection

The students’ metacognitive reading strategies were assessed using MARSI which was

developed by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002). The MARSI instrument consists of 30 statements,

5 point-Likert scale ranging from 1 (I never or almost never use this strategy) to 5 (I always or

almost always use this strategy). The statements are categorized into three broad domains of

strategies which are global reading strategies (GLOB), problem-solving Strategies (PROB) and

support reading strategies (SUP). The descriptions are as follow:

(1) Global Reading Strategies consists of 13 statements that inquire about the

participants’ strategies prior to reading. For examples, having a purpose in mind,

preview the text and guessing what the text is about.

(2) Problem-Solving Strategies contains eight statements which ask for the

information of the strategies used by the participants when the text becomes harder to

comprehend. For examples, adjusting the reading speed, rereading the text and trying to

refocus when losing concentration.

(3) Support Reading Strategies which contains nine statements inquire about the

medium of support the participants used in order for them to keep reading. For

examples, reading aloud, discuss with others and use reference materials.

The MARSI instrument was administered after all the participants have sat for their final

examination for Reading. This was done in semester two, which is the final semester because the

students have already learnt all the reading strategies asked in the inventory. There was no time

limit and they were allowed to refer to their final exam questions to revise on the strategies used

during the test. As for Support Reading Strategies, the participants can answer based on their

practice while reading academic text whether in normal class or during their self-study.

Results and Discussion

In examining the result of MARSI, IBM SPSS was used to determine the mean of all the reading

strategies used by the students across their reading proficiency. Table 1 shows the mean of the

strategies according to domain and proficiency level.

Type High achievers (mean) Average achievers (mean) Low achievers (mean)

GLOB 3.93 3.66 3.43

SUP 3.98 3.63 3.31

PROB 4.03 3.95 3.61

Table 1. Mean of the reported reading strategies according to domain and proficiency level

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This data show the reading strategies utilized by the ASASI TESL students. The means of

strategies based on the three domain range from 3.31 to 4.03. High achievers have the highest

mean for all the domains ranging from 3.93 to 4.03 which show that they usually practice the

strategies. Average achievers range from 3.63 to 3.95 which fall under the category of sometimes

practice the reading strategies. As for the low achievers, their mean is the lowest from 3.31 to

3.61. This shows that they still fall under the category of sometimes practice the reading

strategies but the frequency count is the lowest among all students. Thus, it shows that high

achievers used all the strategies the most and followed by average achievers and low achievers.

Conclusions

The aims of this study are to look into the reading strategies used across students’ achievements,

investigate the differences in the strategy used and determine the mostly used reading strategies

by the students.

For the first aim, it is found that there is moderate to high use of all the reading strategies for all

the students. This result agrees with previous research on the matter. There is also no vast

difference between the numbers of mean used by the students across reading proficiency.

Furthermore, this study also showed that there is higher mean for global reading strategies and

problem solving reading strategies.

In sum, this research has found and acknowledged that high proficiency students applied all the

metacognitive reading strategies more than the average and low achievers. Even though the

difference in the number of mean for all the strategies across reading proficiency is not that high,

but it is important to encourage and remind the students to practice more of these strategies as it

is vital for their reading comprehension. This study also supports the previous research in which

the support reading strategies is the least used strategies for all the students.

References

Benson, M. J. (1991). University ESL reading: a content analysis. English for Specific

Purposes, 10, 75-88.

Berkowitz, E. and Cicchelli, T. (2004). Metacognitive strategy use in reading of gifted high

achieving and gifted underachieving middle school students in New York City.

Education and Urban Society, 37, 1, 37-57.

Block, E. (1992). See How They Read: Comprehension Monitoring of L1 andL2 Readers.

TESOL Quarterly. Vol. 26, 2.

Block, C and Johnson, R. (2002). The Thinking Process Approach to Comprehension

Development. In Block, C. Gambrell, L. and Pressley, M. (Eds.), Improving

Comprehension Instruction: Rethinking, Research, Theory and Classroom Practice. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass Education.

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Cabral, A. P. (2002). Practicing College Reading Skills. Retrieved February 12, 2006 from

http://readingmatrix.com

Cohen, A.D. (1994). Assessing Language Ability in the Classroom. Boston: Heinle and Heinle

Publishers.

Garcia, G. E. Jimenez R. T. & Pearson P.D. (1998). Metacognition, childhood bilingualism, and

reading in Hacker, D., Dunlowsky, J & Grasser, A. (eds.), Metacognition in Educational

Theory and Practice, 200-248, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Grabe, W. (1996). Reading in an ESP Context: Dilemmas and Possible Solutions. ESP

Malaysia. Vol. 4.

Jiménez García, R. T., Garcia, G. E. & Pearson, P. D. (1996). The reading strategies of

bilingual Latina/o students who are successful English readers: opportunities and

Obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31: 90-112.

Kolić-Vehovec et al. (2011). The role of reading strategies in scientific text comprehension and

academic achievement of university students. Review of Psychology, 18 (2), 81-90.

Martinez, A.C. (2008). Analysis of ESP university students’ reading strategy awareness.

IBERICA, 15, 165-176.

Meena Singhal (2001). Reading Proficiency, Reading Strategies, Metacognitive Awareness

andL2 Readers. Retrieved February 28, 2006 from http://readingmatrix.com

Mokhtari, K. & Reichard, C. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of

reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 249,259.

Van Wyk, A. L. (2001). The development and implementation of an English language and

literature programme for low proficiency tertiary learners. Unpublished thesis.

University of the Free State, Bloemfontein.

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The Role Of Cultural Nativization In Comprehension Of Anecdotes In Efl Reading

Contexts

Razieh Assi

Fatemeh Zahra Teacher Training Centre, Ahvaz, Iran

Research on the psychological processes involved in comprehension indicates that

people's understanding of language is a function of their past experiences, their background

knowledge or what are technically known as their schemata. The role of prior knowledge in

language comprehension has been formalized in a theoretical model known as schema theory.

One of the basic tenets of this theory is that texts themselves, whether spoken or written, do not

carry meaning; rather, they provide signposts or clues for listeners or readers in reconstructing

the meanings from their own background knowledge. Reading comprehension is thus an

interactive process between the reader and the textual input, in that the reader is required to fit

the clues provided in the text to his own previously acquired knowledge (Nunan, 2002;

Rumelhart, 1980).

In recent years, as cultural factors receive more emphasis in EFL instruction,

considerable attention has focused on understanding the role of cultural schemata in reading

comprehension. It is argued that non-native readers' failure to activate appropriate cultural

schemata during reading may result in various degrees of non-comprehension. This is because

schemata, as Yule (2000) points out, are culturally determined, and people develop their cultural

schemata in the context of their basic experiences. It follows that when a person is presented

with culturally familiar information, this information will be easier to understand than culturally

unfamiliar information, as the former ties in better with the person's cultural schemata.

The notion of cultural nativization was introduced by Alptekin (2002, as cited in Erten &

Razi, 2003) as a way of investigating the effect of cultural background knowledge on

comprehension of short stories. Alptekin (2006) elaborated on the issue and gave a

comprehensive definition of the term as "sociological, semantic, and pragmatic adaptation of the

textual and contextual cues of the original story into the learner's own culture, while keeping its

linguistic and rhetorical content essentially intact" (p.499). By textual cues Alptekin means data

having to do with settings and locations as well as characters and occupations. Contextual cues,

on the other hand, include culture-specific customs, rituals, notion, structures, and values.

Previous studies on cultural nativization (Alptekin, 2006; Erten & Razi, 2003, 2009;

Jalilifar and Assi, 2008; Razi, 2004) have generally indicated that nativizing a target language

narrative text to conform to the learners' cultural schemata facilitates learners' comprehension of

the text. However, these studies have investigated the role of cultural nativization in reading

comprehension in relation to only short stories, and longer or shorter narrative texts have been

ignored. Furthermore, most of these studies have investigated the issue in Turkish culture and

with Turkish EFL learners. As such, the studies need to be replicated and the findings have to be

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confirmed by other studies with learners from other cultural contexts. Taking these limitations

into account, this study aims at investigating the effect of cultural nativization on the

comprehension of anecdotes. More specifically it explores the issue in relation to Persian culture

in students learning English as a foreign language. The study attempts to answer the following

question:

1. Does nativization of anecdotes from the target language culture into Persian culture affect

Iranian EFL learners' comprehension of the anecdotes?

Methodology

Participants. The subjects participating in this study were 60 Iranian EFL learners with the

average age of fifteen. They were selected from among 100 first-graders in a high school in

Ahvaz, the capital city of Khuzestan in southwest of Iran, based on the scores obtained from a

standard proficiency test, that is, a Nelson Test (Fowler and Coe, 1976) consisting of 50 multiple

choice items. On the basis of the results obtained from the test, 60 students whose scores fell

between one standard deviation above or below the mean score were selected as a homogenous

sample. Then, they were randomly divided into two groups of 30. One group was considered as

the experimental and the other as the control group.

Materials. Three American anecdotes taken from Hill (1980) were selected for the study. The

selection procedure was based on several factors the most important of which were the level of

difficulty, the length, and the cultural load of the texts.

Instrument. Three tests were utilized in the study: a Nelson English Language Test for

selecting homogeneous subjects, and two types of reading comprehension tests developed by the

researcher. Both types of reading comprehension tests included three cloze passages. In one type,

the cloze texts were based on the original anecdotes, while in the other, they were based on the

nativized versions. In each anecdote, ten words were deleted from the text and students were

required to fill in the blanks. Therefore, there were 30 blanks altogether in each cloze test.

Procedures. The texts selected for the study were nativized into the language learners' own

culture (i.e., Persian) based on Alptekin's (2006) definition of cultural nativization. To

accomplish this, first, the textual and contextual cues of the anecdotes which reflected American

culture were identified, and then these cues were adapted sociologically, semantically, and

pragmatically in the modified versions to reflect Persian culture, while keeping linguistic

features and rhetorical structures of the texts intact. So this resulted in having two versions of

each anecdote – one native English and one nativized.

The anecdotes were nativized in a way that reflected the learners' own culture; that is,

they were re-written as if the events were taking place in Iran. Therefore, in the nativized

versions all the names of the characters and cities were changed to Iranian names. In addition, a

great number of concepts concerning American culture in the original anecdotes were changed in

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the nativized versions to reflect Persian culture. These concepts were related to cultural elements

such as food, jobs, currency, interpersonal relationships, and so on.

The two versions of the test were administered to the two groups of the subjects

participating in the study. Therefore, the students in the control group received the original

version of the cloze test and the students in the experimental group received the nativized

version. The subjects in both groups were given the same amount of time to complete the cloze

passages.

The cloze tests were scored according to the acceptable word method. Accordingly, one

mark was given to each semantically acceptable answer and zero mark was given to each

semantically unacceptable answer. The subjects' grammatical and spelling errors were ignored in

scoring procedure.

Results and Discussion

After administering the tests and correcting the papers, the collected data were analyzed.

Results indicated that the mean of the nativized group's scores was greater than the mean of the

original group's. To see if the difference between the means was statistically significant, an

independent t-test was run. The result of this statistical analysis is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Independent T-Test Comparing the Means of the two Groups' Scores on Cloze Tests

Groups N Mean SD t-value df

Original 30 17.16 4.02 7.77 58

Nativized 30 22.88 3.72

p<0.05 t-critical=2.000

As illustrated in the table, the observed value of t was much greater than the critical value

of t, indicating that the difference between the two groups was statistically significant and, in

fact, nativization of the texts had a positive effect on students' reading comprehension.

So the results provided an affirmative answer to the research question; that is, nativization of

anecdotes from the target language culture into Persian culture facilitates Iranian EFL learners'

comprehension of the anecdotes. Comprehension, according to schema theory, is an interactive

process between the reader and the text, and successful understanding of a text depends crucially

on the readers' ability to activate the relevant schemata to relate information from the text to

already existing background knowledge. When a person reads a narrative text, the schemata

embodying his background knowledge provide the framework for understanding the setting,

mood, characters, and the chain of events. When reading the original anecdotes, the readers

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might not be able to activate their schemata as efficiently as when they read the nativized version

since the original texts are not in line with the EFL readers' cultural background knowledge. So a

possible reason for the outperformance of the nativized group is that the nativized anecdotes are

more consistent with Iranian readers' cultural knowledge and thus help them better activate their

schemata regarding the content of the texts and enable them to relate the incidents in the texts to

their own background knowledge and experience.

The difference between the two groups’ performance in reading comprehension test can also

be related to the possible interest aroused by culturally nativized texts. When readers see

elements of their native culture in the texts, because of the cultural proximity they feel between

themselves and the characters, they probably feel much more engaged with the plot and can more

strongly identify themselves with the characters of the stories. This, in turn, leads to better

understanding of the texts. In addition, research has shown that compared with the first language,

the mind is less efficient in a second language at any task, and there is "an L2 cognitive deficit"

as it is sometimes called (Cook, 2001, p. 87). It seems that nativizing the texts to conform to the

learners' native culture enables learners to compensate for this cognitive deficit and helps them

better connect each sentence with its subsequent and previous sentences in the text. In fact, the

nativized texts put fewer loads on the subjects' memory in comparison to the original ones and

this results in better comprehension of the texts.

Results of the study are in line with Oller and Chen's (2007) ideas in relation to episodic

organization in discourse processing measurements. Bringing empirical evidence, Oller and

Chen show that both second language learners and native speakers use episodic organization to

fill in missing elements in a cloze task. They further argue that the depth of comprehension of

episodic organization is sensitive to relatively minute elements of surface forms and more

specifically to the names of persons and places in the discourse. That is, changing the surface

forms of referring terms in a narrative text to more familiar ones would make them easier for

learners to interpret. This is also borne out by this research because the texts contained a number

of proper names referring to persons and places which were culturally modified in the nativized

versions. This modification probably helped the subjects who read the nativized anecdotes

understand the texts better and thus they could solve more cloze items in comparison to the

subjects who read the original texts.

Conclusion

Comprehension does not occur in a vacuum, and indeed, schemata activation is an

important part of the process by which meaning is created by the reader. When reading texts

from target language culture, readers will naturally draw upon information gained from their own

cultural experiences and cultural background knowledge. In the case of foreign language reading,

where the reader and writer presumably belong to different cultures and have distinct cultural

experiences and expectations, readers may lack the cultural background knowledge which is

assumed by the writer, and which is necessary for successful comprehension of the text.

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Therefore, through nativizing the culture-specific cues in the texts, the influence of cultural

schemata can be triggered, and the comprehension can be facilitated.

Nativization is recommended to EFL teachers and material designers as a new way of

text modification to enhance learners' reading comprehension of narrative texts. Using nativized

texts in reading classes will have positive import on the development of reading skill. Nativized

texts may arise feelings of interest in the readers and increase their motivation to read further and

could thus be a good stimulant for extensive reading. Longer narrative texts such as short stories,

novellas, and novels can be nativized into learners' own culture and used in extensive reading

programs for EFL learners.

References

Alptekin, C. (2006). Cultural familiarity in inferential and literal comprehension in L2 reading.

System, 34, 494-508.

Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and second language teaching (3rd

ed.). London:

Arnold.

Erten, I. H., & Razi, S. (2003). An experimental investigation into the impact of cultural

schemata on reading comprehension. Paper presented at the 2nd

International Balkan ELT

Conference on Theory and Practice of TESOL, Edirne, Turkey.

Erten, I. H., & Razi, S. (2009). The effects of cultural familiarity on reading comprehension.

Reading in a Foreign Language. 21(1), 60-77.

Fowler, W. S., & Coa, N. (1976). Nelson English language test. Great Britain: Bulter & Tanner.

Hill, L. A. (1980). Anecdotes in American English: Elementary, intermediate, advanced. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Jalilifar, A., & Assi, R. (2008). The role of cultural nativization in comprehension of short stories

in EFL reading contexts. Language, society and culture, 26, 62-79.

Nunan, D. (2002). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Oller, J., & Chen, L. (2007). Episodic organization in discourse and valid measurement in the

sciences. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 14(2), 127-144.

Razi, S. (2004). The effects of cultural schema and reading activities on reading comprehension.

In M. Singhal (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st international online conference on second and

foreign language teaching and research (pp. 276-293). USA: The Reading Matrix. Retrieved

September 16, 2010 from http://www.readingmatrix.com/conference/pp/proceedings/razi.pdf

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Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. C.

Bruce, and W. E. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Yule, G. (2000). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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The Influence Of Content Schemata On Second Language Reading

Amizura Hanadi Mohd. Radzi

Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perlis)

Dr. Noor Hashima Bt. Abdul Aziz

Universiti Utara Malaysia

Second language learners depend on their prior knowledge and experience when trying to

comprehend a text. This knowledge is referred to as schema or schemata which readers access

during reading. Readers make use of their schema when they relate their background knowledge

to the facts and ideas appearing in a text. As reading is an interactive process between the

reader’s schemata and the text, lacking in schemata on the content area of the text can impede

comprehension. This study aimed at exploring in what way content schemata contribute to

learners’ understanding of a text. This study is crucial as it looks at the aspects of content

schemata that influence reading comprehension in second language reading with tertiary level

students as the target group. This pilot study helps the researcher to practice conducting a think

aloud protocol and interview sessions and also to familiarize herself with coding the interview

data.

Problem Statement

More often than not, ESL learners, lacking in schemata, will stumble upon problems in

understanding the content of the texts that they are unfamiliar with. As stated in Carrell (1988,

pp. 111), ‘schema unavailability’ is a huge stumbling block for many tertiary level L2 learners to

comprehend reading texts. Reading texts selected for Diploma level, pertaining to English

Language servicing courses at UiTM campuses cover the issue on asylum seekers. However,

unfamiliarity with the issue has proven the text to be a relatively challenging topic for language

learners at UiTM (Perlis). Nuttall (1982) explains that there may be problems for learners who

do not share the relevant schema as the learners may be left with too little information to make

sense of the text. There is a need to carry out a research on the aspect of content schemata as

Diploma level students may not have sufficient background knowledge on certain content area

and this ‘schema unavailability’ may become a hindrance to smooth understanding of the reading

text.

Research Questions

This study explored the following research questions: a) How does content schemata influence

learners’ understanding of a text? b) What can be understood about the learners’ reading

experience on texts that require specific content schemata?

Definition Of Key Terms

Schema Theory. A schema theory is a theory about knowledge, about how knowledge

is represented and about how that representation facilitates the use of the knowledge in certain

ways (Rumelhart, 1980).

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Schemata. Schemata are the building blocks of cognition. They are the fundamental

elements upon which all information processing depends (Rumelhart, 1980).

Content schema. Content schema which refers to a reader's background or world

knowledge, provides readers with a foundation, a basis for comparison (Carrell & Eisterhold,

1983).

Literature Review

Proponents of schema theory. Rumelhart (1980) explains that within the scope of schema

theories, all knowledge is packaged into units, i.e. schemata. Information about how this

knowledge is to be used is embedded in these packets of knowledge. A schema theory embodies

a prototype theory of meaning where a schema underlying a concept stored in memory

corresponds to the meaning of that concept, meanings that are encoded in terms of the typical

situations or events that instantiate the particular concept (Rumelhart, 1980). Four major

characteristics of schemata as listed by Rumelhart and Ortony (1977) are: schemata have

variables, schemata can embed one within another, schemata represent knowledge at all levels of

abstraction and schemata represent knowledge rather than definitions. The embedding

characteristic of schemata can be explained in this sense that schemata consist of subschemata.

Schemata, therefore can represent knowledge at all levels. Rumelhart (1980) lists two more

general features of schemata: schemata are active processes and schemata are recognition

devices whose processing is aimed at the evaluation of their goodness of fit to the data being

processed. Expanding Rumelhart’s (1980) explanation of schema theory, Anderson & Pearson

(1988) introduce the elements of schema theory, which comprise of “nodes,” “variable,” or

“slots,” (p. 42).

Methodology

With regard to the research design, this particular study is a qualitative case study. The

researcher adopted the case study design as the contextual condition, i.e. the familiarity or

unfamiliarity with the content of the texts, is the most crucial to the phenomenon of this study.

The participant of this study is a Part 6, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perlis) degree level

student. In order to explore the contribution of content schemata to learners’ understanding of

a text, think aloud protocol was carried out on the participant. In order to triangulate the data

to be collected, in-depth interviews, i.e. one-on-one interviewing, were also conducted. The

framework of schema theory which emphasizes the role of background knowledge as a

primary support in reading comprehension served as a guideline in constructing the in-depth

interview questions. The reading texts chosen in this study were: i) a text which is regarded as

content-familiar to the participant, i.e. ‘ A Quid of Sirih, a Bowl of Water’, Khadijah Hashim

(1973) and ii) a text which is regarded as content-unfamiliar to the participant, i.e. ‘The

Lottery’, Shirley Jackson (1948).

Findings

Analysis of the think aloud protocol transcription (A Quid of Sirih, a Bowl of

Water).The analysis of the verbal protocol transcriptions was done based on the list of

activities in relation to the metacognitive character to mental actions (Brown, 1980). In

transcribing the verbal protocols, the researcher had used the specific notations adapted from

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Cavalcanti (1989) as cited in Fujita, Nardi & Fagundes (2003). It was observed that during the

think aloud protocol session, the participant identified important aspects of a message (text)

and allocated attention so that concentration could be focused on the major content area. The

participant always looked for the connection between the characters and the subject matter in

the short story. It was also observed that the participant always monitored ongoing activities

to find out whether his comprehension was occurring.

Analysis of the in-depth interview (A Quid of Sirih, a Bowl of Water).

The findings are discussed based on two semi-structured guideline questions. The interview

response was analyzed for themes, which were indicative of the role of content schemata that

facilitates understanding. Sample quotes to illustrate the points are stated as follows. Interview

Question 1: How do you describe your reading experience on this text? The theme ‘general

understanding’ had emerged as the participant had a general understanding of the short story,

even though the beginning of the story seemed to be a bit confusing to the participant. The

participant said,

The continuation of the story...the characters’ focus, keep jumping

from one to another...but the middle of the story is very

interesting...and the continuity of the story...the flow of the story is

well delivered.

Interview Question 2: How do you cope with the text that requires specific background

knowledge? Another theme, i.e. ‘relies on background knowledge’ had emerged as the

participant used his background knowledge to understand the text. This is because it is a

common practice of his family to become pawang. The participant said,

Yea…because my own family rooted from pawang...my ancestors were

pawangs...

Analysis of the think aloud protocol (The Lottery).

The analysis of the verbal protocol transcriptions was done based on the list of activities in

relation to the meta-cognitive character to mental actions (Brown, 1980). It was observed that

during the think aloud protocol session, the participant identified important aspects of a message

(text) and allocated attention so that concentration could be focused on the major content area.

The participant tried to find the connection between the characters and the subject matter in the

short story. It was also observed that during the think aloud protocol session for the content-

unfamiliar text, the participant always monitored ongoing activities to find out whether his

comprehension was occurring.

Analysis of the in-depth interview (The Lottery).

The findings discussed are based on two semi-structured guideline questions. The interview

response was analyzed for themes, which were indicative of the need for content schemata to

facilitate understanding. Sample quotes to illustrate the points are stated as follows. Interview

Question 1: How do you describe your reading experience on this text? The theme ‘absent of

general understanding’ emerged as the participant could not understand the short story because

he could not make any connection with his own background knowledge. He said,

…the story is very hard to read…very confusing… because of the

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conflicting idea of what the lottery is and that has caused confusion to me

and therefore I failed to understand the storyline...

Interview Question 2: How do you cope with the text that requires specific background

knowledge? Another theme, i.e. ‘absent of background knowledge’ emerged

as the participant stated that he had no background knowledge that he could rely on to aid his

understanding. He said,

…I have no experience what so ever with the kind of lottery in the short

story. I’m used to the normal kind of lottery where people receive prizes

when their number is called and not to this kind of lottery...

Discussion

Based on the findings, it can be concluded that language learners without any prior knowledge or

experience with a particular topic will be unable to comprehend what is being read. Background

knowledge (content schemata) therefore is crucial as it plays a vital role in reading

comprehension. In this study, the participant carried out three activities in relation to the meta-

cognitive character to mental actions (Brown, 1980). The participant’s schema on seeing a

medicine man in the content-familiar text was activated. Therefore, a quick prediction of the

relationship between the characters and a correct judgement can be made. The participant stated

that he had relied on his background knowledge to understand the content-familiar text. The

participant had experienced meeting with a medicine man in several occasions and his family

background is of generations of pawang. These had helped him to relate the content area of the

short story to his own personal experience. As for the content-unfamiliar text, the participant

failed to understand the concept of ‘lottery’. This can be explained as some key concepts may be

absent in the schemata of some non-native readers or they may carry alternate interpretations

(Carrell & Eisterhold, 1988).

Conclusion

This study aimed at exploring the contribution of content and background knowledge to reading

comprehension. Based on the analysis of the think aloud protocols and interview responses, this

study, therefore, discovers that content schemata play a huge role in readers’ comprehension of

reading texts. Lacking in content schemata will impede reading comprehension.

Contributions Of This Paper

This study can add to the body of knowledge on the role of content schemata on reading

comprehension. The content of this paper will help researchers interested in this area to have a

better understanding of the concepts and framework.

References

Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P.D. (1988). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading

comprehension. In P.L. Carrell, J. Devine & D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approaches to

second language reading (pp. 37-55).Cambridge: CUP.

Brown, N. (1980). Meta-cognitive development and reading. In Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce,

& William F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: perspectives

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from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, and education (pp. 453-

481). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Carrell, P.L. (1988). Some causes of text-boundedness and schema interference in ESL Reading.

In P.L. Carrell, J. Devine & D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second

language reading. Cambridge: CUP.

Carrell, P., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL

Quarterly, 17(4), 553-573.

Carrell, P.L., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1988). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. In P.L.

Carrell, J. Devine & D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second language

reading. Cambridge: CUP.

Fujita, M.S.L.J., Nardi, M.I.A., & Fagundes, S.A. (2003). Observing documentary reading by

verbal protocol. Information Research, 8(4), July 2003. Retrieved November 20, 2009,

from http://www. informationr.net/ir/8- 4/paper155.html

Jackson, S. (1948). The lottery. Retrieved from

http://www.americanliterature.com/SS/SSINDX.HTML

Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Oxford: Heinemann

Rumelhart, D. E., & Ortony, A. (1977). The representation of knowledge in memory. In R. C.

Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of

knowledge. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. C.

Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension:

Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, and education

(pp. 33-58). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Khadijah Hashim. (1988). A quid of sirih, a bowl of water. In Muhammad Haji Salleh. (Ed.), An

anthology of contemporary Malaysian Literature (pp. 93-101). Dewan Bahasa Dan

Pustaka: Ministry of Education, Kuala Lumpur.

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The Effectiveness and the Efficiency of the Phonics Approach in Improving Primary

School Children’ Reading Ability.

Yusnamariah Md Yusop (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia)

English plays an important role as the communication tools in the era of information and

technology. It is taught in the schools to empower the children to use English in everyday

situations and to prepare them for higher education as reported in The Cabinet Report on the

Review of the Implementation of the Education Policy 1979. In order to survive and compete in

the globalized world, the young Malaysians must be well equipped with the proficiency in

English language. The aim of teaching English to the children is to assist them function

appropriately in the business and commercial sectors. Thus, it is hoped that the children will

have a strong foundation in the English language through the English curriculum for primary

schools children so that they will be able to erect on the language as they proceed to the higher

level (Ambigapathy, 2006). Starting in 2011, the Ministry of Education has introduced the new

curriculum which the aims to equip children with basic language skills to enable them to

communicate effectively in a variety of contexts that’s appropriate to the children’ level of

development.(http://kssrperak.weebly.com):

Due to the implementation of this new curriculum, one of the objectives is teaching reading

through the phonics approach. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to identify the phonics

approach teaching strategies used by the teachers. It is believes that children who have gaps in

their phonological knowledge has limited success in reading (Pam Macdonald, 2010). Besides

that, based on the previous study it found that the typical word-reading approach, do not make a

good start with reading skills for many English-speaking children (John Ashbrook, 2010).

Therefore, it is suggested that children who know letters and being able to segment spoken words

into speech sounds fare better in the reading stakes (Margaret J. et.al, 2006). Thus, based on

these studies, this paper objective is to identify the steps in teaching phonics approach and to

evaluate the children’ reading ability through phonics approach. Besides that, this paper will

attempt to seek answers to the following research questions:

1. What are the steps in teaching phonics approach?

2. What are the children’ reading ability through phonic approach?

Reading is one of the strongest indicators of future academic success (Ehri, 2005). It is a

process of decoding written symbols into their aural equivalents in a linear fashion. Reading

fluency is a key element in reading and learning to read (Timothy R. Et.al, 21009). Reader may

utilize several forms in learning reading such as decoding, analogizing or predicting to read

unfamiliar words (Ehri, 2005). The process of readers read familiar words by assessing them in

memory is known as sight word reading. It involves forming connections between graphemes

(letters) and phonemes (sounds) to bond spelling of words to their pronunciation and meanings in

memory (Ehri, 2005). On the other hand, the phonic approach focuses in learning the sounds

(phonemes) represented by letters (graphemes) through repetition and practice. This principle is

based upon the idea that the written language represents sounds of speech, and written letters or

graphemes represent sounds or phonemes (A.A. Roman et.al, 2009). Thus, methods based upon

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this approach directly introduce the alphabetical principle by translating letters to the sounds they

represent. In this study, phonics is defined as the concentrated study of the sound symbol

relationships in order to learn to read and spell. The purpose of phonics in this study was to raise

accuracy of decoding and fluency in word recognition. While, the reading ability among the

primary school children who were referring to the children aged 8 years old on the 1st January

2004 in this study were measured based on their ability to segmenting and blending the

phonemes, psuedoword identification, word identification and spelling. Learning approaches

include development of phonological awareness and the acquisition of syllables and vowels. All

this is done while using multi-sensory means as well as vocal and visual associations (John

Ashbrook, 2010).

According to Karen Edwards (2008), teaching of phonics is a fundamental component of

early reading instruction that can benefits students’ ability to read and write. It is because

phonics is considered as a “bottom-up” approach where children decode the meaning of a text.

This is supported by John Ashbrook (2010) who shared the same view said that the typical word

reading approach do not make a good start with reading skills. In addition, Pauline et.al (2011)

who conducted a study on the impacts of phonics interventions in India found that there were

statistically significant differences between the intervention and control groups in the children’s

achievement in reading and spelling. Besides that, phonics awareness approach not only benefits

the ordinary children but it is an effective teaching method to improve the struggling children’s

reading ability (Meree et.al, 2011). This view is supported by Karen Edwards who found that the

phonics intervention had positive effects on secondary students who their reading ability below

grade level.

Methodology

The investigation was conducted in a National Primary school in the FELDA territory in

Jempol, Negeri Sembilan. The school district serves children from families of low to middle

socioeconomic status. The school has been considered an “Academic Watch” school owing to

low performance on national level academic proficiency tests. Participants in this study consisted

of 30 Malay children from one Year two classroom. The total sample was comprised of 13

females and 17 males. Parents’ permission to participate in this study was obtained for all 30

children. The instructor received training on phonic approach from the Ministry of Education

through the Native Speakers Programme. She was guided by the Native Speaker from London,

United Kingdom for 2 hours and 30 minutes per week.

Materials offered by Jolly Learning Ltd, “Jolly Phonics” (Llyod, 1992) were utilized in

this study. However, lesson plan and activity were designed specifically for this study. The

package used including the flashcard with printed letters on them shown to the children to sound

out as a class activity, blending cards used in lessons once the children had learnt the sounds,

textbook (provided by the Ministry of Education) consisting of stories, song and poems in order

for the children to learn the sound/letter for that day using the story, poem or song as a

mnemonic for the letter sound; and reading books for the children to practise their decoding

skills using sounds and letters taught thus far.

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Findings and discussion

Using a table of 42 sounds (Sue Llyod, 2011), thirty children from one Year Two

classroom were purposive selected to participate in this study.The study was conducted as one

group design experiment. All children were administered individually in a quiet room that

suitable for testing during the pre test. Pre tests are subsequently described, and they consisted of

phonemic awareness (phonemic segmenting and phonemic blending), word identification,

pseudo word naming and spelling measures to obtain initial performance levels on word

recognition prior to implementation of contemporary phonic approaches.

Means and standard deviations on all post test measures. A paired samples t-test was

conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention on children’s scores on the Reading Ability

through Phonics Approach Statistics Test. There was a statistically significant increase in

Reading Ability through Phonics Approach Statistics Test from Pre Test (M=-.58000,

SD=1.01077) to Post test (M=-1.83333, SD=1.32153), t (29)=-3.143, p<.000(two-tailed).

Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and it be concluded that there is significant different

between children’s pre reading ability and post reading ability mean. The mean increase in

Reading Ability through Phonics Approach Statistics Test scores was -0.38244 with 95%

Confidence Interval ranging from -.95743 to -1.33987. The eta squared statistics (-.56) indicated

a large effect size.

The data were powerful indicators that the phonics intervention was an effective way to

improve reading ability among the children. Through this approach we can see the improvements

were significant for all children in this study. It not only benefited to the good children but it will

be more meaningful to the struggling children. If the teacher knows the intervention can benefit

their children, then it is their responsibility to provide their children the tools they need for

success. The more children employed the phonics ‘tips’, the easier it was to read. The easier it

was for the children to read, the more they read because they were having success. The more

they felt success, the more they read and the better they became at reading. This one group

design experiment was a preliminary study that had positive effects on children’s reading ability.

A phonics intervention should be considered when the children are reading below grade level. It

is especially effective for the lowest performing children as they had the greatest grade level

growth. The children will have afforded opportunities with the improved skills thus they will be

more successful readers. Nevertheless, the phonics intervention may not the total answer to

children’s reading problems; however it will give children additional skills and tools to use.

Some may argue that through phonics intervention, children may only able to read words but that

does not mean they comprehend the text but how can the children comprehend the meaning of a

passage if they cannot read the words.

References

A.A.Roman, J.R. Kirby, R.K.Parrila et.al (2009). Toward a comprehensive view of the skills

involved in word reading in Grades 4,6, and 8. Journal of Experimental Children

Psychology,102:96-113

Ambigapathy Pandian (2006). English Language Teaching in Malaysia Today. Asia Pacific

Journal of Education, 22:2:35-52

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Department of Curriculum Development, Ministry of Education.(2011) Retrieved from:

http://kssrperak.weebly.com

John Ashbrook (2010). Learning a ‘new language’- The Objective Approach to Early

Literacy in English. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and

Practice in Educational Psychology, 26(3):219-238

Karen Edwards (2008). Examining the impacts of phonics intervention on secondary

students’ reading improvements. Educational Action Research, 6(4):545-555.

Margaret J. Snowling & Charles Hulme (2006).Language skills, learning to read

and reading intervention, London Review of Education, 4(1): 63-76

Meree Reynolds, Kevin Wheldall &Alison Madeline (2011). What Recent Reviews Tell Us

About the Efficacy of Reading Interventions for Struggling Readers in the Early

Years of Schooling. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education,

58(3):257-286.

Pam Macdonald (2010). Paired reading: A Structured Approach to Raising Attainment in

Literacy. Support for Learning, 25(1): 15-23

Pauline Dixon, Ian Schagen & Paul Seedhouse (2011). The Impacts of An Intervention on

Children’s Reading and Spelling Ability in Low –income Schools in India. School

Effectiveness and School Improvement: An International Journal of Research, Policy

and Practice, 22(4):461-482

Sue Lloyd (1992).The Phonics Handbook (3rd

Edition).United Kingdom: Jolly Learning Ltd.

Suria Mohd Yasin, Selajothi M.S. & Norehan M.Nooh (2011).Standard Based Curriculum

for Primary Schools: Textbook English Sekolah Kebangsaan Year 2. Malaysia:

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Timothy Rasinski, Susan Homan & Marie Biggs (2009). Teaching Reading Fluency to

Struggling Readers: Method, Materials, and Evidence. Reading & Writing Quarterly:

Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 25:2(3), 192-204

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Tertiary students’ perceptions of the impact of Reader Theatre activities in an ESL

classroom

M.Indrani, P.Dhayapari, Intan Safinas Mohd Ariff Albakri, Noria Ismail

UiTM Kuala Pilah, UiTM Seri Iskandar, Perak, UPSI, Perak, UiTM Segamat, Johor

Readers’ Theatre - Reading and Oral Skills Enhancement

Readers’ Theatre is a reading aloud performance by a group of students. During the performance,

the students would read aloud a script held in one hand. Each student would be given a specific

role to read out, including the role of a narrator which is often the most important. The narrator

conveys the story’s setting, actions and scenes transition. The main aim is to read in such a

way that the audience will be able to visualize the characters from the story come alive and be

absorbed in the story. To achieve this aim, the readers must focus on their voice projection, facial

expressions and some gestures. This is important because in Readers’ Theatre, actions are

restricted. Instead of moving around and acting out like a drama, students performing Readers’

Theatre stay in a line or semicircle as they read the script aloud.

Although RT has been defined in several different ways, researchers have agreed that it has five

basic characteristics as described in detail by Ng (2003):

i. There is selective and limited use of scenery and costumes.

ii. Voices, retrained gestures and facial expressions project the mood.

iii. A narrator usually describes the setting, action, character or mood.

iv. Each actor uses a physical script.

v. Effort is made to develop a close relationship between the performer and audience.

Why Readers’ Theater?

Readers’ Theatre instills in students the love for reading aloud activity. It is highly

motivational and is truly convenient for classroom instruction, because unlike the

traditional drama it is considered ‘no frill’ performance. This is because to perform a

Readers’ Theatre, students do not need to come up with elaborate stage props, costumes

or make-up. All that is necessary is a script and some minimal props if desired. This is

especially important because while performing, students are not allowed to move about

or hold too many things because they already have a script in one hand.

Unlike conventional theatre or drama, RT is motivating friendly classroom activity

because it does not require full costumes, stage sets and memorization of scripts.RT is

particularly important in developing reading and oral skills. Scripted dialogues provide

EFL students with the opportunity to express their thoughts and ideas (Adams, 2003). In

addition, scripted dialogues have often been used in the language classroom to enable

students to acquire the vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax of English speech

(Berlinger, 2000). As they involve all aspects of language use, scripts that are rehearsed

in class can offer students an authentic communicative context to practice spoken

English. . To implement RT in the classroom, students first read a story, and then

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transform the story into a script through negotiations with other group members. The

students then rehearse their scripts by reading aloud their lines, paying attention to the

way they articulate the words in the script, varying their tone and projecting their voice.

They finally perform for an audience by reading aloud from their scripts held in their

hands.

Educators and researchers in language and education have long emphasized reading

aloud activity for literacy and language learning. In fact Readers’ Theatre is strongly

recommended by The International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Council

of Teachers of English (NCTE).

This is because Readers’ Theatre:

Motivates students to read in reading class (Carrick, 2001)

Provides interesting script reading activity for fun learning (Harris and Sipay, 1990)

Provides a context for purposeful reading (Coody,1992)

Reinforces the social nature of reading (Busching, 1981)

Energizes students to be actively involved in responding to and interpreting literature thus

increasing comprehension (Sebesta, 1997).

Encourages cooperative learning and enables students with mixed abilities to work

together as a team. (Flood, 1993)

RT was implemented via several steps. The researchers first selected a story and

conducted a pre-reading activity ( reading aloud within their groups) , questioning,

explaining the vocabulary, etc) to get students to familiarize with the storyline. Next, we

provided tips for the script writing and instructed the students to write a script based on

the stories selected by the respective groups. When the their scripts were completed,

editing was done by the researchers and rehearsal of the scripts was mostly done after

class hours.The researchers then assessed the students’ performance through a Readers

Theatre evaluation rubric. Once they had performed in front of the class their

performance was recorded and played back so that students could comment on their

peers’ performance.

Based on the qualitative data from the students’ reflective journal entries and our notes on

the students’ learning behaviours. Feedback and comments from total of 30 individuals

were collected and analyzed. We then organized the feedback and comments into two

categories:

i. Students’ perception towards RT as a language learning experience, and

ii. Students’ perception towards RT as a way to enhance their oral and written English.

(i) Experienced fun writing and reading the scripts and enjoyed the performance

(ii) Learnt to speak English fluently and improved my vocabulary.

Many of our students had no previous experience with drama and when we first

introduced we were unsure of their interest and performance.Once RT was introduced we

were pleasantly surprised to observe their enthusiasm and willingness to participate in the

RT activity and their comments in their journal entries showed that they enjoyed RT and

it was a motivating approach to learning English. For example, one student had a lot of

fun writing and performing the script. Overall, RT activity provided a positive experience

for her:

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I was really motivated gained my confidence doing this activity.I was never confident of

myself to speak and read fluently in English. However, it was really challenging to work

on script writing. We wrote the script, practiced and when not happy with it we did

editing and learnt to summarise the story line too. There were so many steps to go

through and working in a team was challenging. Overall all my group members improved

our presentation skills and learnt to speak fluently in English.

Many students provided similar feedback, and some expressed anxiety and apprehension.

One student commented feeling nervous acting in front of an audience and felt it was

difficult to cooperate with other group members especially when writing the script.

The researchers’ experience with using RT in ESL classroom is that,it contributes to the

enhancement of teaching oral and written English proficiency. In order to carry out RT

successfully in the classroom, the teacher should give clear instructions to the students.

The teacher also needs to ensure that every student is involved by getting students to

create sufficient characters in relation to the story. The teacher may include the role of a

narrator to create the atmosphere for the play RT can be an effective teaching technique

to motivate not only beginners but also intermediate and advance EFL students in

developing oral and written English proficiency.

References:

Adams, W. (2003). Institute book of Readers Theatre: A practical guide for school, theatre and

community. Chapel Hill, NC: Professional Press.

Berlinger, M. (2000). Encouraging English expression through script-based improvisations. The

Internet TESL Journal Website. Retrieved July 2005, from http://www.aitech.ac.jp

Busching, B.A. (1981). Readers’ Theatre: An education for language and life. Language Arts,

58, 330-338.

Carrick, L.U. (2000). The effects of Readers Theatre on fluency and comprehension in fifth grade

students in regular classrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Lehigh University.

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.

Coody, B. (1992). Using literature with young children (4th ed.). Debuque, IA: William C.

Brown.

Dixon, N., Davies, A., & Politano, C. (1996). Learning with Readers Theatre. Winnipeg, AB:

Peguis.

Felton, M., Little, G., Parsons, B., & Schaffner, M. (1984). Drama, language, and learning.

NADIE Papers, I. Australia: National Association for Drama in Education.

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Poker Card Game:

A Chatting Booster To Assist Esl Students In Group Discussion

Razanawati Nordin (Universiti Teknologi MARA Kedah)

Poker card game or playing cards is a universal game around the globe. It has been around since

the 9th century in ancient China during the Tang dynasty. For the card game to survive for over

1200 years, it definitely has its powerful strength to overcome the cultural diversity and multiple

major facelifts. For obvious reasons, people indulge into poker card game due to its

competitiveness, interaction, addiction, stimulation, excitement and relaxation. Thus, based on

the poker card game concept, ESL teachers should bring the nature of competitiveness,

interaction, addiction, stimulation, excitement and relaxation into the classrooms.

In order to bring the poker card game into the ESL classroom, there are a few transformations to

be performed. The classic icons such as the diamonds, spades, cloves, queens and kings have to

go. The replacement will be a set of cards containing English communicative “chatty” phrases.

By placing 52 different communicative phrases on 52 different cards, students will be exposed to

a variety of accurate language expression. During the first exposure, most ESL students are

curious to discover different expressions for different functions. The card game also becomes

the catalyst that helps to overcome the student’s fear in speaking. The obvious fears among ESL

students are to search the correct words, to construct the accurate sentences, and to present

relevant ideas. To reduce the speaking fear, students are required to play using card. The word

play itself carries the connotation of relax and fun. As the result, students will able to speak in

English and participate freely.

Cooperative Learning

Dr. Spencer Kagan (1996) defined cooperative learning as an interactive teaching strategy used

in the classrooms with students of diverse levels of ability. One of Dr. Kagan’s 52 Cooperative

Learning Structures is called the Response Mode Chips (RMC). The RMC contains response

modes such as Summarizing, Giving an Idea, Praising an Idea. Futhermore, the basic rules of

RMC are students are to put the chips in the center each time they talk, and they cannot speak

until all chips are in the center and collected. Students who engaged in RMC are focussed in

developing their Mutiple Intelligences (Verbal /Linguistics, Interpersonal/Social) and also

improved their thinking skills, communication skills and information sharing (Kagan, 1996).

However, most ESL students fail to utilize appropriate language expressions and vocabulary

during group discussion. They constantly repeat the same incorrect expressions, fail to construct

grammatical sentences and at the end, the whole discussion was cut short due to their failure to

maintain discussion by recommending, suggesting and responding to the group. The discussion

would be very boring with limited creativity and without coherence. As a result the discussion

would lack unity and organization. Students’ inability to use appropriate language expressions

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and vocabulary during group discussion might be due to the limited vocabulary that they have

and also lack of confidence in speaking English. So, the writer made adjustment on the RMC so

that students are able to responds correctly. Instead on having instructions, the writer put correct

language expression on the cards (See below for illustration).

Preparation for teachers. Before bringing the card game into the classroom,

teachers should introduce the format of a group discussion and the basic language expressions of

different functions. Teachers may identify any different functions but these are the best

functions: to greet, to initiate, to make suggestions, to agree, to disagree, to interrupt, to clarify,

to give reasons, and to conclude. Then, the teacher should print the variety of language

expression, photocopy the cards on colourful 160 g papers and cut papers into 2.5 inches x 3.5

inches (See below for sample). It seems like hard work but in the long run, the cards can be

reused and recycled.

Instruction for students. The instruction given by the teacher to the students should be

clear and specific. Here are the instructions to be explained in the classroom:

1. Students are placed in groups of four. Their sitting position should be facing one

another.

Good morning / afternoon, I bid

to our examiners & fellow candidates / friends

[TO GREET]

Firstly,

I would highlight …

[TO GIVE OPINION]

Let’s start / begin by discussing…

[TO INITIATE]

What do you suggest?

[TO ASK QUESTION]

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2. Each group is given a set of cards (of the same colour).

3. Teacher explains how to play the cards

i. A student shuffles the cards.

ii. A student distributes the cards evenly to group members.

iii. They are given 1 minute to browse through their cards.

iv. Students are allowed to ask for explanation regarding the language

expressions on the cards.

v. Then, teacher gives a situation (Justin Bieber is a great artist, If I were a

billionaire, etc.)

vi. Students begin the discussion based on the given situation.

vii. Each response expressed by students should make use of the language

expression on the cards.

viii. The session continues till the last card is used.

ix. Winner is decided on whoever manages to finish all his or her cards first.

4. When complete the discussion, a student will reshuffle and deal cards.

5. Then, teacher gives the next situation.

6. Repeat step 4 and 5.

Let the game begins. The card is a license to speak. If the student decides to speak, he

may pick the card and speak out his opinion. For every turn when card is used in the response,

the student must place the card on the centre of the table. The student needs to say the

expression out loud and form a sentence of opinion on the given situation. The beauty of the

card game is there is no specific turn-taking. But, the cards will guide the owner to respond and

speak. Lastly, students are not allowed to rush the discussion.

To sum up, the poker card game does not involve betting and yet it is fun. The concept is

simple, light, user-friendly, wireless, flexible, durable, diverse usage and entertaining for

teachers and students to use in the classroom. It is usually popular among students as they find it

easy and effective. The card also successfully encourages participation among students in group

discussion, collaborates communication skills, accommodates tactile and kinaesthetic ESL

learners (fully utilised different learning style) and lastly overcomes fear of discussing. The

usefulness of the cards is to maintain rapport, generate listening skill, and give appropriate

context to respond. The cards also assist the students by giving them the samples of correct form

and functions. The students also manage to correct each other while using the cards. So, the

cards are not only the platform for students to express their views and encourage interaction in

group but also a chatting booster for the discussion.

References

Kagan, S. (1989). Cooperative Learning Resources for Teachers. San Juan Capistrano, Calif.

Resources for Teachers.

Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing, 1994.

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Kagan, S. (1996). Structural approach to cooperative learning. Retrieved from

http://www.horseheadsdistrict.com/ir/kagan/s41.htm

Kagan, S. (2001). Kagan Structures for Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved from Kagan Online

Magazine., 4(4). http://www.kaganonline.com/Newsletter/index.html

Ellis, S. & Whalen, S. (1992). Keys to Cooperative Learning: 35 ways to keep kids responsible,

challenged, and most of all, cooperative. Instructor.

Kagan, S. (2011). Cooperative Learning – Quick References Guide of Kagan Structures.

Retrieved from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/82728737/Kagan-Team-Building

Staples, J. (1992). Common Models of Cooperative Learning. NRC G/T Executive Summary

Report, Ann Robinson.

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It’s Just English In The Classroom

Kalairani Nadasan & Jeswant Kaur (Pin Hwa High School, Klang)

Background to the study

Teaching English in a Chinese medium school, in the suburbs, where students do not see the

relevance of the language is an uphill task. The school where I work is relatively a big school

with approximately 1500 students and motivating all of them to learn English is like being on

battle-front each day. There are a lot of factors that influence the students learning habits but one

that calls for attention is the students’ general attitude towards learning English. The lack of

exposure due to their background has helped little in enabling them to appreciate the language on

the whole and the immediate surroundings which does not necessitate the learning of the

language has further cast a shroud over the acquisition of the language for both academic and

personal development. In addition, it is difficult to get good, experienced teachers as most young

teachers rather work in the city. The school has been, for the last 7 years using Just English

language books in the classrooms. The move has brought about tremendous positive changes in

the teaching and learning of English Language among the teachers as well as the students. This is

reflected in the students’ progress where it has been growing consistently upwards with

justifiable percentage in both the Junior and Senior levels Chinese school examinations. Just

English (JE) books are designed to utilize the latest approaches and techniques for teaching

English. Students learn the four skills in an integrated mode and in context. Books used at each

level cover the four skills as well as grammar. The Just English Activating Language through

Speaking series introduces structure, and then vocabulary, pronunciation through contextual

listening activities and exercises, which are taken across to produce speech and writing. Some

formal structure practice is included to give students direction in language use. The listening and

speaking skills help students not only to boost their confidence to speak the language but also

their writing. The Just English reading and writing books takes students through the steps in the

writing process for each essay genre, as well as address grammar and structure points relevant to

the writing. For both first and second language learners, extensive reading also significantly

promotes grammatical fluency and a command of the syntactic resources of the language

(Krashen, 1993). Reading also gives the students content knowledge on a range of topics. The

Just English reading series give students this exposure.

The study A study was carried out to assess the effectiveness of the Just English books series in teaching

and learning. The study was carried out among the elementary level students of Pin Hwa High

School. A total of 356 students from Junior 1 and Junior 2 were involved in the study. The

students were given a pre-test: on Grammar and on Writing, prior to the teaching of the

structures and the writing genres. Results of the tests were computed. Then using the Just

English books, the students were taught the relevant structures and given practice exercises from

the books. After 12 weeks of teaching, post-tests were administered. The post-test was similar

but not identical to the pre-test. Results of the tests were compared.

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The findings

Descriptive statistics were calculated on students’ test results. The total mark for the test was 70.

In the pre-test, 97 students failed scoring less than 35. In the post-test, students with scores less

than 35 were 21. Scores of the post-test showed a marked increase in numbers getting scores

above 50 out of a total of 70. In the post-test the percentage of students scoring more than 50 out

of a total of 70 was 46% as compared to only 12% in the pre-test.

Conclusions

The current study is not without limitations. The following report is based on a small-scale

attempt to seek some answers but the overall findings are sufficiently robust to at least merit

serious consideration. Teaching using any reputable book can result in effective learning taking

place. Similar results may have been acquired using any other book but this study was carried

out to assess if the Just English books, which are relatively new in the market, can achieve

similar objectives. The findings of this study show that teaching using these books does and can

lend to effective learning. So it can be concluded that these books are effective in helping

students learn language.

The books itself may not be the answer to higher test scores. Teachers teaching and the way the

material is used are also instrumental in improving scores. Just English books are very user-

friendly for both the teacher and the student. Books come with manuals and CDs (audio, video,

power point slides) for teachers. This makes it very easy for the teacher to instruct in a

systematic manner. Units and lessons are accompanied by exercises which are graded from

guided practice to free practice. This enables step-by-step learning of the language. And, the

books are a workbook in itself.

The books address all the four skills, but unlike other publishers, JE does not have all the four

skills packaged into one book. The purpose of this is to ascertain that teachers do target teaching

of the skills in detail and do not gloss them over as can be the case when all skills are put

together on the same page. It also allows for easy spot referencing and revising.

Teachers, students and parents want teaching-learning materials that are effective in producing

results and books that are affordable. The Just English books are designed to improve one’s

mastery of language. They are packaged in progression of levels. A level one book can be used

by a 12-year old or a 14-year old, depending on the individual’s entry level. To top it all, the

books are very affordable.

Note

JUST ENGLISH books used in the study – Elementary level:

-Activating Language through Speaking 2

-Developing Reading and Writing Skills

Selected references:

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Daiker, D.A., Kerek, A., & Morenberg, M. (1990). The writer's options: Combining to

composing (4th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Harris, R. J. (1962). An experimental inquiry into the functions and value of formal grammar in

the teaching of English, with special reference to the teaching of correct written English to

children aged twelve to fourteen. PhD thesis, University of London.

Krashen, S.D. (1993). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Englewood, CO:

Libraries Unlimited.

Weaver, C. (1996). Teaching grammar in context. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook

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Motivation For Students And Teachers In The Esl Classroom

Sumitra Ravindran Naidu / Deeya S. Menon (ELS Language Centres)

Motivation is defined as “some kind of internal drive that pushes someone to do things in order

to achieve something (Harmer, 2001:51 quoted in Suslu, 2006 Test Journal Vol XII No 1). The

presence of motivation allows us to achieve great heights and the lack of it can cause great

downfall. L2 learning would probably bring forth more difficulties and more need for motivation

than learning in general as it involves the more complex study of all the intricacies of language

such as lingo, rhetoric, sarcasm, and humor, apart from the general form and function of all the

many facets of the language. Dornyei referred to it as ‘the multifaceted nature of language’ (2).

There have been numerous studies done into this, from Gardner and Lambert to Deci and Ryan

to Weiner among many others. How can students and teachers maintain a high level of

motivation in every class? This extended abstract will attempt to highlight the key factors that

affect motivation in the classroom, and include functional and practical strategies in applying

motivation in teaching and learning.

Motivation Theories

The grandfather of educational motivational theories was that of Robert Gardner and his

colleagues in the 1970s. This theory basically consists of two parts: integrativeness and

instrumentality. Integrativeness is the desire of the L2 student to fit in to the L2 community

culturally and linguistically. The learner wants very much to be accepted by L2 peers and be like

them in all possible ways. Instrumentality refers to the usefulness of acquiring the L2 in the areas

of employment, education and better income, among others (2). Beginning in the 1990s, there

was an influx of research into this field and new studies emerged, from researchers such as

Dornyei, Clement, Kruidenier, Skehan, Oxford and Shearin.

One of these theories has become well known in the field of L2 motivation: intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. This theory was developed by Deci and Ryan and, as the name suggests,

shows the difference between motivation that comes from external factors and motivation that

comes from within. Extrinsic motivation can be caused by a prize or reward upon completion,

such as high marks or accolades. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation is fueled by self-

satisfaction, satisfying curiosity and feeling good about fulfilling a task. In addition to these,

Deci and Ryan also suggested the self-determination theory, which, according to them, is

essential for intrinsic motivation to take place. In this case, self-determination can be equated to

autonomy. At the same time, they also introduced four sub-divisions of extrinsic motivation,

namely external regulation – motivation comes completely from the outside, introjected

regulation – rules that come from the outside that the learner accepts to be regular even if not

agreeing fully, identified regulations – rules that the learner sees as useful and necessary, and

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integrated regulation – rules that the learner completely identifies with and are part and parcel of

everyday life (3).

Weiner suggests three major cognitive aspects of motivation: attribution theory, learned

helplessness and self-efficacy theory. Attribution theory is where a student bases his potential

success or failure on past successes or failures. His studies show that this is more prevalent

among L2 learners. Learned helplessness is the attitude that the student won’t be able to succeed

at learning. The learner may have a negative attitude and doesn’t put in any effort towards goal

achievement. Lastly, self-efficacy, which comes up rampantly in L2 motivation literature, refers

to “an individual’s judgment of his or her ability to perform a specific action” (Dornyei). In this

case, it is not so much success or failure that matter, but the learner’s attitude towards this

success or failure. If there has been failure in the past, the impact of which had been reduced by

supportive teachers or parents, it would not influence the learner’s self-confidence towards

learning. On the subject of self-confidence, implementing realistic goals is key. Self-confidence

can be classified as a person’s belief that he/she is able to achieve a set goal or task. For this

reason, setting realistic goals is the best way for a learner to acquire immediate incentives via

mini-goals set and larger rewards via end of target goals set (7).

Lastly, the need to achieve is a very strong motivating factor. In this case, the more successful L2

learners will be the ones who are more driven and find great satisfaction in achieving goals (2).

More specific to learning situations, motivating factors can be divided into three categories:

motivational components specific to the course, to the teacher and to the group.

Course-specific. From the aspect of the course being taught, Crookes and Schmidt (cited by

Dornyei, MLJ 1994) have identified four main factors that can be used as describers. Firstly,

there is interest. This could be applied to both teacher and student where motivation to perform

will be high if the subject matter piques the interest of both parties and the desire to learn

intrinsically drives the lesson.

Secondly, there is relevance, which means that the student will be keener to learn when they

understand how learning the L2 applies to, and will be useful in, their lives. Following that, there

is expectancy. Again, this factor relates to teacher and learner as it is the end result that matters

here. From the point of view of the learner, this factor involves areas such as the perceived

difficulty of the L2, the amount of effort that is required along with the availability and

effectiveness of the teacher. On the other hand, the teacher will have expectations of certain

results, involvement of the student and outcome of lessons planned, and these will be the driving

force towards a successful lesson.

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Satisfaction is the final factor in this area, which also can be looked at from both sides. The

teacher will surely gain satisfaction from student achievements. The student will gain satisfaction

when goals are achieved, and when praise is received; whether as praise or good grades

(extrinsic) or as pride in his or herself or self-satisfaction (intrinsic).

Teacher specific. Affiliative drive plays a very important role in teacher specific motivation in

the learning environment. The desire to please the teacher will make the learner strive to greater

heights, in exams, communicative ability and task completion. The rewards could be extrinsic –

praise and reward, and intrinsic – admiration and loyalty to the teacher and the desire to be seen

as a good student in the teacher’s eyes.

The teacher’s authority type is the next component to this area of learning situation motivation.

A teacher who overly controls the classroom is not going to enhance motivation in the

classroom, as research shows that autonomy is what works best for it to be intrinsically

rewarding (Deci and Ryan).

Lastly, the role of the teacher in socializing student motivation is another key area. The teacher

functions as a model in the classroom and he or she should be motivated, interested and driven in

order to get the same from the students. The tasks should be presented dynamically and

interestingly and positive reinforcement given via feedback.

Group specific. There has been an abundance of evidence that people learn in groups much better

than individually. This applies across the board from young learners to adult learners (Dornyei).

Therefore, this is an important motivating factor in the learning situation. For group dynamics to

be a successful motivating factor the group should have the same end goal and there needs to be

an accepted reward system.

How to motivate students. There are of, course, many ways to practice motivation in the

classroom. The following are ten suggestions that could work for ESL students from the very

young to the more senior. (2, 5, 6)

Make the lesson relevant to the students. Pop culture is a great way to gain and focus attention.

Keep abreast with what is interesting to the students and incorporate that into the lesson as much

as possible.

Expose learners to L2 environment and cultures. When learners understand the world that will

open up to them after mastering the L2, they will be much more likely to get motivated.

Exposing learners to music, movies and establishing pen pals are useful ways to do this.

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Set collective goals. Set aside some time at the beginning of a session to decide on some

common goals. Write these up and put them somewhere visible so that students are reminded of

them as the class progresses. This promotes autonomy and self determination also.

Games and competitions. Winning is a motivating force in many cultures and societies. Have

mini games within the lesson and reward the winners with a small prize. An example of a game

would be such as writing as many adjectives as possible in 30 seconds.

Realia. Particularly for lower level learners, bringing actual items into the classroom can speed

up understanding and therefore motivation levels. For students’ assignments, they an also be

encouraged to do the same.

Keep the lesson varied. In order to avoid complacency and boredom, and to keep students on

their toes, teachers should try to vary lessons as much as possible. Use different techniques,

different kinds of activities and materials, and rewards systems.

Make sure tasks are level specific. If the task is too difficult for students, goals set will not be

achieved. This will set the tone for the opposite of a motivated classroom as students’ self –

esteem drops. Tasks selected must provide challenge while being achievable with some effort.

Encourage group dynamics. When students see their classmates as allies and sources of learning,

there will be more solidarity in the classroom and this will create an atmosphere of heightened

motivation and interest. Do lots of groupwork right from the start and encourage students to

discuss questions and answers with their partners, focusing on things they could learn from each

other and help each other with.

Focus on the positive. While error correction is essential in L2 teaching and learning, it must be

done with sensitivity and heavy focus should be placed on what was correct before pointing out

what was wrong.

Be a model of interest and motivation. The teacher is the centre of the classroom and can be the

ultimate role model to exude interest in the L2. A teacher who is obviously ‘going through the

motions’ will not succeed in producing a dynamic classroom environment.

Teacher Motivation

Whatever a teacher does has a motivational and formative influence on students. In other words,

teacher behavior is a powerful "motivational tool" (Dornyei, 2001: 120). For Alison (1993), a

key element is to establish a relationship of mutual trust and respect with the learners, by means

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of talking with them on a personal level. This mutual trust could lead to enthusiasm. At any rate,

enthusiastic teachers impart a sense of commitment to, and interest in, the subject matter, not

only verbally but also non-verbally - cues that students take from them about how to behave. It is

believed that if there is desire for learners to be motivated, the teachers should be motivated as

well. What keeps a teacher motivated and to what extent does their motivation help contribute to,

and maximize the learning of, their students in a classroom?

Strategies for teacher motivation. Emotional management – Being able to manage your

emotions is having the coping skills that can inevitably lead to improved cognition (Eich,

Kihlstrom, Bower, Forgas, & Niedenthal, 2000 as quoted in Falout, 2010). This, in turn, does not

only affect you but also the people whom you interact with. The top ten most commonly used

emotional strategies are

1. To meet and maintain relationships with people who make you feel good

2. Occupying yourself with work

3. Be involved in activities that keep you excited

4. Strive to resolve problems

5. Use humor in situations

6. Be mindful of people’s feelings

7. Be aware of things turning sour

8. See yourself in a good mood as much as possible

9. Do not pay attention to things that do not bother you, i.e. ‘don’t sweat the small

things’

10. Constantly believe that you are in control

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Joining communities. To avoid feeling stressed or burned out (Gayson and Alvaraez, 2007 as

quoted in Falout, 2010), teachers should commit to social support groups, or any form of

organizations, that can help to reach personal and mutual goals with other teachers.

Boosting efficacy. The two underlying psychological factors that stimulate professional

development and job satisfaction in a teacher lie in the teacher’s professional effectiveness

and the classroom’s effectiveness. (Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009 as quoted in Falout, 2010).

It is important to be able to commit to attainable goals while maintaining hope through

certain strategies such as the motioned in the Agentive and Pathway Thinking Checklist

(excerpted from Synder, 1994, pp.239-240, 254 as displayed in Falout, 2010): Learn new

skills when required to reach a certain goal, have two-way friendships where giving and

receiving advice can be nurtured, mentally rehearse scripts when you encounter a blockage,

and avoid blaming yourself for something that was not workable; rather just conclude that the

strategy was not practical.

Motivation through interaction and worthwhile tasks. Applying the right teaching techniques

through various interactions in the lesson structure to maximize student’s motivation is seen

to be another method in teacher’s motivation.

Motivation due to environment. There are two factors that need to be taken into consideration

when it comes to creating an environment that maximizes the students learning rate. Having a

routine, to a certain extent, and discipline can help students feel that there is a need for them

to meet the teacher’s expectations.

References:

1. Steers, Richard, M. and Lyman W. Porter. (1991). Motivation and Work Behavior.

New York: Macgraw-Hill. Inc. Lincoln.

2. Falout, Joseph (2010) Straterges for Teacher Motivation. The Language Teacher

:34.6

3. Alison, J. 1993. Not bothered? Motivating reluctant language learners in Key

Stage 4: London: CILT.

4. Dornyei, Z. 2001. Teaching and Researching Motivation. England: Pearson

Education Limited.

5. T. Lile, William. 2002. Motivation in the ESL Classroom ,The Internet TESL

Journal, Volume VIII No 1, Japan ( http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Lile-

Motivation.html)

6. Eich, E., Kihlstrom, J.F., Bower, G. H., Forgas, J.P., & Niedenthal, P.M. (2000).

Cognition and Emotion. New York: Oxford University Press

7. Eggleto, J. Patrick, Motivation: A key to Effective Teaching, Volume 3 No 2 The

Mathematics

8. Suslu, Sebnam, 2006. Motivation of ESL Teachers, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol

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1. XII, No 1 (http://iteslj.org/)

9. Hohnbaum, Bree (2012) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation of Teachers.

10. Dornyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom.

Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Web. September 2012.

12. Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language

Classroom. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.78, pp 273-284. Web.

September 2012.

13. Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic

Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25,

pp. 54–67. Web. September 2012.

14. Harmer, J (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education

Limited: England. Print.

15. Pearce, C. (2010). How To Motivate ESL Students: The 10 Best Ways to Increase Teenage

Student Motivation. www.busyteacher.org. Web. September 2012.

16. Oxford, R., Shearin, J. (1994). Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the

Theoretical Framework. The Modern Language Journal, Volume 78, Issue 1,

pages 12–28. Web. September 2012.

17. Weiner, Bernard (1992). Motivation. Encyclopedia of Education Research. 6th

ed,

vol 3, pp 860-865. Macmillan: New York. Web. September 2012.

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Teaching English Trough Drama

Mohd Ezwan Hussein bin Husni (ELS Language Centre)

Teaching English in school has now become a challenge in schools as we look

forward to find ways and methods to make the lesson interesting. Urban area students are

well versed in the language compared to those from the suburban area due to the exposure

from family, society and media whereas the students from the suburban and slightly bit

remote area will find it hard to understand the language. Even though there are vast

differences in the exposure, the teaching nonetheless is still the same. Teachers are faced with

challenges when students are either lax in their study of the language due to the overexposure

(Urban) or the students having a hard time trying to understand what the teacher is trying to

say despite the how simple the teachers have tried to make (suburban and remote). Students

get bored easily due to these reasons and tend to blank out whenever the teacher is in front

trying to teach them. Therefore the purpose of this workshop is to give and open up options to

teachers to find different ways to teach English in a slightly bit more fun way. With the

introduction of literature into the language teaching, students now have not just a hill but a

mountain to climb. What this workshop will do is show the students that the mountain is not

something that they have to fear but as an opportunity to make learning English more fun and

easily understood.

The workshop will be divided into 5 different parts: Writing, Reading, Speaking,

Listening and Presentation. In SPM, English Essays are divided into three parts, Summary,

Directed and Continuous Writing. This is perhaps the one part most students dread.

Regardless of how fluent or how confident they are in their speaking, putting it down n paper

is perhaps the one thing they don’t like to do. So, what is the best thing that you can do? Let

them write whatever they want (in a controlled environment of course). Tell them that they

have free reign on whatever they want to write and how long. This will relieve the pressure

on them and in a small way (or big) give them the opportunity to let their creativity flow.

Once they have done this, they will start to feel more relaxed and be afraid of writing so

much. In using Drama to teach writing, you can use any Literature text in the syllabus and

have them rewrite the text and turn them into a dialog or end it any way they like. Students

sometimes feel like some things should go in certain ways. So, let their creativity flow. Let

them write it out, how they feel the story should go or should end. All this should of course

be in a controlled environment as to not let the aesthetic value of the text change (too much).

By allowing them to do this, they will feel like they have control of what they are doing and

also indirectly make them read the text which they might find it boring.

The next skill is reading. Reading a text and not understanding the words and the

vocabulary is probably the fear of all weak students. This in hand generates the feeling of

incompetency and makes the students feel defensive and builds hatred or disinterest at the

language. Reading drama text or literature text can help the students find meaning and

understanding by using baby steps. Help them and guide them along the way and help them

generate interest in reading. It is not an easy task but it is a challenging one that can be

remedied by simply “choosing” the right text. Make it simple by choosing simple text and

stories. Do not give them facts instead give them fiction; simple fiction that they can

understand and relate too. As long as the texts are simple and interesting they can then try to

start creating their own stories. Stories that they can control and also stories that they find

interesting.

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The next part of this workshop is listening. When students are in front presenting their

stories, the skill of listening can be applied by simply posing questions to the listening

students. This technique may seem redundant therefore mix it up. Radio drama, music,

Television series, and conversations, these are also materials that we can use in class and get

the student interested. Music is one part of teenagers life. Having that in our arsenal of

teaching can be beneficial and also make the students more interested in learning the

language. We can advise them by learning the language, they can also better understand the

message that their favorite singer or singers are trying to pass on.

The one thing that a student fears the most in learning another language, is speaking,

one that can be remedied easily in terms of using drama. When they have the chance to

produce or write whatever they want, they will also feel comfortable with the sentences and

also in terms of the story. Whenever they feel comfortable, this can generate self confidence

in them to speak and also help them to feel comfortable using the language. It doesn’t have to

start big but it can start small and simple. No complicated words or sentences are needed in

the beginning as to help generate speaking skills; they must first be comfortable with the text

that they will read. When, we speak about speaking, one final aspect that will be touched is

presentation. Presenting in front of a crowd is perhaps the most nerve wrecking thing a

person can do. So, what better way for a student to build their confidence to present by letting

them dictate “what” and “how”. When the “what” and the “how” are in their control they will

feel a bit of confidence in talking and presenting in public. Putting everything above into

perspective, it may also be a method or a way for teachers to make their classroom lively and

more fun in learning a new language.

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Poetry Alive

Moomala binti Othman(Universiti Putra Malaysia)

Introduction

Research has shown that quite a number of teachers find teaching poem

daunting a task (Benton,1999). It has been reported, at the GCSE curriculum,

poetry has been slightly more marginalized and this has result ed in the

observed reticence behavior on the part of students enroll ing for language

courses at the university (Tome, 2009). In fact, there are some who think

poem is outdated and teaching it is irrelevant (Hughes, 2007).

But is poem really irrelevant?

Poem is a unique literary genre. This being the fact that it comes with a

specialized technical language: it is written in verse or stanza and via the

usage of meter, rhyme and imagery the aesthetics beauty of language is being

emphasized. Through these li terary devices, the poet conveys his ideas or

emotional experiences and this sets poem apart from the other literary

genre. Benton through his survey revealed the problem faced by teachers who

feel inadequate to deal with the technical aspect of poetry as they were not

given the necessary training (Benton ,1986).

In Pupil, Teacher, Poem (1986),Benton expressed” there is a real need to focus less on the

teaching of poetry and more on the “experience of it” strategies. This involves getting pupils

who can read poems to become engaged with them actively and to talk without teacher’s

domineering (Lookwood, 2011)

One of the ways of doing this is through multimedia. Through it, we take on the implications

of Rosenblat’s transactional theory ,“The words on the page constitute a lifeless text until the

poem is evoked” (1978)

Why multimedia?

Firstly, it is an opportunity to present poem away from the traditional print or

the pen and paper approach. Via digital , poem gets the chance to be lifted

from the printed pages and be represented in a novel way with the

amalgamation of sound, image and words altogether. In fact with the

presentation of poem via digital technology, students will get to see and

explore the relationship of text, image and sound in a dynamic manner.

Secondly, in today’s digital age youngsters spend hours logging on the

internet, face book, twi tter and my space. They are used to the digital

experience of reading texts combined with image, sound and words. Hence,

it makes sense to present poem through multimedia - it will assist their

understanding where they will get the opportunity to discuss, interpret and

mediate meaning by linking the image, sound and words. By this method,

learning becomes relevant and meaningful. Apart from that, they will enhance

their critical thinking skill.

Thirdly, via multimedia, students get the chance to “perform” poem when

they are given the task to create the poem. The fact that poem is concise,

brief and the message it conveys often is powerful, makes poem an excellent

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multimedia material to work on. Interactive programs such as power point,

movie maker or f lash give students the opportunity to make sense of poetry

and in the process they are “creating” existing poems and responding to it by

bringing their own interpretation.

Lastly, the multi - mode nature of the new media (visual, text and sound)

enables students to synthesize in a creative manner their interpretation of the

poem and language used, for example the metaphors found in the poem. And

in the process, the poem becomes theirs. As succinctly puts by Hughes

(2007), “creating poetry using new med ia views performance as a vehicle for

exploration and learning, rather than as a fixed product to be rehearsed and

delivered as a final event.” The performance via multimedia brings a new

breath to poetry in today’s society.

In this case study , using the multimedia program movie maker, three different

interpretations of the poem “fighter line” were produced by three students for their English

project paper. Using the multi-media, these three readers, were given an autonomy as

powerful as the writer’s to evoke a poem .

Poetry alive

Fighter’s line : A case study

Three students did a project paper on “Fighter’s line” where they were required to interpret

the poem “Fighter line” by Marzuki Ali and then create a video clip based on their

interpretation. Later they presented their work at Kuala Kangsar on the 16 February 2012 at

an in–house training course for the lower form English teachers . After the presentation, they

gave an explanation of their work and what it meant to them. This paper aims to give a

description of their work and their interpretation based on their presentation at Kuala

Kangsar.

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Fighter’s lines by Marzuki Ali

1.Interpretation One by Harith (The Arab Spring)

His video clips consist of 30 pictures of the Arab Spring. It contains powerful images of

young demonstrators caught in the mass demonstration or revolution in the recent Arab

World ,a picture of the former ruler of Libya, Mr. Muamir Gadafi and the ex President of

Egypt Mr.Hosni Mubarak. The clip was a dedication to the brave young demonstrators in

the recent Arab Spring. Towards the end of his video clip,Harithe included pictures of

demonstrations occurring elsewhere .

His message was change is inevitable and anything that gets in the way of the people’s

power will perish. The example that happened in the Middle East which was witnessed

worldwide, relayed this message of the inevitable power of the young people against injustice

in society.

I am old and worn

and have lost al l my st rength

sufferings

and the history of the fight for

independence

have forced sacrifices

that know no name

or l ife

from the wheelchair of the rest of my

days

I, body and energy crushed

see and cannot do much

these t imes are too big a challenge

for the remnants of my crippled years

the net of deceit spread everywhere

disturbs me.

In the name of justice

Wake up and form ranks sons of our

ancestor

Be brave

And erect a wall of people

Stand up heirs of our f reedom

I have no more voice

It is you now who should speak!

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2.Interpretation Two by Hareen (Iraq after the invasion)

The second clip is a bit messy .He uses movies in his video – clip. He had a video clip of the

song , “This is war” as a prologue. The clip shows pictures of an American soldier in a war,

ex-President Bush with the text the moment of Lie and President Kennedy , with the text ,

moment of truth. It is about the American invasion in Iraq. The song ends with a line, this

is a story about an old man trapped in a war (presumably the Iraq war) and the sufferings he

went through. There were gruesome images of the effect of the war. The whole video is one

long story about effects of that war . After those pictures he had the text , to those who were

not caught in the war., In the name of justice, wake up. (This is part of the poem).After this,

he had a picture of a soldier followed by a group of men preparing for a battle. The last two

clips was a picture of an old man and a young girl. These last two pictures were the only ones

not related to war.

The explanation given was the clip is about the situation in Iraq. It is messy. It started with

the mess created by the American invasion. Then when the American left , the old man asked

the young people not caught in the American invasion to wake up. But even after the

American had left , everything is still a mess- hence the messy image. There is now a

likelihood of a sectarian violent or a civil war . Hareen ends his clip by asking everyone to

ponder and ask how to solve this mess.

3.Interpretation Three by Afdzal (Malaysia Today)

The clip prepared is about Malaysia. In this clip, Afdzal showed a man sitting on a bench

with a caption, “relieving 54 years of Independence” Then he showed the movie clip of

Tunku Abdul Rahman at the Merdeka Stadium, shouting “Merdeka, Merdeka, Merdeka” .

This was followed by a powerful image of the Malaysian flag being in tatters with the

caption “ I am old and worn”. He showed the statue of bronze fallen soldiers at the Masjid

Negara, picture of old folks and the recent images of the “Bersih” rally with the caption

“these times are too big of a challenge”. This is followed by the caption” the net of deceit

spreads everywhere” with pictures of schoolchildren loitering, drugs among youth,

prostitution, uncouth youths, etc. Then, there is the text, “in the name of Justce, be brave “(

the lines from the poem). Towards the end of the clips, Afzdal had pictures of prominent

personalities such as Siti Norhaliza, Tony Fernandez, Nicole David, etc.

He explained his interpretation of the poem is on the local scene . After 54 years of

independence, Malaysia has undergone a lot of development and changes and presently the

youth are facing a lot of challenges – drugs, prostitution, etc . For these challenges, it is

obvious which is wrong and right. But the, “Bersih” rally is not clear cut. To him, the biggest

challenge is the Bersih Rally- for youth like him do not know who to believe.

In this case study, there were three different interpretations on the same poem, Fighter’s line.

How is this possible ?

There are three important yet powerful elements involved. The first is the text, which is

the poem itself. The poem carries powerful message/s in its concise brevity. Yet , the

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poem is a blueprint with latent clues or gaps which allow many shades of interpretation to be

made by the reader.

The next element is the Reader Response propounded by Rosenblatt (1978). According to

Rosenblatt, the reader’s interpretation is central rather than the author’s. This approach

encourages readers to interpret the poem by using their background knowledge and the text (

the author’s interpretation). In the process of trying to make sense of the poem, various

shades of interpretation are created.

The third element is the emergence of the new digital multimedia. The combination of

sound, visual, action or motion makes this digital multimedia a powerful tool. In poetry, it

enhances and transforms the “latent clues” in poems where different versions of meanings

of the poems are extrapolated. Students are savvy multimedia and by using a software such

as flash and movie maker , students create, perform and produce their own “poem”( Digital

Poem) , thus having a stake or an ownership in it. Hence, the claim made by Janet

(2011), “Poetry is a powerful medium for literacy and technology

development. ”

References

Tome, Marián Arribas. 2009. Teaching Poetry in Modern Languages Degree

Programmes at the Teaching Poetry in Modern Languages Degree

Programmes Conference , University of Exeter, UK.

Hughes, Janet. 2007. Poetry: A Powerful Medium for Literacy and

Technology Development in What works? Research into practice. Research

Monograph 7, 1-4.

Benton, P (1999). Unweaving the rainbow: Poetry teaching in the secondary

school 1, Oxford Review of Education , 26 (1), 81-93.

Rosenblatt, L (1978) The Reader, The Text , The Poem : The Transactional

Theory of Literary Work, Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Press

(reprint 1994)

Benton.P (1986) Pupil, Teacher, Poem. London.Hoddle & Stoughton.

Lockwood, Michael (2011) Bringing poetry alive : A guide to classroom practice. Sage

Publication: London

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Learning Together or Alone: On the Effect of Using 2 Types of Cloze Tasks on Gaining

Knowledge of Grammatical Features in EFL Classrooms

Naser Sabourian Zadeh & Masoume Ahmadi

Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

The teaching and using of group work and pair work has a history of research effort that

goes back for decades. The research done up to the present has identified that small groups

and pair work should be given prior attention as its positive influence on foreign language

learning outcomes has been rarely questioned (Long & Porter, 1985). Utilizing group and

pair work is one of the facets of communicative approach to L2 instruction which provides

learners with opportunities to use L2 (Canale & Swain, 1980). It is argued that peer

interactions as opposed to those traditional instructional atmospheres in which only possible

interaction was between teacher and his/her students, can potentially resolve considerable

part of issues existing in English learning (Slavin, 1983). Although the use of small

groups/pair work has been acknowledged in the literature to be supportive of L2 learning, it is

noteworthy that what really leads learners to greater acquisition of a foreign language

(English in this study) while working in small groups/pairs is ‘collaboration’. (Storch, 2002)

A second line of research concentrates on the role of output. Swain and Lapkin (1998)

suggested that using output tasks which prompts learners to produce some language could

function as a means for learners to focus on the more accurate production of grammatical

features. Task type also seemed to be influential on producing specific grammatical items

more accurately. In this regard, Storch (1999), in her research concluded that students were

not accurate on the choice of articles when doing cloze task–a task which focuses more

explicitly on grammatical features as Storch (1999) has put it−in pairs. On the contrary, the

selection of articles were done more accurately in tasks which required more production (text

reconstruction and composition), giving students more freedom to discuss different

grammatical choices. Due to somehow inconclusive results obtained in her research, Storch

called for further research in classroom setting to investigate the effect of pair work on

grammatical accuracy.

Based on Storch (1999) and to the best of the authors’ knowledge, research investigating

negotiation over grammatical forms is rare. Due to inconclusive findings in the previous

studies, there is clearly a need for further investigation on the efficacy of pair work on

grammatical accuracy. Further research is also needed due to the fact that none of the

previously conducted studies offered a structured setting regarding pair work to see whether

it has any influence on more accurate production of grammar. Therefore, the present study

addressed the three research questions as follow:

1. Do students working in pairs outperform those working individually on more

accurate completion of the cloze tasks?

2. Does implementing cloze task in the form of collaborative output jigsaw task make

any difference on more accurate completion of tasks?

3. Is there any difference in the effectiveness of collaboration on gaining knowledge

of three different grammatical features, i.e. past simple, past continuous, and

articles?

In order to fill the mentioned gap, the researchers carried out a study in an intact class of

14 Iranian male and female EFL learners at elementary level. In order for the effects of

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individual differences to be eliminated, this study used a within–subject design. At the

beginning of the 6th

session, a pretest was distributed among learners to measure their

knowledge on articles and verb tenses (namely simple past and past continuous). The pretest

was conducted to measure the students’ level of competence for the target grammatical items.

The learners first were introduced to the grammatical items under focus through a mini

lesson. The class was randomly divided into 3 pairs and 8 individuals. Each individual and

each pair received a cloze task in a written form. Eight individuals were required to fill in the

gaps individually. However, the other six completed the task in pairs. When the assignments

were finished, pairs received and accomplished a jigsaw cloze task.

Next class, there was the second treatment session in which exactly the same procedures

were repeated. But the only difference was that a counterbalanced order was chosen, i.e. the

participants who had completed the tasks in pairs during the first session, did the second

cloze task individually during the second session and those as individuals accomplished the

tasks in pairs at second treatment session. After finishing the tasks, the participants were

given an immediate posttest. The pretest and posttest were each comprised of 15 multiple

choice questions adopted from Objective tests in English as a foreign language by Bloor,

Bloor, Forrest, Laird, and Relton (1970). They were the same in terms of format and level of

difficulty but their only difference was in the selection of vocabulary and context of items.

The analysis first compared the learner’s success in completing tasks collaboratively and

individually. So, learners’ performance in each task was examined in terms of the

accuracy of producing the target items when they completed the tasks. Learners’

responses to the target items were scored as either accurate or inaccurate.

A one-way ANOVA was run to probe the effect of three different methods of task

accomplishment; namely, individual, pair work in cloze tasks and pair work in the jigsaw

cloze task, on more accurate completion of tasks. The three groups enjoy homogenous

variances, an assumption that must be met for an appropriate one-way ANOVA design. The

Levene's F of 3.14 has a probability of .06. Since the probability associated with the Levene's

F is higher than the significance level of .05, it can be concluded that the three groups enjoy

homogenous variances. The F-observed value for the effect of accomplishment methods is

2.398 (Table 1). This amount of F-value is higher than the critical value of 2.3 at 2 and 25

degrees of freedom.

Table 1: Task performance by Different Accomplishment Methods

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between

Groups 42.964 2 21.482 2.398 .112

Within Groups 224.000 25 8.960

Total 266.964 27

Based on these results it can be concluded that accomplishment methods have significant

effects on task performance. Doing pair work through jigsaw cloze task had the highest mean

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score on task performance, i.e. 11.14. This is followed by pair work through cloze task (8.57)

and individual work (5.57).

As displayed in Table 2;

A: There is a significant difference between the individual work and pair work in cloze tasks

mean scores on task accomplishment. The paired learners outperformed the individuals on

task accomplishment with a mean score of 8.57.

B: There is a significant difference between the individual works and pair works of learners

in jigsaw tasks mean scores on task accomplishment. The paired learners in this group

outperformed the individuals on task accomplishment with a mean score of 11.14.

C: There is a significant difference between pair works of learners in jigsaw tasks and pair

works of learners in cloze tasks mean scores on task accomplishment. The learners in jigsaw

tasks outperformed the other pairs on task accomplishment with a mean score of 11.14.

Table 2: Post-Hoc Scheffe's Tests

(I)

Accomplishment

methods

(J)

Accomplishment

methods

Mean

Difference

(I-J)

Std.

Error Sig.

95% Confidence

Interval

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Individual work paired. Cloze 3.00000* 1.38564 .117 -6.6054 .6054

paired. Jigsaw 5.71430* 1.38564 .919 -4.1769 3.0340

paired. Jigsaw Paired. Cloze 2.42857* 1.60000 .332 -6.5918 1.7346

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

According to what went, the first and second research question were positively

answered. Based on the aforementioned results, not only pair work but also type of task has

positive effect on more accurate completion of tasks.

The third research question addressed the differences in the effectiveness of collaboration

on acquiring knowledge of three different grammatical features, i.e. past simple, past

continuous, and articles. In order to investigate any significant difference between pretest and

posttest, a paired-sample t-test was run. The t-observed value was 2.53. This amount of t-

value is higher than the t-critical at 13 degrees of freedom. This analysis revealed a

significant difference between gaining knowledge of grammatical features in pretest and post

test. For the purpose of probing the differences between three grammatical features, the

analyses then examined learners’ actual gains of knowledge of the target grammatical

features (namely past simple, past continuous, and articles). The ANOVA did not reveal any

significant main difference for grammatical features (pretest vs. posttest): F (2, 24) = 1.697, p

≥ .05. So, the answer to the third question would interestingly be negative and there is no

difference in gaining knowledge of three different grammatical items features (past simple,

past continuous, and articles) by working collaboratively.

The results of this study confirmed the literature on the use of small group and pair work

in Second Language Acquisition. The results also were in line with Long and Porter (1985),

they concluded that students while working in groups or pairs have far more chances to talk

to each other for various purposes such as rhetorical and interpersonal, thus, practice their yet

to be developed foreign language skills than in lockstep climate. Goss, Ying-Hua, and

Lantolf’s (1994) findings seconded the current research. Another research by Swain and

Lapkin (2001) compared the effect of a dictogloss and a jigsaw task on production of LREs

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(Language Related Episodes) by students while interacting during the tasks. However, the

results showed that none of the task types had greater influence over the other. Both types of

tasks also didn’t differentiate learners in both groups in terms of their attention to form and

grouping of knowledge. These findings, however, is not in the same vein with ours.

References

Bloor, M., Bloor, T., Forrest, R., Laird, E., Relton, H. (1970). Objective Tests in English as a

Foreign Language. Macmillan, Macmillan publication.

Goss, N., Yang-Hua, Z. and Lantolf, J.P. (1994). Two heads may be better than one: mental

activity in second-language grammaticality judgments. In Tarone, E.E., Gass, S.M.

and Cohen, A.D., editors, Research methodology in second language acquisition,

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 263–86.

Long, M.H. & Porter, P.A. (1985). Group work, interlanguage talk, and second language

acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 207–27.

Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied

Linguistics, 11, 129- 158.

Slavin, R. E. (1983). When does cooperative learning increase student achievement?

Psychological Bulletin, 94(3), 429-445.

Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy.

System, 27, 363-374.

Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52, 119–58.

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In B. Seidlhofer

(Ed.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H.G.

Widdowson (pp. 125–44). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook

on research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471–83). Mahwah, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: two adolescent

French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal, 82, 320–37.

Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2001). Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: Exploring

task effects. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic

tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 99–118). Harlow: Pearson

Education.

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A Study of the Use of the “Learning Element” to Teach English in Selected Malaysian

Primary Schools

Sachithanantham Tachina Moorthi

Teacher Education Institute : Sultan Abdul Halim Campus

Sungai Petani, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Ambigapathy Pandian

School of Languages, Literacies and Translation

Univesiti Sains Malaysia

Lesson planning is an important aspect in any pre-service teacher education programme.

And, there are many lesson plan frameworks available for example, the PPP framework; the

‘Six Stages’ format by Sheila Estaire and Javier Zanon (1994); the Madeline Hunter, ‘Seven

Step Lesson Plan’ commonly used in the United States (Graham Crookes, 2003). Lesson

plans help beginning teachers to prepare materials beforehand and make it easier for them to

organize the time and flow of activities in classes (Woodward, T., 2001). Lesson planning

also instills confidence in the beginning teachers and help reduce any feelings of uncertainty

or panic during their practical teaching. More importantly, lesson plans help the beginning

teachers to identify the immediate objectives of each unit of lesson as well as keep them

focused on the purpose of that lesson. In Malaysian teacher-training institutions, the English

option trainee-teachers are taught to use the PPP framework to prepare their lesson plan. The

PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) format popular in the British structural-situational

tradition is being used in Malaysian teacher training institutions for almost 50 years.

The Presentation phase proposes that the teacher introduces the new language item, to be

taught on that day, to the pupils through explanations and illustrations that will give the

pupils a clear understanding of the content. During the Presentation phase it is the teacher

who does most of the talking and has full control of the lesson. During the Practice phase,

the pupils are given a range of activities through listening, repeating, writing and reading.

Again, the teacher is still in control and pupils only carry out the activities according to their

teachers’ instructions. Lastly, during the Production phase, the pupils are given activities that

would show if the pupils have learnt the day’s language items and whether the pupils are

able to use these language items independently and correctly. Clearly, the PPP framework is

teacher-centred. It is also very general in form that beginning teachers have to struggle

determining the techniques and activities to teach the new language items. In addition, the

PPP framework places much emphasis on the usage of print media such as books and task

sheets. Teaching English Literacy to pupils in Malaysian rural primary schools can be very

challenging given that ‘rural students have limited exposure to English (Chitravelu, N., et

al., 2005). As such, a variety in techniques and different activities are necessary to draw and

hold the pupils’ interest and enthusiasm (Brown, H. D., 2001). Thus, the PPP framework is

unable to accommodate the broader concept of language learning and language usage of

today.

Literature Review

Meanwhile, the ‘Learning Element’ proposed under the Multiliteracies Pedagogy (Kalantzis

& Cope 1999)) is a framework for a lesson plan that creates the room for multimodal

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expressions of meaning where the linguistic is integrated with visual, audio, gestural and

spatial modes of meaning. The Multiliteracies Pedagoy has widened the concept of literacy,

that initially referred to only the print media, to include the multimedia and the multimodal

text forms (Pandian, 1999). The ‘Learning Element’ could, therefore, be the alternative

lesson plan that would meet the demands of teaching in this digital age.

The Learning Element proposed in the Multiliteracies Pedagogy identifies four core

knowledge processes i.e.(i) experiencing, (ii) conceptualizing (iii) analysing and (iv)

applying (Cope and Kalantzis, 2001). Experiencing learning here refers to the drawing on

past experiences and immersing in new ones in relation to the topic learnt. Conceptualizing

refers to the generalizing of concepts and theoretical synthesis of the concepts. Analysing is

the transformation of knowledge both functionally and critically through the process of

reflection. Applying is the application of all the three knowledge processes in real life

situations.

Methodology

This study focuses on exploring the efficacy of the ‘Learning Element’ of the Multiliteracies

Pedagogy seeking answers to the following research questions:

1. 1. To what extent does the ‘Learning Element’ promote the learning of English?

2.

3. 2. Do the pupils learn English better when taught using the ‘Learning Element’ ?

This research project focused on the teaching of English in two rural National Primary

schools in the state of Kedah by four post-graduate English-option trainee-teachers (two

trainee-teachers in each school) during their practicum. The trainee-teachers in School I

taught 35 pupils from Primary Year 5 on the topic ‘Sea World’, while the trainee-teachers in

School II taught 30 pupils from Primary Year 1 pupils on the topic ‘Animals’. Both the

topics are in the official school syllabus. The trainee-teachers used the ‘Learning by Design’

(Kalantzis & Cope, 2005) framework to prepare their lesson plan. The study is

predominantly qualitative and data was collected via questionnaire, interviews, and

observations of lessons taught by the trainee-teachers. The respondents for this study include

4 post graduate English option trainee-teachers, 2 mentor-teachers from the respective

schools, 2 English language lecturers who were the trainee-teachers’ practicum supervisors

and 5 pupils selected at random from each participating school. The post-graduate trainee-

teachers paired up and each pair worked on the project in their schools during their

practicum teaching. All the four, post-graduate English option trainee-teachers were exposed

to the Multiliteracies Pedagogy concept through a two day seminar. Subsequently, they

underwent 4 sessions learning to use the ‘Learning Element’ framework. During their 3

months practicum they embarked on this multiliteracies project. This study attempts to

explore the ‘Learning by Design’ approach from numerous points of view (i.e. the pupils,

the trainee-teachers, the mentor-teachers and the practicum supervisors). A questionnaire

was administered among the four trainee-teachers as an important part of the evaluation

process. Meanwhile open ended questions were posed to all the above mentioned

respondents of the project to investigate their responses to the lesson taught using the

Learning by Design’ element.

Findings and Discussions

The responses of both the pupils and the trainee teachers clearly indicated that the Learning

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Element has contributed to the success of these English lessons. The pupils in their diaries

have noted that the lesson was enjoyable because it provided many activities which opened

the opportunities for them to actively participate compared to the traditional method that

made them passive learners. The pupils were also very excited about seeing the colourful

images in video that accompanied the teacher’s explanations.

Pupils’ response:

“We enjoyed this lesson, we got many things to do, sing songs, go to the seaside,

make scrap book. The tiger in computer coulourful and the tiger sound very

frightening and exciting”

Trainee-teachers’ response:

The trainee-teachers confirmed the success of the lesson based on their observation that the

pupils enjoyed and had fun throughout the lesson. The trainee-teachers also articulated that

the pupils wanted more such lessons. The trainee-teachers felt that the success was due to

the fact that their multimedia presentations catered for pupils of different interests and

abilities.

For Research Question 2 the practicum supervisors and the mentor teachers’ comments were

sorted. The practicum supervisors who are actually lecturers from the teacher-training

institutes opined that the Learning Element is a very effective lesson planning tool as it

specifies the different learning processes which enables the trainee-teachers to select very

relevant and productive activities to teach a particular topic. The ‘Learning Element’

according to the supervisor entails a very detailed preparation and such a detailed

preparation naturally ensures the success of the lesson Furthermore the framework gives

room to shift from the print-media to multimedia and this shift from text-books to digital

media and field work took away the boredom and instilled excitement among students.

Clearly the study points to a positive inclination towards using the ‘Learning Element’.

The mentor-teachers also found the lesson to be interesting. They whole-heartedly agreed

that their pupils really enjoyed the lesson. However, they felt that the preparation of the

lesson using the ‘Learning Element’ is too demanding and time consuming. The mentor

teachers felt that their numerous school duties will not allow them the space and time to

indulge in such a detailed practice. Secondly, they also felt that most of the schools still lack

computer and internet facilities. In such a scenario, they opined that text-books and

workbooks are the next best option. The mentor-teachers also articulated that Malaysia’s

education system is so exam-orientated that using the workbooks to drill and to do repeated

practices as the easiest and most effective way of teaching.

Conclusion

This project takes pupils and teachers into a journey of new learning. The ‘Learning Design’

creates opportunities to a varied range of knowing that includes experiencing,

conceptualizing, analyzing and applying. Responses from the pupils, the trainee-teachers and

the supervisors clearly support the use of the Learning Element as the lesson planning tool of

the modern times. As for the practicing teachers, we cannot blame them for their scepticism,

however their responses only strengthens the argument for beginning teachers to be trained

using the Learning Element framework because it is they who are going to be the teachers

of the future. It is hoped that the use of the ‘Learning by Design’ element, would provide the

space and direction for innovation and creativity thus becoming a sustainable lesson

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planning tool for the modern times. The Multiliteracies Pedagogy is a pedagogical

supplement and not a substitute to existing practices. The ‘Learning Element’ (Kalantzis and

Cope, 2005) therefore is an expansion of existing lesson plans, modeled to accommodate the

expanded concept and meaning of literacy.

Keywords: Lesson plan, ‘Learning Element’, Multiliteracies Pedagogy, knowledge

processes, mulitmedia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge and thank the participants of this study which include my four

post-graduate trainee-teachers, the schools’ administration, the mentor teachers from both

the schools, the practicum supervisors from the teacher-training institute and last but not

least all the pupils from both the schools for having participated in this study and giving

their valuable feedback.

References

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language

Pedagogy. (2nd

Edn). New York : Addison Wesley Longman. Inc.Chitravelu, N.,

Sithamparan, S. & Choon, T.S. (2005). ELT METHODOLOGY. Principles and

Practice. Shah Alam, Selangor : Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn Bhd.

Cope, B, & Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: the beginnings of an idea. Eds. Cope, B, &

Kalantzis, M. Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social

Futures. South Yarra, Australia: Macmillan Publishers Australia PTY LTD.

Crookes, G. (2003). A Practicum in TESOL. Professional Development through Teaching

Practice. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press.

Estaire, S. & Zanon, J. (1994). Planning Classwork: A task based aspproach. Oxford:

Heinemann.

Kalantzis, M. & Cope, B, (2000). A Multiliteracies Pedagogy. A Pedagogical Supplement.

Eds. Cope, B, & Kalantzis, M. Multiliteracies: Literay Learning and the Design of

Social Futures. South Yarra, Australia: Macmillan Publishers Australia PTY LTD.

Kalantzis, M. & Cope, B. (1999). Multiliteracies: Rethinking What We Mean by Literacy

and What We Teach as Literacy in the Context of Global Cultural Diversity and

New Communications Technologies. Ed. Pandian, A. Global Literacy: Vision,

Revisions and Vistas in Education. Serdang, Selangor:Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Kalantzis, M. & Cope, B. (2005). Learning by Design. Melbourne, VIC : Victorian Schools

Innovation Commission / Common Ground.

Pandian, A. (1999). . Global Literacy: Vision, Revisions and Vistas in Education. Serdang,

Selangor:Universiti Putra Malaysia

Woodward, T. (2001). Planning Lessons and Courses. Designing sequences of work for the

language classroom. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

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What Else Can We Do With A Poem Besides ‘Torture A Confession Out Of It?’

Hawanum Hussein& Chong Seng Tong (Universiti Tenaga Nasional)

Like many English teachers, I love poetry. It is the epitome of linguistic beauty; simple lines

which capture an emotion, experience or episode in the poet’s life. Poetry is in my son’s

smile, the rustle of leaves, the graceful ripples of water or in the simple blink of my cat’s

eyes. My students like most students, hate poetry. They do not like the twist and turns of the

words and God forbid, ancient words like ‘thou’ and ‘thee’. Every semester I try to offer

literature and every semester the classes are cancelled due to poor response. My attempts to

infuse the reading classes with poetry are quickly snuffed out by administrators as they do not

and cannot understand why Engineering students should be exposed to literature that is

‘effeminate.’ Puzzled by such cold indifference to poetry, I conducted a quick survey with

my Engineering students about their literature experience in school. My questions were

greeted with howls of unhappy responses of ‘boring’, ‘dull’ and ‘never again.’ I discovered

that many of them perceived the literature class as just another reading comprehension class

that they could not score an ‘A’ unless their answers mirror those of their teachers.

According to them, divergent ideas were not welcome and many students listened and wrote

down answers prescribed by their teachers. In an exam oriented system, even poetry

succumbs to academic pressure. Not to be thwarted, I began speaking aloud Shakespeare’s

sonnet (often tortured in schools) and my students eyes’ widened in wonderment as they had

never heard that bit of poetry read like that. Thus I write this paper to show teachers (who are

under great stress to produce A students) that poetry can be a gem in class. I provide a

disclaimer that I am not a poet or a poetry expert and the following examples of doing other

things besides torturing a poem, is based on my teaching experience of more than twenty five

years.

Poetry for grammar lessons. Ever heard of Jabberwocky by Lewis Carrol? It is a

wonderfully ridiculous and romantic poem about a young man on a quest to kill a monster on

his father’s behest. The poem begins in this manner:

`Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:

All mimsy were the borogoves,

And the mome raths outgrabe

Give this to students to rewrite the rubbish words and they will give back rubbish in return.

Classroom experience tells me that our Malaysian students have no clear notion of how

English grammar works. Thus to use “Jabberwocky” first, I get the students to imagine

themselves as great story tellers and to tell the story with dramatic pauses and stress. Of

course, a demonstration is necessary to prevent the sing song reading so ubiquitous in

Malaysian classrooms. Fun over; the grammar lesson kicks in.

I. Teach students:

a. the structure of a simple sentence:

subject - verb – object/complement

b. adjectives which comes before nouns

c. adverbs which comes after the verb

II. Next scaffold. Together, identify the rubbish word as a noun, verb, an adjective or adverb

in one or two stanzas.

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III. Finally, give the rewrite exercise as pair or group work.

I have found that students were able to provide a decent rewrite once they understand the

grammar part. For more grammar ideas using poetry please refer to this link :

iteslj.org/Techniques/Hussein-Poems.html

Poems for pronunciation. Malaysian students often struggle with some sounds that do not

occur naturally in their native language. Some do not even know that the word ‘three’ is not

pronounced the same way as ‘tree.’ Why is this important, some students have asked me. I

tell them that my Arab speaking students have problems differentiating the ‘p’ sound and

would pronounce it as a ‘b.’ Thus, the lovely state of Perak (where this conference is being

held) is pronounced as ‘.........’ That ended all protests and queries. Students preparing to

study abroad are more open to pronunciation exercises. I usually begin the class with simple

sentences and then move on to longer poems once pronunciation of problematic sounds has

been arrested.

The following are examples of ‘th’ sounds, both voiced and voiceless interdental fricatives.

a. I thought of thinking of thanking you.

b. He threw three free throws.

c. Nothing is worth thousands of deaths.

d. If you notice this notice,

you will notice that this notice is not worth noticing.

Next are the poems that I ask my students to recite once as a class, secondly as two halves of

the class and finally individually.

What a to do to die today

At a quarter or two to two.

A terrible difficult thing to say

But a harder thing still to do.

The dragon will come at the beat of the drum

With a rat-a-tat-tat a-tat-tat a-tat-to

At a quarter or two to two today,

At a quarter or two to two.

Whether the weather be fine

or whether the weather be not.

Whether the weather be cold

or whether the weather be hot.

We'll weather the weather

whatever the weather

whether we like it or not

Poems for writing stimulus. ‘If’ by Rudyard Kipling is an amazing but over-analyzed poem

in many classrooms. I find this poem to be an interesting stimulus for writing topics. This

poem works better with adult learners who have never studied it in secondary school and

would not say ‘Ala..this poem we studied in school, teacher!’ I usually begin with a reading

aloud session (aka oral interpretation) and then discuss the poet’s definition of a man. I

would sketch a figure of a man and write students’ responses as described by Kipling. I

would not however accept direct quotes like ‘walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch.’

Smiling, I would tell them to answer using their own words to see if they actually understood

what the lines mean. Next comes the writing assignments in its many versions:

‘In your culture, what is a man?’

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‘How has the definition of a man changed from your parents’ time to your time, here and

now.’

‘In your opinion, what is a woman?’

In one class discussion, a female student describes a man as someone who cooks like Jamie

Oliver. A male student retorted and said, “No, I don’t have to cook, my wife will do that.”

Teachers will often be surprised at how little perceptions of gender stereotypes and roles have

changed after 55 years of Independence.

Other poems that can be good writing stimulus about gender and relationships are ‘Lord

Lochinvar’ a traditional Scottish love ballad or Ogden Nash’s poem ‘A lady who thinks she is

thirty.’

Poems for oral interpretation. What is oral interpretation, pray tell? Very simply it means

to bring a poem to life by infusing it with dramatic pauses, stress and intonation or one could

say ‘to act out a poem.’ Jabberwocky is an excellent poem for oral interpretation and is an

effective poem to bring out shy students. Group interpretation is ideal for classes with a large

number of intelligent but painfully shy students. All you need is a livewire or two to get the

class going and the shy ones will soon follow. A good beginning poem to start with is the

funny and wacky ‘On the Ning Nang Nong’ by Spike Milligan

On the Ning Nang Nong

On the Ning Nang Nong

Where the Cows go Bong!

and the monkeys all say BOO!

There's a Nong Nang Ning

Where the trees go Ping!

And the tea pots jibber jabber joo.

On the Nong Ning Nang

All the mice go Clang

And you just can't catch 'em when they do!

So its Ning Nang Nong

Cows go Bong!

Nong Nang Ning

Trees go ping

Nong Ning Nang

The mice go Clang

What a noisy place to belong

is the Ning Nang Ning Nang Nong!!

The objective of this poem is to get your students to have fun by making loud noises as they

read and to sound excited as seen by the many exclamation marks in the poem. A follow up

poem like ‘Phenomenal Woman’ by Maya Angelou would work for classes of mainly girls

and a smattering of boys who are not shy about reading about what it is like to be a woman. I

usually delete a line that may cause discomfort before I give out the poem to the class. The

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point of oral interpretation using poems is to increase confidence while improving

pronunciation and vocal expressiveness. These are important as they form the bedrock of

effective communication or soft skills.

Conclusion

In short, poetry can be a wonderful and useful friend to the teacher. Poetry can be used to

teach grammar in a less dreary and boring manner. Poems can improve students’

pronunciation and speaking confidence. They also make good, interesting writing stimulus.

So, while helping students to score an A is commendable, inspiring students to see poetry for

what it truly is should also be the goal of every English teacher.

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Teaching English Through Literature

(C.L.I.P.S- Children’s Literature In Primary School) To Develop

Communication And Writing Skills : A Scaffolding Technique

Sarala A/P Subramanyam

District Of Hulu Selangor & Selangor Ministry Of Education

Teaching English Through Literature (C.L.i.P.S) to Develop Communication and

Writing Skills.

Literature helps us grow, both personally and intellectually. ( Edgar V.Roberts and Henry

E.Jacobs, An Introduction to Reading and Writing, 1998). It provides an objective base for

knowledge and understanding. It links us with the cultural, philosophic and religous world of

which we are a part. It also enables us to recognise human dreams and struggles in different

places and times which we do not know of its existance. Literature also helpsiu us develop

mature sensibility and compassion for the condition of all living things. Most of the time the

readers do not know how to explain why they actually enjoy reading. Literature is lovable

and pleasurable. It has universal appeal and it appeals to the heart of the readers. Literature

finds an everlasting place in the memory of the learner because of its strong appealing

quality but this is not agreed by all. Some say Literature is boring and difficult to understand.

One does not have to be an expert in Literature to understand and to know it. It is actually up

to the reader how he interprets the text.

In 2004, The Malaysian Ministry of Education implemented ‘Contemporary Children’s

Literature to be taught in all primary schools in Malaysia. Teaching English was tough, what

more with extra storybooks, portfolios and project based. The teachers were provided with 8

books since 2004 which are used for year 4=3 books, year 5= 3 books and year 6=2 books.

The aims for introducing Literature in primary school is to :

- help the pupils improve in their English through reading simple fictions.

- provide a continuum for the literature component introduced in secondary school.

- create an enjoyable learning environment.

The objectives for the implementation is to:

- instill and inculcate the reading habit among pupils.

- enrich pupils’ vocabulary and language content.

- enhance pupils’ thinking skills.

- promote cultural understanding in the Malaysian context.

- improve Engish Language proficiency of pupils.

- provide lively, enjoyable and high-interest readings.

The Cabinet decided that ‘Children’s Contemporay Literature be taught in Year 4,5 and 6 so

that it can provide an early beginning and a foundation in literature and will develop an

understanding of other societies, cultures, values and traditions that will help them in their

emotional and spiritual growth. It is also to prepare the primary school students to the

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literature lessons in the secondary schools. All the schools were provided with the books and

they were on rotation basis for the classroom implementation. Most of the English Language

teachers were sent for short courses and the pupils were introduced with all the books. Pupils

need to read 2/3 books in a year, which will be 4 months for a book.

In 2008, The Ministry of Education sent 24 English Language teachers from 3 states (Kedah,

Pahang and Selangor ) to attend a course in RELC Singapore. The duration of the course was

just for a month and it was all about how to teach English through Literature and it was

project- based.

I was one of the participant and before leaving to Singapore to attend this course, I was

exposed to the normal ‘Contemporary Literature’ too. I did teach my students using all the

books and the activities were some answering questions and a few worksheets for the pupils

to take home as homework. When I came back from RELC, my perception of

‘Contemporary Literature’ completely changed. My school was the pioneer and I had to

conduct courses for the whole district of Hulu Selangor too. I took it as a challenge and

wanted to proove that my pupils who are in the rural area will manage to do it with guidance.

(Malachi Edwin Vethamani - The Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, Vol. 3, 2007) stated

that the study and teaching of literature has been a challenge for many teachers and students.

He also mentioned that it is due to the fact that many teachers are not trainned to teach the

subject and many students have not seen the significance of reading literary texts as an

important aspect for language development but that is for secondary school. Well, Literature

Component is tested in the examinations and students in secondary school has no choice but

to read the text and most of the time they memorize their literary elements and details to

prepare themselves for their examinations.

Well, for primary school, ‘Contemporary Literature’ is not tested in any examinations but it

helps them to improve in their English through their simple fictions and it also creates an

enjoyable learning environment.

Machura(1995) presented a delightful description of her experience with children’s Lit in

Hungary. Her 12 year olds actively worked through ‘The Very Hungry Caterpillar (a picture

storybook for young children, by Eric Carle). The same story was also done in Lebanon for 4

year olds (Goshn 1997). Both have mentioned that the superb illustrations undoubtedly add to

visually aesthetic experience as well. We, know that the text chosen for the students are very

important and when the teachers take charge to deliver it, they have to play the biggest role to

make the students to understand the text and enjoy the story too.

A research by P.Padmini, M.A., M.Phil., M.C.J., was done in India, 2009 to show ‘Why and

How’ of Literature in Language Classroom and the Poor Communicative Competence in

English. The question was, ‘Is Literature Teaching Responsible for it? The reseach has

shown that Literature provides the students with abundant examples of the subtle and

complex uses of grammar and vocabulary of English. It also shows that English is used at its

idiomatic best and is used most effectively in Literature. The teaching of literature would

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definitely help the students improve their language skills and leads them in gaining not only

communicative but also creative competence.

What happens in the classroom here is, many teachers fail to discuss a prescribed literary

text, they just read and interpret the literary text. The students should be engaged in as many

activities as possible to ensure their interaction with the text and with each other in many

ways which would hopefully help in promoting language learning ( P. Padmini, 2009).

These are the reasons why I chose to teach English through Literature and made it into a fun

learning environment. All the 35 pupils in my class enjoyed learning the subject and they

always wait for lesson eventhough it is only once a week.

Methodoly

This study was addressed using qualitative measures. The data collection and information

were based on the non-structured interview and classroom observation. It was conducted in a

rural school, in the district of Hulu Selangor. The targeted group was 35 pupils from year 6

aged 12 whom I followed the class since they were in year 4 (2009). The research instuments

were mainly a classroom observation and non-structured interview. The interviews were

audio taped, transribed and interpreted. A pilot study was carried out on these 35 pupils when

they were in year 4 (2009). Scaffolding techniques were used to help the weak students. The

reading record booklet was the tool which help the students in their writing skills. The pupils

were interviewed and the classroom observation for each activity were compiled. All

observations were summarized and compared in order to draw appropirate conclusions and

interpretations. In order to achieve the objectives. In the second study, the scaffolding

techniques were used to enable learners(MKO) to assist their partners to gain understanding

during the discussions and class performances . Vygotsky (1978) claims that the learning

process takes place when learners are transported from the actual development to the

potential development by (MKO) a more knowledgeable other. This can only be achieved if

the learning process occurs in the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The idea is that a

child is only able to take the next step in their cognitive development if another person

supports and prompts them to do so. This sort of assistance has been called ‘scaffolding’.

Pupils were divided into groups and I always put the good ones in every group which

represents the (MKO), by doing so the average pupils were guided through. When the pupils

complete a particular text, they will complete their reading record booklet in order for them to

remember things, such as the sentences, the familiar words, the characters and other

important information. By doing so, the pupils started to improve in their writing skills.

When they began to prepare the skit, it was the best work ever. It was not easy but they did it.

Results

The findings revealed that the use of ‘scaffolding’ techniques and the ‘reading record

booklet’ as the main tool had enhanced the communicative and the writing skills for the year

6 pupils of the particular school. When I interviewed a few pupils before I started the

scaffolding technique, none of them came forward to talk or give any answers. After a year,

when they were in year 5, they became slightly brave when once a week they have to present

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a story, a skit or even retell the story which they have read. The ‘Hot-Seat’ activity gave them

the confidence to communicate to each other, I really did not focus much on their minor

errors when they did the skit or the retelling of a story. What concerned me was, my pupils

actually forgot the fear in the subject and I manage to get rid of the ‘stage-fright’ in them.

Out of 35 pupils, 27 of them obtained ‘A’ in their trial examinations (UPSR 2011) compared

to only 2 pupils with ‘A’ when they were in year 4(2009). 7 pupils obtained ‘B’ and 1 with

a ‘C’ and when he was in year 4, he always fails in English. I also realised that when I did

Literature, the pupils were very interested because they tried to involve themselves in the

characters. It also helped the pupils to remember the story well. I noticed that most of the

pupils began to act out the characters during other lessons with other teachers when they

relief their classes. The pupils were given a chance to prepare masks, pertaining to the text

and the end product was always some hands on activities based on the project based lesson.

This had enhanced the pupils to know the story well and by involving themselves in the act,

skit and drama had made them to know the whole story very well indeed. All my students,

whom I followed from year 4 (2009 ) till year 6 (2011) were able to communicate and write

in English.

Discussions

The data gained from the interview and the classroom observation shows that pupils prefer to

have more hands-on-activities such as story telling, hot-seat, retelling a story, poem reciting,

singing, making puppets, masks, performing a short skit and drama too. All these are

basically project-based which has enhanced the pupils communication skills and led them the

write creatively in their written work especially the examinations. The tool used to enhance

their writing skills was a reading record booklet which I created for this class. It is known

that by just reading a literary text pupils will not go anywhere, so after a year following them

by just reading, explaining and answering questions, I decided to change the teaching style.

The course I attended in Singapore was a great help and the guidance by the lecturers in

ELTC KL (Mdm Jaya and Ms Mercy) were excellent. So, I referred to all the project based

activities that I was exposed to in order for the pupils to understand what they are reading and

what is the literary text is all about. It was fun to watch the pupils working in groups,

discussing, arguing and the best part was they started to add extra characters in the story. This

added some spices to the story. The short skits created by the pupils were better than the text

which were prescribed. They did not run away from the story, its just some dialogue were

given for some passive objects which became the humor in the skit. This happened because

of the scaffolding techniques and the reading record booklet, because the booklet is very

detailed and it helped them to write better and gain ideas. End of the day, the pupils began to

write creatively in their essays, test and examinations.

Conclusion

Eversince the ‘Children’s Literature in Primary School was launched in 2008, quite a few

teachers started to do it in their schools. The teachers find it difficult to cope because we

have limited time to teach literature in primary schools. Teachers complained that they have

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to prepare a lot of work before they teach literature and they also cannot do much because of

the exam classes where they have to complete their syllabus before the final exams. When I

conducted the internal courses, many teachers asked me how I managed the time since I was

teaching the exam classes. My answer was simple, if we teach the pupils English Language

and not the examination formats, the pupils will be able to answer anything. C.L.i.P.S or

Contemporary Literature is not all about Shakespear or Robert Frost. CDC has provided 8

books which were carefully chosen, guidlines to follow and some sample lessons and

activities for the teachers to use in the classrooms.

There are problems when we conduct the lessons, such as time consuming, books to be

shared, classroom control and other factors. It is in our hands how to plan and to carry out

the lesson interestingly in order for the pupils to understand it easily. It not just reading.

They have to understand what they have read. It is time that more teachers accept the

challenge and be more creative.

References

Vygotsky, L (1962). Thought and Language, Cambridge: MIT.

Janet Maybin, Neil Mercer and Barry Stierer (1992) Scaffolding learning in the classroom,

London, Hodder & Stoughton.

Larkin, M (2002). Using scaffolded instruction to optimize learning.

Irma K.Ghosn, Four good reasons to use literature in primary school ELT, ELT Journal

Volume

56/2 April 2002, Oxford University Press.

Nithi Muthukrishnan (2010), Redifining the Teaching of Literature in the Primary School as

Meaning Construction, 9th Conference on South African Literature.

Donato R (1994) Collective scaffolding second language. In Vygotskyan Approaches to

Second

Language Research Lantolf J P & Appel G. (eds) Norwooe NJ: Ablex Publishing

Corporation .

Gibbons P (2002) Scaffolding Language, scaffolding Learning Portsmouth NH: Heinemann.

P.Padmini, M.MA.,M.Phil (2009), Why and How of Literature in Language Classroom.

Chittramuthusamy (2010) Literature Learning in the Malaysian ESL Classroom: A UiTM

Experience.

Malachi Edwin Vethamani (2010), Approaches Employed by Teachers in Teaching

Literature to Less Proficient Students in Form 1 and 2.

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Vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary knowledge: match and/or conflict

Ali Almagtoof Aljdee

Recently more attention has been paid to vocabulary learning by researchers, materials

designers, and teachers who have been trying to find answers to questions such as the

strategies that learners use to acquire new words or to remember them. The current study

aims to identify the vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) used by Libyan English language

majors at university level. It goes further to explore their vocabulary knowledge and proceeds

to investigate the relationship between these learners’ VLS and their vocabulary knowledge.

The taxonomy for the current study is mainly based on Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of VLS,

which was basically based on Oxford’s (1990) social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive

categories. It lists 58 VLS, and is categorized in two categories: (1) the discovery strategies

that are “useful for the initial discovery of a word’s meaning” and (2) the consolidation

strategies that are “useful for remembering that word once it has been introduced” (Schmitt,

2000, p. 135).

METHODOLOGY

Participants. They were all the 4th

year undergraduate students (112 students)

majoring in English as a foreign language at the faculty of Arts/ Al:Zawia University, Zawia,

Libya. They represented two English language departments in the cities of Zawia and

Sabratha. Zawia students (Group A) were 56 (6 males and 50 females), Sabratha students

(Group B) were 56 (6 males and 50 females) who turned up of the total number of 71

students. So coincidentally the two groups were identical in the number of students as well as

their gender.

Data Collection Instruments

Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ). This questionnaire was

chosen to measure the range and the frequency of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) EFL

learners use. It consists of 44 items related to VLS (see appendix 2). The VLSQ items have

been developed in some studies (e.g. Schmitt, 1997) and proved to be effective in obtaining

data about learners’ VLS.

The Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT). It was designed by Nation (1983, 1990), it is a

multiple-choice vocabulary test. It has been widely used by researchers to measure the

EFL/ESL learners’ vocabulary size receptively at four word frequency levels: the 2000 word

level, 3000 word level, 5000 word level, 10,000 word level; it also measures the learners’

academic vocabulary also called University Word List (henceforth UWL)

The Vocabulary Size Test of Controlled Productive Ability (CPA): The CPA is used

to test the ability to use a word when asked to do so by a teacher or researcher

(performance-based). The overall structure of the CPA test is modelled on the Vocabulary

Levels Test (VLT) that was originally made by Paul Nation (1983, 1990) The CPA is

“reliable, valid (in that the levels distinguished between different proficiency groups) and

practical” (Laufer and Nation, 1999, p. 33).

Semi-structured Interviews: 15 participants were randomly selected out of 112

respondents according to their scores in the vocabulary knowledge tests and were divided

into three groups of five. The high vocabulary knowledge group (HVK) represents the 5

students with the highest scores, the moderate vocabulary knowledge group (MVK)

represents the 5 students with moderate scores, and the low vocabulary knowledge group

(LVK) represents the 5 students with the lowest scores. The interviews were conducted as a

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group with the aims of eliciting information about learners’ perceptions of VLS use and most

importantly, probing in detail how these learners use VLS.

Results and Discussion

Range and Frequency of Use of VLS. The most frequently used of all strategies by

these EFL learners were the discovery strategies of guessing meaning from context, using

bilingual dictionaries (English/Arabic), and monolingual dictionaries These results are

congruent with the results of Schmitt’s (1997) and Gu and Johnson’s (1996) studies. Yet,

differences between student interviewees were observed in terms of ways of use. While high

vocabulary knowledge (HVK) students reported that they used bilingual dictionaries when

they could not understand the meaning of a new word after consulting other reference sources

like guessing or monolingual dictionaries, moderate vocabulary knowledge (MVK) and low

vocabulary knowledge (LVK) students usually use English/Arabic dictionaries immediately

after they come across a new word; they indicated that it is easier and faster compared to

using a monolingual dictionary.

Interestingly, while using bilingual dictionaries (Arabic/English) is the least frequent

discovery strategy for GA learners, it is a frequent strategy for GB learners. On the other

hand, GA learners reported more frequent use of monolingual dictionaries than their GB

counterparts. This could indicate that GA’s vocabulary knowledge is better than that of GB,

as shown in the results of vocabulary tests. Moreover, differences among the three groups of

interviewees are obvious from their responses to using Arabic/ English dictionaries. HVK

students reported that they had never used this strategy, while some MVK and most of LVK

students reported frequent use of it when involved in writing activities; this is certainly due to

the fact that they do not have enough productive L2 vocabulary to express themselves in

English.

With regard to consolidation strategies, the two cognitive strategies of verbal and written

repetition come at the top in terms of use. This frequent use could be attributed both to the

ease of using them as rote strategies and to learners being used to those strategies since they

were in pre-college where the teacher makes the class repeat words aloud as a typical way of

teaching pronunciation and introducing new words in Libyan schools, as some student

interviewees reported. It also indicates that the Libyan EFL learners may not have other

alternatives to be used instead of or along with these rote strategies. Moreover teachers, as

student interviewees reported, pay no attention to strategy training which plays a crucial role

in developing language learning (Nation, 2001; Macaro, 2006). Wenden (1987b) claims that

“learner training remains a secondary concern in many second language classrooms” (p. 159).

Vocabulary knowledge. The results show a clear pattern of declining scores across

frequency levels from highest to lowest in the VLT and CPA word frequency levels and from

receptive knowledge (VLT scores) to controlled productive knowledge (CPA scores). This

gap means that learners are unable to use their receptive knowledge of vocabulary in

productive situations. Hence, it is a must for such learners to be more exposed to the language

through language in use activities.

The findings also show that there were internal high positive correlations within the elements

of the VLT and CPA. This to a great extent confirms that the learners who did well in a lower

frequency level (e.g. 3000 word level) could normally be assumed to have done well in a

higher frequency level and vice versa. Significantly moderate to high positive correlations

were observed across all word frequency levels of the VLT and CPA. These positive

correlations could mean that learners with higher receptive vocabulary knowledge are also

higher in productive knowledge and vice versa.

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Relationship between VLS and Vocabulary knowledge. With regard to the

discovery strategies, using the monolingual dictionary was positively correlated with the

learners’ vocabulary knowledge, as were guessing meaning from context and identifying part

of speech with the vocabulary knowledge. These findings are congruent with Gu and

Johnson’s (1996) findings. This could be attributed to the fact that both strategies require a

certain level of vocabulary knowledge to be used efficiently as Laufer (1997) stated that a

learner should know about 95% of the words in a text in order to guess words successfully.

This can explain the more frequent use of these strategies by the HVK learners than the MVK

and LVK learners, as mentioned earlier. Thus, the learners with higher vocabulary knowledge

are normally more successful and higher in terms of using monolingual dictionaries and

guessing from context and vice versa.

Conclusion and implications

In general, learners reported using discovery strategies more frequently than consolidation

strategies. One interpretation of this is that those learners seem to be more interested in

discovering or understanding the meaning of new words than learning them. This could be

attributed to the fact that the Libyan English majors restrict themselves to the task they

perform. These learners need to use some metacognitive strategies like assessing their

vocabulary in order to help them be aware of their vocabulary knowledge and develop it.

The Libyan EFL learners’ infrequent use of metacognitive strategies indicates that most of

these learners do not have plans or directions for their learning which are important for

success. It also indicates that learners are not independent in their learning and lack the

knowledge of what to learn about words. Most of them, especially MVK and LVK learners,

rely only on class material. These findings are consistent with those of Moir and Nation

(2002) who discovered that their subjects were not responsible for their learning and unaware

of what learning vocabulary should require. Such students should be more independent in

their learning through learner training.

Regarding the relationship between VLS and vocabulary knowledge, there is usually

consistency in that the VLS correlated with the learners’ receptive vocabulary knowledge are

also correlated with their controlled productive vocabulary knowledge. Thus, EFL/ESL

learners are required to focus on a range of VLS, (e.g. group learning in classrooms, talking

to native speakers, making own lists of words) that enhance their productive vocabulary

knowledge as well as their receptive knowledge.

The findings of this study reconfirm that the correlation between vocabulary learning

strategies (VLS) and vocabulary knowledge is more a matter of quality than quantity of use

of VLS. This can be demonstrated by the fact that GB learners reported more frequent use of

VLS than that of GA learners, but GA learners’ vocabulary knowledge is significantly better

than that of GB learners; this indicates that GA learners are more efficient in using different

VLS than GB learners, considering the positive correlations observed between the Libyan

EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge and a range of VLS they use. This also contradicts

research because other studies of LLS and VLS generally show better students using more

strategies; this result, therefore, stands out as new here.

References

Gu, Y. and Johnson, R. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning

outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.

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Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know

words you think you know and words you can’t guess. In J. Coady and T. Huckin

(Eds), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 20-34.

Laufer, B. and Nation, P. (1999). A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive

ability. Language Testing, 16 (1), 33-51.

Macaro, E. (2006). Strategies for language learning and for language use; Revising

the theoretical framework. The Modern Language Journal, 90 (3), 320-337.

Moir, J. and Nation, P. (2002). Learners' use of strategies for effective vocabulary

learning. Prospect, 17 (1), 15-35.

Nation, P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5, 12-25.

Nation, P. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New York: Newbury House.

Nation, P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know.

New York: Newbury House/Harber and Row.

Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy

(Eds), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, and Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 199-227.

Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

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Consciousness-raising tasks for teaching grammar in Language Learning

Ali Nezami1 & Mohammad Reza Vatanparasrt

2

1Member of Faculty, Department of English Language, Islamic Azad University, Rasht

Branch-Iran

2Member of Faculty, Department of Accounting, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch-Iran

In the history of second language pedagogy and second language acquisition (SLA),

grammar-teaching methods have alternated themselves between two opposing approaches. At

one end of the continuum, some researchers like Krashen (1981) believe that there is no need

for grammar instruction if learners are exposed to sufficient comprehensible input. Krashen,

by making a distinction between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition, points out

that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not learned through formal

instruction. At the other end, there are those who call for the inclusion of formal grammar

teaching, and claim that the acquisition of some grammatical forms cannot be made through

mere exposure to linguistic input. White (1987) counters Krashen’s claim by suggesting that

comprehensible input cannot trigger the necessary grammar development, but

incomprehensible input can.

However, most SLA investigators argue against the so-called “focus on forms”, in which

language forms are studied in isolation, in favor of a “focus on form” approach which

captures learner’s attention to form in the context of a meaningful communication (Long,

1991).

Occupying the midway between the zero position (communicative instruction) and total

grammar (grammar instruction) is the approach called consciousness raising (Sherwood

Smith, 1981). Instead of being given the rules, learners are induced to attend to a specific

linguistic feature in the course of performing a communicative task, the content of which is a

specific target structure. This view finds support in cognitive learning theory which

propounds that noticing linguistic forms in the input can help learners acquire implicit

knowledge (Ellis, 1994).

Practice vs. consciousness-raising

The desired outcome of second language grammar instructions is to help learners to use

the taught structure in their conversations. Therefore, they are provided with an

opportunity to practice the structures at the controlled level and are supposed to produce

them at the free level, where the primary focus is on meaning and learners use their

implicit knowledge to convey meaning.

Referring to three types of practice (mechanical, contextual, and communicative),

Ellis(2002) identifies five characteristics of practice activities, regardless of their types.

They include:

1. A specific grammatical feature is isolated for focused attention.

2. The learners are expected to make s en t ences encompassing the targeted

feature.

3. T he r e w i l l b e o cca s i on s f o r rehearsal of the newly introduced linguistic

form.

4. Learners are supposed to perform the grammatical feature correctly.

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5. Teachers provide their students with an immediate or d e l ayed feedback on the

accuracy of thei r performance of the grammatical structure.

Proponents of the instruction focusing on the accurate production of the newly introduced

linguistic form (i.e. practice) believe that as learners satisfy their communicative needs by

producing precise, coherent, and situationally appropriate, the targeted grammatical

structures become salient and the learners’ grammatical competence is advanced (Swain,

1985). Faerch & Kasper (1986) argue that "occasions for rehearsal" promote learning.

However, Ellis (1992) adds the caveat that “practice may only facilitate acquisition directly

if it is communicative, i.e. meaning focused in nature” (p.120).

The effectiveness of practice has been challenged, and there have been proposals to direct

learners’ attention to forms without necessary requiring them to immediately produce well-

formed L2 structures. Schmidt (1990) argues that c o n s c i o u s l y "noticing" the form is

critical for its subsequent processing. Similarly, Fotos (1993) sees noticing as an "interface"

between "explicit" and "implicit" knowledge. Sharwood-Smith (1991) adds that simply noticing

the form is not enough, but "what is desired is ... acting on it, that is, learning something from

it" (p. 121).

Consciousness-raising tasks, as focused tasks, has been widely proposed to direct learners’

attentions to targeted linguistic features (Fotos, 1993,1998, 2002; Fotos & Ellis, 1991;

Leow, 2001; Sheen, 1992). Such tasks are intended to raise learners’ awareness of the

usage of the linguistic features. They also require learners to communicate with each other

about the target grammar. Ellis (2002, p. 168) specifies the main characteristics of the

consciousness-raising tasks as follows:

1. There should be an attempt t o isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused

attention;

2. The learners are provided with data which illustrate the targeted feature and they

may be supplied with an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature.

3. The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted

feature;

4. Misunderstanding or incomplete understanding of the grammatical structure by the

learners leads to clarification in the form of further data and description or

explanation; and

5. Learners are required (although this is not obligatory) to articulate the rule

describing the grammatical feature.

In short, whi le practice is directed at the acquisition of implicit knowledge of a

grammatical structure and involve learners in a repeated production, C-R tasks aim at

helping learners to develop explicit knowledge of grammar by noticing a certain feature of

language, and manipulating the structure while they communicate about that feature, often

generating rules for its use (Ellis, 2003).

Researchers and methodologist (e.g. Ellis, 1992; Fotos & Ellis, 1991; Nobuyoshi & Ellis,

1993) suggest that an effective grammar instruction may benefit from both consciousness-

raising and communicative practice. There are two reasons which seem to call for their

integration. First reason involve Anderson’s ACT model which distinguishes between

“declarative” (what) and “procedural” (how) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is available

to consciousness and can be used “as a set of instructions to guide behaviour through

interpretative, problem-solving, or analogy-forming procedures” (Anderson, 1983, pp. 216-

218). Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, starts as declarative and gradually becomes

procedural through “strengthening and tuning processes while using combined units of

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declarative knowledge in productions” (Anderson, 1983, pp. 215-217). Accordingly, it can be

argued that consciousness-raising will cause declarative knowledge, whereas practice will

enhance procedural knowledge. The second reason concerns Bialystok’s analysis-control

model. According to his model, language is processed at two levels. At the level of analysis,

the model distinguishes between “implicit” and “explicit” knowledge. Implicit knowledge

can guide performance, but cannot be detected. Explicit knowledge, however, is “independent

of meaning and accessible to inspection” (Bialystok, 1990, p. 121). One aspect of language

proficiency development is to analyze the implicit knowledge governing performance

through explicit explanations. At control level, applicable to both explicit and implicit

knowledge, the major focus is on the ability to intentionally direct “attention to relevant and

appropriate information and to integrate forms in real time” (Bialystok, 1990, p. 125).

Consciousness-raising tasks are expected to facilitate the development of explicit knowledge

at the level of analysis, whereas practice tasks are expected to lead learners to higher levels of

control.

Conclusion Current research clearly indicates that grammar instruction is necessary to help language

learners to attain high levels of proficiency in the target language. Traditional teaching

approaches to grammar have been substituted by treatments which present the linguistic

features in various communicative contexts designed to induce learners to notice the

structures. Consciousness-raising tasks, as valuable grammar teaching strategies in

second/foreign language classrooms, provide opportunities for explicit learning of specific

linguistic features. The outcome of such tasks is awareness and discovery of how a specific

structure works. Learners involve with the discovery of the rule governing a particular

linguistic feature as they talk about the form as the content of their task.

References

Anderson, J.R. (1983). The Architecture of Cognition. Harvard University Press.

Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication Strategies. Basil Blackwell.

Ellis, R. (1992). Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy. Multilingual

Matters.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (2002). Grammar teaching-practice or consciousness-raising? In J. Richards

& W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 167-174). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Ellis, R (2003) Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford, Oxford University

Press.

Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1986). The role of comprehension in second language

learning.

Applied Linguistics, Vol.14, No.4. Fotos, S. (1993). Consciousness-raising and noticing through focus on form: Grammar task

performance versus formal instruction. Applied Linguistics, 14, 385–407. Fotos, S. (1998). Shifting the focus from forms to form in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 52, 301–307. Fotos, S. (2002). Structure-based interactive tasks for the EFL grammar learner. In E.

Hinkel & S. Fotos (Eds.), New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms (pp. 135–155). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Fotos, S., & Ellis, R. (1991). Communicating about grammar: A task-based approach. TESOL

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Quarterly, 25, 605–628. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Leow, R. (2001). Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning,

51, 113–155. Long, M. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. DeBot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreignlanguage research in cross-cultural perspective (pp.39–52). Amsterdam:Benjamins. Nobuyoshi, J., & Ellis, R. (1993). Focused communication tasks and second language acquisition. ELT Journal, 47, 113–128.

Sheen, R. 1992. ‘Problem solving brought to task’.RELC Journal 23/2: 44–59.

Sherwood Smith. M. (1981) ‘Consciousness raising and the second language learner’.

AppliedLinguistics 2: 159-168. Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied

Linguistics, 11(2), 129–158. Sharwood-smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds. Second Language Research. Vol 1/ No.2 White, L. (1987). Against comprehensible input: the input hypothesis and the development of second langaue competence. Applied Linguistics, Vol8/No.2: 95-110.

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The Use of Cognitive Apprenticeship in the Teaching of Past Tense Forms among ESL

Learners

Gan Shiau Hui & Dr. Ng Lee Luan

Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya

Despite learning English in a formal environment for eleven years in the primary and

secondary levels, studies shown that many Malaysian students fail to achieve satisfactory

level of English language competency (Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin, Norsimah Mat Awal, &

Kesumawati Abu Bakar, 2008). This is especially true when it comes to writing (Saadiyah

Darus & Kaladevi Subramaniam, 2009) as grammatical inaccuracy in students’ written work

has fast becoming a serious issue that needs to be addressed (Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie &

Arshad Abd. Samad, 2007). From the students’ written work, it is found that tenses is among

the most common errors (Saadiyah Darus & Khor, 2009; Vahdatinejad, 2008) and is difficult

to remedy (Saadiyah Darus & Kaladevi Subramaniam, 2009; Vijaya & Viswanath, 2010).

In Malaysian schools, students are taught the concepts of tenses in their grammar lessons

every year. Yet, not all are able to use them well, especially those from the suburban and

rural areas. Findings from a study indicated that some might be able to state the concepts of

past tenses but fail to apply the conceptual knowledge in their writing while some are not

even aware of the need to change the verb forms when stating actions done in different time

frames (Saadiyah Darus & Kaladevi Subramaniam, 2009). In view of this phenomenon, there

is a need to explore instruction approaches that enable educational practitioners to assist these

students improve their writing.

The mentor-supported cognitive apprenticeship offers an alternative teaching method that

could help these students with lower intermediate to lower English language proficiency

incorporate their explicit knowledge of tenses into their communication task, i.e. on the use

of past tense in their narrative writing.

Teaching Methods and Key Features of Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive apprenticeship, coined by Brown, Collins & Newman (1987), is a learning model

that falls under the social constructivist paradigm and is based on situated cognition. It

acknowledges the effectiveness of traditional apprenticeship and combines it into formal

schooling as it retools apprenticeship methods for the teaching and learning of cognitive

skills (Collins et al., 1987). Cognitive apprenticeship focuses on exemplifying conceptual

knowledge in situated context where it stresses on the learning of cognitive process through

guided experience where the cognitive processes are externalised so that the processes are

observable to the learners. It has been utilised in the education arena in various fields

including writing (Beck, 1999; Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1987; Duncan, 1996; Kolikant et

al., 2006), reading (Collins et al., 1987; Kolikant et al., 2006), listening (Shan, 2008),

mathematics (Collins et al., 1987) and other technical and vocational subjects (Cash, Stadt,

Behrmann, & Daniels, 1997).

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There are six teaching methods in cognitive apprenticeship, i.e. modelling, coaching,

scaffolding, articulate, reflection and exploration, only the first three, as shown in Figure 1

below, are investigated in the context of the present study. Modelling refers to the process

where the mentor carries out a cognitive task to allow the students to observe and build

conceptual knowledge on that particular task. Coaching takes place when the mentor

monitors the students carrying out a task while offering hints, verbal scaffolding, feedback,

reminders with the aim of bringing the students performance closer to the experts while

scaffolding is the stage where the mentor gives support to help the students improve their

performance. It can either be in the form of suggestions and help or in physical supports such

as cue cards and task sheets. This includes fading which refers to the gradual removal of

supports as the students start to improve in their performance.

Figure 1: Three Main Teaching Methods in Cognitive Apprenticeship

Apart from the teaching methods stated above, there are also a few main features that are

commonly highlighted in studies involving cognitive apprenticeship. They are the use of

explicit instructions, collaborative social interaction between peers and mentor, the design of

lessons that are situated in context and learners are trained to do self-correction and

eventually monitor their own work (Collins et al., 1987).

The Use of Cognitive Apprenticeship in the Teaching of Grammar

With the teaching methods and key features of cognitive apprenticeship in mind, a series of

lessons on the teaching of grammar in writing were designed to help these students to be

aware of the existence of the different verb forms and their functions, as well as to

demonstrate the editing process that involves the use of past tenses in their narrative writing.

The series of lessons are carried out in six sessions, 90 minutes per session, as shown in

Figure 2 below.

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Figure 2: Flow

Chart on the Teaching Sessions

Sessions 1 & 2. The first two sessions are on the explicit teaching of grammatical items

which fulfill the key feature of explicit teaching in cognitive apprenticeship. The teacher

explains the usage and basic structures (formula) of the past tense forms explicitly so that

students are consciously aware of them. After the explanation, the teacher demonstrates the

use of the basic structures given by constructing examples sentences on events related to the

students’ life on the board to allow the students to relate the use of past tenses to their daily

life. This illustrates the modelling method. The teacher’s cognitive steps in modelling the

use of the formula are made explicit to the students as they are verbalised during the process.

This is to enable students to see first-hand the process of task completion rather than only the

final product.

Later, a few students are then asked to construct sentences on the board with the teacher

providing steps and guidance (scaffolding) on how the formula is used. Finally, the students

attempt the exercise assigned on their own while the teacher facilitates the process. This

activity demonstrates the coaching process in the teaching methods. After the exercises are

marked, the students are also required to self-correct their mistakes with the help of their

peers and submit their completed tasksheets for re-marking.

Sessions 3 & 4. The third and fourth sessions involve getting the students to start

writing. To enable students to familiarise themselves with the formula, they are only asked to

attempt a one paragraph writing relevant to their life experience. This is to provide students

with authentic context in their learning. For the first paragraph, the students are allowed to

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work in pairs to encourage collaborative social interaction among them and to lower their

anxiety level.

To provide some scaffolding before the writing process, the students are required to list 15

verbs related to a recent school event. The teacher lists the present form of the verbs on the

board and volunteers are asked to state the past and perfect forms. This is to ensure that the

students are consciously aware of the existence of different verb forms of the 15 verbs listed

and to use the one from the correct column when constructing different types of sentences.

With all the verb forms listed on the board, students attempt their task with their partner. The

teacher facilitates the session by providing hints and reminders to coach the students in their

writing process.

When the students have completed their paragraphs, the teacher will ask a few students to

write their paragraphs on the board using the verbs that are listed previously and the teacher

models the editing process, focussing only on the use of tenses. Each pair is then required to

edit their work, imitating the editing process demonstrated by the teacher on the board, before

submitting it for marking. The students are encouraged to refer to the formula from the first

two sessions when editing their work. The students are also required to do correction on their

mistakes and resubmit their tasksheets for remarking.

Session 5. In the fifth session, the students are given a pictorial note-expansion with

verbs given in different verb forms. This is to provide scaffolding to the students so that they

can focus their thought on the grammar structures rather than the content. They are required

to manipulate their sentence structures to accommodate to the verbs given and this provide

the students the opportunity to practice their sentence construction so that they are

consciously aware of the usage of the explicit formula taught during the first two sessions.

As usual, the teacher facilitates the session by coaching the students while they attempt their

task. The scaffolding by the teacher could gradually fade off as the students slowly progress

in their performance. Students submit their work for making and corrections are carried out

for resubmission of their essay.

Session 6. For the last session, a directed writing is assigned where the students are

asked to write an informal letter/email to a pen pal, sharing their experience on a recently

celebrated festival. This is again another task designed in context, which is in line with the

key feature of cognitive apprenticeship. A few questions are provided as a guide in this

activity to provide scaffolding for the students and they could also refer to their previous task

on paragraph writing if the content is related. Similar to previous sessions, the teacher

coaches the students and provides verbal scaffolding during the writing process and the

students submit their essay for marking, followed by the correction.

Conclusion

To sum up, this series of lessons which is designed based on the use of cognitive

apprenticeship is simple and basic but it could help students with low English language

proficiency grasp the basic understanding on the use of past tenses, which will ultimately

enable them to use tenses more effectively in their speaking and writing.

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References

Beck, M. A. (1999). Expertise and Composition: Cognitive Apprenticeship and the Use of

Planning Strategies by Freshmen Writers. Unpublished Ph.D., Northern Arizona

University, United States -- Arizona.

Cash, J. R., Stadt, R. W., Behrmann, M. B., & Daniels, H. M. (1997). Effectiveness of

Cognitive Apprenticeship Instructional Methods in College Automotive Technology

Classrooms. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(2).

Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the

Craft of Reading, Writing and Mathematics (No. 403): Illinois Univ., Urbana. Center

for the Study of Reading.; Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc., Cambridge, MA.o.

Document Number)

Duncan, S. L. S. (1996). Effects of Integrating Cognitive Apprenticeship Instructional

Methods into the Community College Writing Classroom. Unpublished Ph.D.,

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States -- Illinois.

Kolikant, Y. B.-D., Gatchell, D., W. , Hirsch, P., L. , & Linsenmeier, R., A. . (2006). A

Cognitive-Apprenticeship-Inspired Instructional Approach for Teaching Scientific

Writing and Reading. Journal of College Science Teaching, 36(3), 20.

Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie, & Arshad Abd. Samad. (2007). Noticing and Grammar

Accuracy in ESL Learners' Writing. Indonesian Journal of English Language

Teaching, 3(2).

Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin, Norsimah Mat Awal, & Kesumawati Abu Bakar. (2008). The

Mastery of English Language among Lower Secondary school Students in Malaysia:

A Linguistic Analysis. European Journal of Social Sciences, 7(2).

Saadiyah Darus, & Kaladevi Subramaniam. (2009). Error Analysis of the Written English

Essays of Secondary School Students in Malaysia: A Case Study. European Journal of

Social Sciences, 8(3).

Saadiyah Darus, & Khor, H. C. (2009). Common Errors in Written English Essays of Form

One Chinese Students: A Case Study. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2).

Shan, G. (2008). Cognitive Apprenticeship --- An Effective Learning Mode in the College

English Listening Teaching. Asian Social Science, 4(7).

Vahdatinejad, S. (2008). Students' Error Analysis and Attitude Towards Teacher Feedback

Using a Selected Software: a Case Study. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.

Vijaya, K. R., & Viswanath, L. (2010). The Problems of Teaching/Learning Tenses.

Language in India, 10.

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Learning Together or Alone: On the Effect of Using 2 Types of Cloze Tasks on Gaining

Knowledge of Grammatical Features in EFL Classrooms

Naser Sabourian Zadeh & Masoume Ahmadi

Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

The teaching and using of group work and pair work has a history of research effort that

goes back for decades. The research done up to the present has identified that small groups

and pair work should be given prior attention as its positive influence on foreign language

learning outcomes has been rarely questioned (Long & Porter, 1985). There are two major

theoretical learning notions supporting the use of group/pair work. The first one which arises

from the work of Long (1996) is the psycholinguistic theory of interaction. Long in his

‘interaction hypothesis’ believes that by providing comprehensible output and negative

feedback during an interaction, learners can facilitate second language (L2) learning.

‘Sociocultural theory’ is the second of which originates from the work of Vygotsky (1978).

This theory highlights the importance of collaboration as well as social interaction. It claims

that human cannot be developed cognitively unless he/she interacts with others in a society.

In its original sense such interactions should be in form of ‘scaffolding’ (Wood, Burner, and

Ross, 1976). It means a novice member of society must rely on a more able individual who

can be a parent, teacher, or a more advanced pupil to reach a higher level of cognitive

development. In such ‘asymmetrical interaction’ (cf. Faulkner, Littleton, & Woodhead,

1998,p.172-3), the novice is drawn to act similarly to that of the expert for solving problem

which finally results in novice’s extension of his or her current competence (Donato, 1994).

Form the pedagogical standpoint, utilizing group and pair work is one of the facets of

communicative approach to L2 instruction which provides learners with opportunities to use

L2 (Canale & Swain, 1980). It is argued that peer interactions as opposed to those traditional

instructional atmospheres in which only possible interaction was between teacher and his/her

students, can potentially resolve considerable part of issues existing in English learning

(Slavin, 1983). Although the use of small groups/pair work has been acknowledged in the

literature to be supportive of L2 learning, it is noteworthy that what really leads learners to

greater acquisition of a foreign language (English in this study) while working in small

groups/pairs is ‘collaboration’. (Storch, 2002)

A second line of research concentrates on the role of output. Swain and Lapkin (1998)

suggested that using output tasks which prompts learners to produce some language could

function as a means for learners to focus on the more accurate production of grammatical

features. Swain (1995, 2005) also believed that producing output might increase learners’

‘noticing the gap’, (Schmidt, 1990), between their interlanguage and the target language,

thus, helping learners to reformulate their linguistic competence and create an environment

for language growth. Furthermore, task type also seemed to be influential on producing

specific grammatical items more accurately. In this regard, Storch (1999), in her research

concluded that students were not accurate on the choice of articles when doing cloze task–a

task which focuses more explicitly on grammatical features as Storch (1999) has put it−in

pairs. On the contrary, the selection of articles were done more accurately in tasks which

required more production (text reconstruction and composition), giving students more

freedom to discuss different grammatical choices. Due to somehow inconclusive results

obtained in her research, Storch called for further research in classroom setting to investigate

the effect of pair work on grammatical accuracy.

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To the best of the authors’ knowledge, research investigating negotiation over

grammatical forms is rare. Due to the small body of existing research and also inconclusive

findings in the previous studies, there is clearly a need for further investigation on the

efficacy of pair work on grammatical accuracy. Further research is also needed due to the fact

that none of the previously conducted studies offered a structured setting regarding pair work

to see whether it has any influence on more accurate production of grammar. Therefore, the

present study planned to examine the effect of pair work on grammatical accuracy and

addressed the three research questions as follow:

1. Do students working in pairs outperform those working individually on more

accurate completion of the cloze tasks?

2. Does implementing cloze task in the form of collaborative output jigsaw task make

any difference on more accurate completion of tasks?

3. Is there any difference in the effectiveness of collaboration on gaining knowledge

of three different grammatical features, i.e. past simple, past continuous, and

articles?

In order to fill the mentioned gap, the researchers carried out a study in an intact class and

14 Iranian male and female EFL learners studying at elementary level at Kish Air Institute,

Tehran, Iran, participated in the study. In order for the effects of individual differences to be

eliminated, this study used a within–subject design. The data was collected through the

results of a pretest and a posttest administered in the class which met 3 days a week for a total

of six hours per week during a 45–day institutional semester. At the beginning of the 6th

session, a pretest was distributed among learners to measure their knowledge on articles and

verb tenses (namely simple past and past continuous). The reason for not undertaking the

research at the beginning of the semester was not only the rapport which the teacher wanted

to build up with learners, but also the familiarity that he wanted his students to have with

each other in order to be able to do pair works in a friendly and supportive environment. The

pretest was conducted to measure the students’ level of competence for the target

grammatical items because based on Tewksbury’ (1995) claim, knowing individual’s

information is one of the ingredients of having jigsaw tasks at the classroom. The learners

first were introduced to the grammatical items under focus through a mini lesson. The reason

for giving the mini lesson was making learners familiar with the target items before they were

asked to accomplish the tasks. The class was randomly divided into 3 pairs and 8 individuals.

Each individual and each pair received a cloze task in a written form. Eight individuals were

required to fill in the gaps with correct article or correct verb tense individually. However, the

other six completed the task in pairs. The paired students in each group were given only one

copy of cloze task to be encouraged to negotiate and to collaborate more. When the

assignments were finished, pairs received and accomplished jigsaw cloze task in which

learners in each pair first accomplished a part of the jigsaw (5 minutes).Then they all

discussed their answers with other pairs and they discussed the points in groups and each

person mentioned the rational for choosing that response prepared by his/her team. In this

time the individuals were asked to finish a spelling assignment, to put it in another words,

they received a placebo. In this way, the teacher ensured that no learning of the grammatical

features might occur when pairs were accomplishing those jigsaw cloze task .

During the treatment sessions, the teacher set aside time (approximately 15 minutes) for

students to accomplish their cloze tasks and about 10 minutes for jigsaw cloze task in pairs.

The teacher also made sure that the students made the points for which they were asked. Next

class, there was the second treatment session in which exactly the same procedures were

repeated. But the only difference was that a counterbalanced order was chosen, i.e. the

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participants who had completed the tasks in pairs during the first session, did the second

cloze task individually during the second session and those as individuals accomplished the

tasks in pairs at second treatment session. After finishing the tasks, the participants were

given an immediate posttest. The posttest retested their knowledge on the aspects of grammar

which were the focus of this study.

The analyses were run on the result of accomplishing the tasks individually and

collaboratively. The pretest and posttest were each comprised of 15 multiple choice questions

adopted from Objective tests in English as a foreign language by Bloor, Bloor, Forrest, Laird,

and Relton (1970). They were the same in terms of format and level of difficulty but their

only difference was in the selection of vocabulary and context of items. The mean score of

pretest and posttest were also compared by employing a series of independent and paired

sample t–tests through the use of the 16th version of the Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS).

The analysis first compared the learner’s success in completing tasks collaboratively and

individually. To this end, learners’ performance in each task was examined in terms of the

accuracy of producing the target items when they completed the tasks. Learners’

responses to the target items were scored as either accurate or inaccurate. A response was

scored as accurate if the learners correctly supplied the target verb tense or article in

tasks. The ratio of skewness and kurtosis over their respective standard errors are all within

the ranges of +/-1.96. Accordingly, parametric tests could be run to analyze the data.

A one-way ANOVA was run to probe the effect of three different methods of task

accomplishment; namely, individual, pair work in cloze tasks and pair work in the jigsaw

cloze task, on more accurate completion of tasks. The three groups enjoy homogenous

variances, an assumption that must be met for an appropriate one-way ANOVA design. As

displayed in Table 1, the Levene's F of 3.14 has a probability of .06. Since the probability

associated with the Levene's F is higher than the significance level of .05, it can be concluded

that the three groups enjoy homogenous variances.

Table 1: Levene's Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Levene

Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

3.140 2 25 .061

The F-observed value for the effect of accomplishment methods is 2.398 (Table 2). This

amount of F-value is higher than the critical value of 2.3 at 2 and 25 degrees of freedom.

Table 2: Task performance by Different Accomplishment Methods

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between

Groups 42.964 2 21.482 2.398 .112

Within Groups 224.000 25 8.960

Total 266.964 27

Based on these results it can be concluded that accomplishment methods have significant

effects on task performance. The Descriptive Statistics for the three groups are displayed in

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Table 3. The pair work through jigsaw cloze task showed the highest mean score on task

performance, i.e. 11.14. This is followed by pair work through cloze task (8.57) and

individual work (5.57).

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics Task performance by Different Accomplishment Methods

N Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

95% Confidence

Interval for Mean

Minimum Maximum

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

individual 14 5.5714 3.32159 .88773 3.6536 7.4893 1.00 11.00

col. cloze 7 8.5714 3.10146 1.17224 5.7031 11.4398 4.00 12.00

col.

jigsaw 7 11.1429 1.95180 .73771 4.3377 7.9480 4.00 12.00

Total 28 8.4285 3.14445 .59425 5.2450 7.6836 1.00 12.00

As displayed in Table 4;

A: There is a significant difference between the individual work and pair work in cloze tasks

mean scores on task accomplishment. The paired learners outperformed the individuals on

task accomplishment with a mean score of 8.57.

B: There is a significant difference between the individual works and pair works of learners

in jigsaw tasks mean scores on task accomplishment. The paired learners in this group

outperformed the individuals on task accomplishment with a mean score of 11.14.

C: There is a significant difference between pair works of learners in jigsaw tasks and pair

works of learners in cloze tasks mean scores on task accomplishment. The learners in jigsaw

tasks outperformed the other pairs on task accomplishment with a mean score of 11.14.

Table 4: Post-Hoc Scheffe's Tests

(I)

Accomplishment

methods

(J)

Accomplishment

methods

Mean

Difference

(I-J)

Std.

Error Sig.

95% Confidence

Interval

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Individual work paired. Cloze 3.00000* 1.38564 .117 -6.6054 .6054

paired. Jigsaw 5.71430* 1.38564 .919 -4.1769 3.0340

paired. Jigsaw Paired. Cloze 2.42857* 1.60000 .332 -6.5918 1.7346

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

According to what went, the first and second research question that whether students

working in pairs outperform those working individually on more accurate completion of tasks

and that whether implementing cloze task in the form of collaborative jigsaw task make

differences on more accurate completion of tasks were positively answered. Based on the

aforementioned results, not only pair work but also type of task has positive effect on more

accurate completion of tasks.

The third research question addressed the differences difference in the effectiveness of

collaboration on gaining knowledge of three different grammatical items features, i.e. past

simple, past continuous, and articles. In order to investigate any significant difference

between pretest and posttest, a paired-sample t-test was run. The t-observed value was 2.53

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(presented in Table5). This amount of t-value is higher than the t=critical at 13 degrees of

freedom. This analysis revealed a significant difference between gaining knowledge of

grammatical features in pretest and post test.

Table 5: Paired Samples Test (Pretest vs. Posttest)

Paired Differences

t df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair

1

posttest -

pretest .64286 4.46537 1.19342 -1.03537 3.92109 2.539 13 .099

For the purpose of probing the differences between three grammatical features, the

analyses then examined learners’ actual gains of knowledge of the target grammatical

features (namely past simple, past continuous, and articles). The ANOVA did not reveal any

significant main difference for grammatical features (pretest vs. posttest): F (2, 24) = 1.697, p

≥ .05, suggesting that learners did not increase their knowledge of the grammatical features

significantly from the pretest to the post -test. So, the answer to the third question would

interestingly be negative and there is no difference in gaining knowledge of three different

grammatical items features (past simple, past continuous, and articles) by working

collaboratively.

The results of this study confirmed the literature on the use of small group and pair work

in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). The results also were in line with Long and Porter

(1985), they concluded that students while working in groups or pairs have far more chances

to talk to each other for various purposes such as rhetorical and interpersonal, thus, practice

their yet to be developed foreign language skills than in lockstep climate. Learners who are

working in groups and pairs tend to be more critical of one another, resulting in greater

numbers of correction compared to lockstep classroom, and ‘negotiation of meaning’ (Long,

1983) as the essence of group work is higher in comparison with whole class setting.

Another research by Swain and Lapkin (2001) compared the effect of a dictogloss and a

jigsaw task on production of LREs (Language Related Episodes) by students while

interacting during the tasks. However, the results showed that none of the task types had

greater influence over the other in generating LREs and both tasks equally led to substantial

amount of LREs production. Both types of tasks also didn’t differentiate learners in both

groups in terms of their attention to form and grouping of knowledge. These findings,

however, is not in the same vein with ours.

Another similar result was obtained by Goss, Ying-Hua, and Lantolf (1994) who claimed

that Spanish learners completed grammatical judgment tasks in pairs with a slightly better

outcome on some grammatical features compared to those who completed them individually.

Yet in another early study of this kind, Storch (1999) investigated whether pair work has any

privilege on making more accurate and sound grammatical decisions over individual work on

a series of grammar-focused tasks (a cloze task, a text reconstruction, and a short

composition). Nevertheless, it had wavering effect on certain grammatical items. Thus she

came to conclusion that not all grammatical structures may benefit from such collaboration.

Despite the numerous benefits of using group/pair works in foreign language classes, it still

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seems that it is a story never coming to an end. Further investigation is also needed to probe

the effect of task type and pair work on the longer retention of grammatical features.

References

Baleghizadeh, S. (2010). The effect of pair work on a word building task. ELT Journal,

64(4).

Bloor, M., Bloor, T., Forrest, R., Laird, E., Relton, H. (1970). Objective Tests in English as a

Foreign Language. Macmillan, Macmillan publication.

Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second

language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–47.

Faulkner, D., Littleton, K. & Woodhead, M. (1998). Learning relationships in the classroom.

Routledge, Routledge publication.

Goss, N., Yang-Hua, Z. and Lantolf, J.P. (1994). Two heads may be better than one: mental

activity in second-language grammaticality judgments. In Tarone, E.E., Gass, S.M.

and Cohen, A.D., editors, Research methodology in second language acquisition,

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 263–86.

Long, M.H. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of

comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 126–41.

Long, M.H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In

Ritchie,W.C. and Bhatia, T.K., editors, Handbook of language acquisition.Vol. 2,

Second language acquisition. New York: Academic Press, 413–68.

Long, M.H. & Porter, P.A. (1985). Group work, interlanguage talk, and second language

acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 207–27.

Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied

Linguistics, 11, 129- 158.

Slavin, R. E. (1983). When does cooperative learning increase student achievement?

Psychological Bulletin, 94(3), 429-445.

Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy.

System, 27, 363-374.

Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52, 119–58.

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In B. Seidlhofer

(Ed.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H.G.

Widdowson (pp. 125–44). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook

on research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471–83). Mahwah, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: two adolescent

French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal, 82, 320–37.

Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2001). Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: Exploring

task effects. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic

tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 99–118). Harlow: Pearson

Education.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal

of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100.

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The status of theme in research article abstracts: A cross-disciplinary study

Seyed Foad Ebrahimi

Ph.D. Candidate, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra

Malaysia, Malaysia

Tan Bee Hoon

Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra

Malaysia, Malaysia

ChanSwee Heng

Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra

Malaysia, Malaysia

Many studies have been done targeting research article abstract (RA abstract) as an important

part of research article (RA). According to Martin (2003), RA abstract aids writers to pack

the important and significant information and findings reported by a RA into a compact unit,

and to guide the flow of information to be communicated in the scientific community. Time

saving is another function which an RA abstract fulfills by “informing the reader about the

exact content of the article, indicating whether the full text merits their further attention”

(Martin, 2003 p.26). Another function of RA abstract is to convince conference organizers or

journal editors to accept or publish a RA. Given its multiple functions RA abstract analysis

could provide the readers and the writers with relevant insights concerning the underlying

mechanisms and structures (Lores, 2004) as textual operatives in the writing of an RA

abstract.

A discourse community is seen as a social space with experts at the center and

aspiring novices at the periphery (Swales, 1990). Swales outlined six defining criteria

guarding entry into a discourse community, which are: 1) common public goals, 2)

mechanisms for intercommunication between members, 3) participatory mechanisms to give

feedback and information, 4) developed and continues to develop discoursal expectations, 5)

inbuilt dynamics towards an increasingly shared and specialized terminology, and 6) a critical

mass of members with a suitable degree of relevant discoursal and content expertise (1990).

He adds that different mechanisms for intercommunication may be utilized by each discourse

community which led to different genres. One of these genres is academic RA abstract.

According to Lores (2004), this genre is an academic genre with its own functions, rhetorical

structures, and linguistic realizations. Its two functions of being informative and indicative

can be captured in two basic rhetorical structures, CARS (Create a Research Space) and

IMRD (Introduction, Method, Result, Discussion). These two rhetorical structures are

realized by different linguistic features among which is the Hallidyan textual metafunction

(p.281). This metafunction manifests as theme in the clause (Gosden, 1992). Halliday (1994,

2004) defines theme as the element in a particular structural configuration taken as whole and

it organizes the clause as a message and provides the configuration of theme and rheme.

Based on this definition, a clause therefore is made of two parts, theme followed by rheme.

In recent years, many researchers (Whittaker, 1995; Jalilifar, 2010) have addressed

the notion of theme in RA. However, little work, to the researchers’ knowledge, has been

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focused on the RA abstracts regarding theme types and patterns. Therefore, this research

focuses on this aspect of the discoursive practice to find out how theme types and patterns are

applied in RA abstracts with particular reference to the community of writers in the

disciplines of Economics and Applied Linguistics.

Methodology

Corpus: The corpus comprises of 60 RA abstracts from two disciplines of Applied

Linguistics and Economics. The RA abstracts were taken from two journals: ‘Applied

Linguistics’ and ‘Oxford Economic Papers’ published by Oxford University Press. All the

RA abstracts were published in the 2010 to 2011 volumes for the regular articles imply the

IMRD structure.

Method of Analysis: To analyze the data for the applied theme types and patterns, this study

relied on Hallidayan (1994) model of thematic organization and McCabe (1999) model of

thematic progression.

Unit of analysis: This study selected the t-unit as the basic unit of analysis. The selection

was done on the ground that a) t-unit includes one main independent clause together with its

dependent clause(s) which would help investigating theme types and patterns in large amount

of text, and b) the theme type and pattern of a dependent clause is often constrained by the

independent clause (Fries & Francis, 1992).

Data Interpretation: The data obtained was subject to the frequency and percentage count

of theme types and patterns. Together with the presentation, specific selections of the theme

types and patterns are illustrated to provide information on the theme-rheme manifestations.

These manifestations are discussed in the context of the functions embodied in their use.

Finally, Chi-Square test was run to check on the significance of the differences between

disciplines in using theme types and patterns. This helps to reveal discipline preference, if

any exist in the data.

Results and Discussion

In the following two sections, the results concerning theme types and patterns will be

presented and discussed.

Theme Types: Disciplinary difference was indicated by the result concerning the application

of textual theme. While Applied Linguists dedicated 12% of their theme for textual theme

presentation, in Economics RA abstracts this theme was realized in 17% of the total themes.

The results were in line with that of Whittaker’s study (1995) which found 15% of this theme

in the corpus of Applied Linguistics and Economics RAs. The reported result however, was

in contrast with that of McCabe’s (1999). She found 23.91% and 23.40% textual theme in

Spanish History and English texts respectively. This difference could be ascribed to generic

differences in relation to language use. The result also illustrated that both disciplines used

this theme to create external and internal relationships. In case of external relationship,

writers of both disciplines try to present information about the logical relations which hold in

the world out side the text e.g. ‘then’ and ‘however’. In terms of internal relationship, writers

give information regarding the text organization and function e.g. ‘and’ and ‘but’ (Whittaker,

1995).

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Both disciplines dedicated small proportion of interpersonal themes. This theme made

up 2% and 3% of the total theme in Applied Linguistics and Economics RA abstracts in

turns. This finding was in the same line with what earlier reported by Jalilifar (2010). He

found 2.5% and 4% of this theme in his corpus of Applied Linguistics research Articles. This

similarity may be attributed to similarity shared in the rhetorical structure (IMRD). However,

the result of this study also reported disciplinary difference regarding the functions of this

theme. In Applied Linguistics RA abstracts, this theme was applied mostly in the result and

discussion sections aiming at specifying and taking the reader attention to the significance of

the gained result. In the Economics RA abstracts, this theme was used to specify the method

used and presenting the study background. Overall, interpersonal theme underestimation in

this study may indicate the preference of an impersonal tone in the writing of such RA

abstracts.

Both corpora were explored for the applied marked and unmarked topical themes.

Result indicated the use of unmarked theme was four times more than that of marked theme.

This may illustrate that in most of the analyzed t-units, topical theme occupied both thematic

and subject position. This compliance of theme and subject may indicate the structural

simplicity of the analyzed RA abstracts. This is also in line with Halliday’s (1994) idea. He

states that writers mostly prefer to situate theme in the grammatical subject of the clause.

Application of unmarked theme could show that in most of the t-unites there was no need for

prior context leading up to the information provided by the theme, or there was no positive

reason for choosing anything else (Halliday, 1994).

The data analyzed for simple and multiple themes revealed that there was a marked

tendency towards the use of simple theme. This may illustrate that in both disciplines, there

were few overt combinations of the simple theme with the interpersonal and/or textual

elements to signal thematic organization. It could be said that multiple themes are not the

norm in RA abstract writing. This is to be expected as multiple themes are more loaded

functionally which would demand more processing.

The result of chi-square analysis illustrated that the difference between two

disciplines concerning theme type frequency was not statistically significant. This would

mean that both disciplines are rather similar in theme type preference as far as thematic

development is concerned.

Table 1. Frequency, Percentage and Chi-Square analysis of Theme types

Applied Linguistics (%) Economics (%) Chi-square df

sig

Textual 21 (12) 29 (17) 0.862 1

0.3552

Interpersonal 5 (2) 6 (3) 0.200 1

0.6547

Marked 37(21) 32(19) 0.100 1

0.7518

Unmarked 139(79) 139(81) 0.025 1

0.8744

Simple 150(85) 137(80) 0.152 1

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0.6971

Multiple 26 (15) 34(20) 0.714 1 0.

3980

Significant Level= 0.05

Thematic Patterns: In both corpora, writers preferred the linear pattern on constant pattern.

This result may be supported by Fries (1983) who believes that in the presentation of

complex arguments in which each successive idea is an expansion of previous sentence idea,

an academic text, RA abstract in this study, may need to use more cross-referential links from

the rheme of the clause to the theme of the next clause. As such a linear theme may be the

better choice. In the same line of argumentation, Alonso and McCabe (2000) states that this

pattern serves two functions, that of giving explanation to help evolve the dynamic text and

to signal the moving from a new information to given information in the next clause in idea

connection.

While split rheme received very low tendency, split theme was totally put aside in the

both corpora. A split rheme pattern develops the theme in a rather sophisticated manner to

provide the logical coherence. Texts which use this pattern manipulate information in a

pattern that may require the nominalization of a verb in the clause to act as the next theme

and then only proceed with the nominalised theme introduced in the same clause. Split theme

as a possible thematic progression gives a pattern that requires writing dexterity. Adding this

skill clearly would require a greater level of conscious awareness and practice in writing

coherence endeavors.

The data analysis indicated that writers of both corpora used miscellaneous pattern

which is beyond the ambit of McCabe’s (1999) patterns. This pattern is utilized significantly

in 65% and 67% of the total progression patterns in Applied Linguistic and Economics RA

abstracts investigated. In view of the tightness of an RA abstract which is constrained by

length, writers may opt to develop their themes through a more subtle manner. In this sense,

the theme is inferred based on our ability to make logical. McCabe (1999) in fact argues that

a miscellaneous pattern is necessary for discourse development. She adds that this pattern

provide continuity in the text since its references are accessible to the reader.

The figures obtained on thematic progression patterns are also subject to Chi-Square

analysis to relay if there is a significant difference between the data collected. The Chi-square

results reported that the differences were not statistically significant.

Table 2. Frequency, Percentage and Chi- Square analysis of Theme Patterns

Applied Linguistics (%) Economics (%) Chi-square df

sig

Linear 35 (20) 29 (17) 0.243 1 0.6219

Constant 24 (14) 26 (15) 0.034 1 0.8527

Split Rheme 1 (1) 2 (1) 0.000 1 1.0000

Split Theme - - - - -

Miscellaneous 115 (65) 115 (67) 0.030 1

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0.8618

Significant level= 0.05

Conclusion

This research intended to find out how theme types and patterns are used in Applied

Linguistic and Economics RA abstracts. It also aimed to figure out whether the possible

differences between two disciplines in tackling theme types and patterns could support the

earlier claim of North (2005) and Lovejoy (1991) that disciplinary background shapes the

academic writing, RA abstracts in this study.

The results showed more similarities than differences and suggest that writers with

different disciplinary background use similar linguistic resources in expressing theme types

and patterns in RA abstract writing in this study. The result revealed a small difference and

was not statistically significant. Therefore the reported result could not support North’s

(2005) and Lovejoy’s (1991) claims. The similarities showed through the results of this study

concerning theme types and patterns could support Halliday and Hasan’s postulation (1985)

that texts belonging to the same genre are represented through similar contextual

configurations. This is due to shared characteristics regarding field, mood, and tenor of

discourse.

However, the study is revealing in showing how writers balance their choice in theme

types and patterns. The choice of type and pattern is governed by functional notions and may

depend on a number of factors; among them are length, idea complexity and relative

emphasis.

References

Alonso, I. & McCabe, A. (2000). Improving text flow in ESL learner composition. Retrieved April

18, 2011, from: http:// iteslj.org/Articles/Alonso-improving flow.htm.

Fries, P. H. (1983). On the status of theme in English: Arguments from discourse. Forum

Linguisticum, 6 (1), 1-38.

Fries, P. H. & G. Francis (1992). Exploring Theme: problems for research, Occasional Papers in

Systemic Linguistics, 6, 45–60.

Gosden, H. (1992). Discourse functions of marked theme in scientific research articles. Journal of

English for Specific Purposes, 11, 207-224.

Halliday, M. A. k. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd

ed.). London: Britain Edward

Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. k. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd

ed.). London: Britain Edward

Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. , & Hasan, R. (1985). Language, context, and text: Aspect of language in a social

semiotic perspective. Australia: Deakin University Press.

Jalilifar, A.R. (2010). The status of theme in Applied Linguistics Articles. The Asian ESP Journal, 6

(2), 7-39.

Lores, R. (2004). On RA abstracts: From rhetorical structure to thematic organization. Journal of

English for Specific Purposes, 23, 280-302.

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Lovejoy, K. B. (1991). Cohesion and information strategies in academic writing: Analysis of passages

in three disciplines. Journal of Linguistics and Education, 3, 315-343.

Martin, M. P. (2003). A genre analysis of English and Spanish research paper abstracts in

experimental social sciences. English for Specific Purpose, 22, 25-43.

McCabe, A. M. (1999). Theme and thematic patterns in Spanish and English history texts. Retrieved

April 19, 2011, from: http: // www. wagsoft.com/systemics/archive/McCabe.phd

North, S (2005). Disciplinary variation in the use of theme in undergraduate essays. Journal of

Applied Linguistics, 26 (3), 431-452.

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research setting. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Whittaker, R. (1995). Theme processes and the realization of meaning in academic articles. In M.

Ghadessy,(ed.) Thematic development in English text (pp. 105 – 128). London : Pinter

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Issues in implementing Portfolio as an Assessment Tool in Two Malaysian Secondary

Schools

Charanjit Kaur a/p Swaran Singh1, Arshad Abdul Samad

2

1Faculty of Educational Studies

University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, SELANGOR.

2Faculty of Educational Studies

University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, SELANGOR

The concern for students’ achievement in English has received a lot of attention. The problem

of mastering English does not involve students alone. The English language teachers are also

affected. Thus, teachers have resorted to alternative assessment as a means to modify their

teaching and make learning more meaningful in the classroom. Teachers of English as a

second language have begun to use portfolios a non-traditional form of assessment as a

means of gathering information on their students to examine achievement, effort,

improvement and the process of self-assessment. While many proposals have been made on

how portfolios can be implemented, there is a need to seek teachers’ views on issues involved

in its implementation. A major driving force in improving the teaching and learning of

English is the assessment system. While traditional exams are still popular, present day

scholars have turned their attention to alternative type assessment to provide more valid and

reliable information on student progress and achievement (Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohtar,

2010).

Portfolio assessment is beneficial in the sense that it leaves students chance to reflect upon

their development, growth, and progress over time (Wang, & Liao, 2008). It offers teachers

teachers an opportunity to think about their students’ problems comprehensively (Nolet,

1992). Resisting the shortcomings of standardised examinations, portfolio assessment reflects

the “strength, needs, and individuality” of each unique student (Steward, 1993, p.522). To

sum up, portfolio assessment entails the procedure used to plan, collect, and analyse the

various types of products kept in the portfolio (Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohtar, 2010).

Portfolio assessment stimulates students’ learning motivation and facilitates students’

learning process (Paulson, et al., 1991; Nolet, 1992; Cole, Struyk, Kinder, Sheehan, & Kish,

1997). As opposed to the conventional tests which have been not only summative in nature

but also norm-referenced, portfolio assessment offers a more accurate reflection of students’

learning (Dutt-Doner & Gilman, 1998; Steward, 1993). Portfolio assessment is valuable as it

enable students to think critically, and also become active, independent and self-regulated

learners (Bergman, 1994 & Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohtar). Being independent learners,

students can take responsibility for their own learning (Ballard, 1992). Students are actively

engaged in their work and they understand the purpose of doing it. In other words, students

are able to develop their ability to self-assess and thus understand their strengths and

weaknesses in learning. Portfolio assessment helps students build up their self-confidence and

facilitate their engagement in the learning process (Wolf, 1993).

Since the main objective of this study was to discuss issues involved in implementing

portfolio as an assessment tool by the ESL teachers, hence the use of qualitative method

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offers greater opportunities for conducting exploratory and descriptive research that uses the

context and setting to search for a deeper understanding of the person being studied (Troudi,

1994, Maykut and Morehouse, 1994; Maxwell, 1996; Silverman, 2000; Radnor, 2001). As

stated by many researchers, the advantage of having semi-structured interview is that it will

help the researcher to stay alert to the focus of the study and at the same time be open minded

to encounter spontaneous and new ideas that will emerge during the interview sessions

(Kvale, 1996; Gillham, 2000; Radnor, 2001; Silverman, 2006).

Advantages of using portfolio as an assessment tool

i. Identification of student needs

The portfolio assessment provided learners with new tools for assessing their own needs in

assessment and learning. Students were able to do this via the self-assessment activities as

they were able to voiced their difficulties in learning and also inform their teachers what they

learnt best. As for the teachers, the portfolio assessment opened up new opportunities for

them to identify student learning needs.

ii. Student learning

The use of portfolio as an assessment tool revealed its potential and positive impact on

student learning. Teachers shared that students were looking forward to portfolio assessment

as they were required to do the worksheets as to accumulate marks. The teachers concurred

that majority of their students were able to express their difficulties in learning English and

agreed that portfolio assessment had motivated them, made them more responsible and had

made them more confident.

Issues involved in implementing portfolio as an assessment tool

i. set standards for portfolio

Based on the teachers’ interviews and classroom observation data with regards to the

implementation portfolio as an assessment tool, the problems associated are multiple.

A further concern was how to set standards for the portfolios. Four teachers (Teacher F, G, H,

& I) revealed that they assessed students based on the school-based assessment standards

which were the bands, teacher B used the PMR grading method where she gave marks for

band A (20-25), followed by band B (15-20), band C (10-14), band D (5-9) and band E (0-4).

The rest of the teachers (A, C, D & E) disclosed that they prepared an evaluation form based

on the contents of the portfolio as following (assessment/worksheets 14%, personal 2%,

academic 2% & appendix 2%) to evaluate the portfolio as a whole at the end of the year. All

the teachers set the criteria for assessment based on the syllabus and learning outcomes to

ensure validity. However, the teachers found it very difficult to evaluate the nature of this

learning. It was also difficult for the teachers to identify and describe specific indicators of

student progress. Teachers shared that students faced some difficulties with self-assessment

and self-reflection as they seldom were asked to evaluate themselves.

ii. time

The time factor was viewed as problem voiced by the teachers. Teachers were concerned

with the amount of time needed to carry out the assessment process including teaching and

distributing the worksheets, self-assessment, self-reflection and to provide feedback to their

students. Although it was agreed this would require a great investment of time, it was also

agreed that the teachers spent more time explaining to students in overcoming their problems

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and weaknesses in learning, correcting their work especially where writing is concerned and

expose students to self-assessment.

iii. record keeping

The teachers divulged that record keeping was another problem they faced with portfolio

assessment. There were cases where some students did not compile their worksheets

accordingly due to external factors such as being absent and coming late to the classroom,

attending outdoor activities organised by the school and refused to do the worksheets.

Students have to be vigilant with their portfolios so that it would be easier for the teachers to

keep track of their marks and record progress they make in learning.

iv. lack of training & financial constraint

An additional problem encountered was the lack of knowledge or training necessary for

implementing portfolio as an assessment tool. Teachers expressed that in order for this form

of assessment to be effective, teachers must be trained in the various approach.

Teacher F expressed that financial factor was a problem as she had to photocopy a lot

activities for her students.

v. Students’ proficiency

Teacher E expressed her concern with regards to students’ proficiency for written and oral

form as a problem while carrying out the portfolio assessment with her students. She further

explained that her students were afraid in expressing their thoughts whether positive or

negative pertaining to the lesson taught as they felt their marks would be deducted.

Researcher What are some of the disadvantages or difficulties you faced in implementing portfolio assessment?

How do you grade students’ work?

Teacher A Time constraint as sometimes i have to postponed the assessment to the following week due some other

work./

The portfolio carries 20% for year end exam.

Teacher B Not all the students participate because they have no interest./I use the PMR grading method.

Teacher C Sometimes the school reshuffle classes and i always get new students. It takes time to explain again./I give

students 20% based on the portfolio contents.

Teacher D Students seldom write their reflections especially the boys./students know their portfolio project carries 20%.

Teacher E Students cannot expressed their thoughts orally and in written form./ their portfolio project is given 20%.

Teacher F Financial constraint in terms of providing students with the papers and also photocopying./ I grade students

based on bands (school based assessment)

Teacher G It’s the time that I think is a problem./I grade students based on bands (school based assessment)

Teacher H I think it is the time that is a problem as I ask students to submit their work at least 2-3 times./ I grade

students based on bands (school based assessment)

Teacher I A lot of marking to do as I have very little time and also training for exposure./ I grade students based on

bands (school based assessment)

Classroom Observation

The classroom observation data revealed that it was crucial for both teachers and students to

view their portfolios simultaneously as to ensure record keeping each time when the teachers

distributed worksheets and student self-reflection. Interaction between the teachers and

students were obvious as the teachers provided detailed explanation on topics the students

could not understand. Some students were very apprehensive, nervous and afraid to reach the

teachers to share about the problems they encountered in learning or even understanding a

topic in the class, for this purpose the teachers prepared a self-evaluation form for each

student to fill in to indicate what they have learnt, do they understand what they have learnt

and how have they learnt it, is it via the teachers’ explanation or peer’s explanation. The

teachers had to instruct two students to carry boxes containing student’s portfolios from the

staffroom. Teachers distributed the portfolios to the students so that they could compile

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materials, worksheets and self-reflections. Students showed some interest in learning as they

were determined to complete the worksheets as instructed by teachers. It was discovered via

the observation that that learning was meaningful through portfolio assessment as students

were aware of their roles in assessment specifically when they were instructed to assess their

own learning (via self-assessment).

Conclusion

Portfolio assessment provided various instructional/learning opportunities to the teachers and

students such as scrutinizing students’ progress, documenting students’ learning, and

assisting students to become aware of their own learning process. This study highlights

important implications. Teachers have to understand the elements of a portfolio specifically

in areas such as documenting learning, encouraging student reflection and identifying criteria

to assess progress.

References

Ballard, L. (1992). Portfolios and self-assessment. English Journal, 81, 46-48.

Bergman, T. (1994). Feasible electronic portfolios: Global networking for the self-

directed learner in the digital age.

Cole, K. B., Struyk, L. R., Kinder, D., Sheehan, J. K. & Kish, C. K. (1997). Portfolio

assessment: Challenges in secondary education. The High School Journal,

April/May, 261-272.

Dutt-Doner, K. & Gilman, D. A. (1998). Students react to portfolio assessment.

Contemporary Education, 69(3), 159-188.

Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An Introduction to qualitative research interviewing.

Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Maykut, P. and Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning Qualitative Research. London:

Routledge Falmer.

Nolet, V. (1992). Classroom-based measurement and portfolio assessment.

Diagnostique, 18, 1, 5-23.

Paulson, F. L., Paulson, P., & Meyer, C. (1991). What makes a portfolio a portfolio?

Educational Leadership, 48, 60-63. Radnor, H. (2001). Researching Your Professional Practice: Buckingham: Open

University Press.

Silverman, D. (2000). Doing Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications.

Steward, R. A. (1993). Have you read? Portfolios: Agents of change. The Reading

Teacher, 46(4), 522.

Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohani, (2010). The use of alternative assessment to sustain

Teaching and learning. Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

Troudi, S. (1994). The Nature of Speaking Opportunities in An English As a Second

Language Speaking Class. University of Florida: Unpublished PhD Thesis.

Wang, Y. H. & Liao, H. C. (2008). The Application of Learning Portfolio Assessment for

Students in the Technological and Vocational Education System. The Asian EFL

Journal, June/2008, Volume 10, Number 2.

Wolf, D. P. “Assessment as an Episode of Learning.” Paper presented at the Conference

of Constructive Response, Princeton, N. J., November 1990.

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THE INTERFACES BETWEEN MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY IN ESL

CLASSROOM

Saabdev Kumar Sabapathy and Agelyia Murugan

Bostonweb College of Technology and Management and Universiti Teknologi Mara

The term ‘technology’ is not new to language teaching. In fact it is like a buzz word that has

been constantly heard around people and spoken about. To be more precise, technology has

been around in language teaching for eras. This can be seen through the use of the most

common form of teaching, the blackboard which is also classified as one form of technology.

Even videos, tape recorders, language laboratories has been around in the 1960s and 1970s.

Until today, it is still used around the world.

Nowadays, the use of technology is becoming more and more significant in both our

personal and professional lives. Many innovative technological equipments are being

introduced day by day and this demonstrates that technology is equally important as

education does. This correlates with the fact that learners are constantly using technology

progressively. In actual fact, the first thing a student does before he or she starts studying is to

open the Facebook page. Mark Zuckerberg has done a good job in creating this wonderful

website which has indeed attracted millions of users everyday. Actually, it is a good source of

learning whereby it can develop students technological skills as well their language skills.

Although it is more of a social networking website, teachers can utilize ways in which it can

be incorporated into the education field. This can be further introduced to the students on the

different types of media available in language teaching.

Basically, educational technology refers to the different ways of learning through the

incorporation of media in education. It looks at how students can be brought up to a different

level of understanding as well introducing them to the various types of technology in

education. This provides the students with a fresh learning approach and at the same time

getting them to have some hands-on experience.

The relevance of using / incorporating media in technology in the ESL classroom.

Since the use of technology in the ESL classroom is becoming increasingly important,

the relevance of using or incorporating media does have its importance too. This statement is

clearly supported through Wang’s (2005) observation where he stated that there are many

advantages of using media in technology in the ESL classroom. One of the claims is a shift

from the behavioral approach to a constructivist learning style. For young learners,

technology is an essential thing whereby they can transport the outside world into the

classroom. This will enable them to be equipped with the current affairs, stories and so on.

Besides, the exposure and practice of the four core language skills - reading, speaking,

listening and writing will be developed.

Moreover, the easy access to the internet has also given opportunity for the inclusion

of media and technology in the ESL classroom. The internet generally contains thousands of

sources for learners to learn from. Ranging from authentic materials, ebooks, podcasts,

downloadable tasks, songs, movies and many more, the internet has provided more

opportunities for teachers and learners to fully utilize it. This offers more collaboration and

communication between learners from different countries.

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In addition, these days, most coursebooks, workbooks, resource books and learning

materials comes with either a CD-ROM or a DVD-ROM. This is an interesting feature

whereby the integration of education into technology is becoming more wider. The use of an

array of ICT tools together with these coursewares will offer more prospects for learning to

take place. In other terms, students get a chance to self access their learning performance,

keep track of their work and so on.

Types of media.

There are many different types of media that can be use in language teaching. This

ranges from using online newspapers, blogs, wikis, podcasts, YouTube videos, Skype,

movies, softwares such as Power Director, Window Movie Maker, Adobe applications and

even online applications that are available via smart phones or tablet. LeLoup and Ponterio

(2000) stated that the use of a variety of media does improve one’s own technological skills.

In other terms, the more the teachers utilize it, the better he or she will become. This will give

more space and time for teachers and learners to explore and use technology in the classroom.

By integrating media and technology in the language classroom, it will

simultaneously provide the motivation for the students to exert their best efforts in learning

English. The increased motivation deepens retention of content which can minimise the need

to re-teach the content or the language skills. King (2002) believes that the use of authentic

materials like movies will intrinsically motivates language learners to stay focus as it brings

the learners to a new experience, different from the ordinary classroom setting. When the

students work in groups, it will accelerate the delivery of information and increase the

quantity of information available. According to Frei, Gammill & Irons (2009), they stated

that “They (the students) do not immediately believe on what they read. They skim,

discriminate, question, analyse and synthesise information”. This statement is one of the

evidence on how students actively participate in the learning process. Furthermore, in the

English Language Classroom, students would be able to grasp the grammar skills through

media because learning grammar is always not fun and interesting by referring to the

academic books only. Apart from that, it can also build one’s vocabulary as well as the way

they speak their English language because media has the capability to strongly influence

people’s mind.

Enhancement of critical thinking skills through media and technology in the English

Language classroom.

As an educator, we must prepare the students to be able to make judgements on

certain issues more experientially than conceptually. Here, critical thinking encourages the

students to act as a practitioner rather than as an observer. Dressel and Mayhew (as cited in

Young, 1980) proposed that critical thinking can serve as ‘a principle for integrating the

curriculum as a point of view towards problems and their solutions and a way of thinking

about basic problems faced by the mankind’. In the English Language Classroom, media and

technology has the potential to enhance the skills for the students to view problems and find

ways for the solutions. As cited in Young (1980), it is stated that through critical thinking,

students would be able to have:

1. The ability to define a problem

2. The ability to select pertinent information for the solution of the problem

3. The ability to recognise stated and unstated assumptions

4. The ability to formulate and select relevant and promising hypotheses

5. The ability to draw conclusions validly and to judge the validity of the inferences

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All in all, this critical thinking skills is very important for the students because nowadays in

Malaysia, the graduates employability is purely based on how they can use the language and

able to think creative and critically apart from their academic achievements.

New online applications for learning English via Smartphone and Tablet.

Although these devices are expensive, but it takes mobile learning to a new level

where it improves the teaching and learning process as well the convenience to use it either

in or outside the classroom hours. These devices can be best used in the classroom because

the teacher would not experience the hassle into dragging and booking the students to the

computer labs during the language class. Some of the examples of android applications that

can be used in the language classrooms via Smartphone and tablet are Dictionary. Com,

British Council, Jonny Grammar, Capital Quiz, Wattpad, Readers Hub, Test your English,

250 Grammar quizzes, Crosswords and many more. The various features in those

applications above can be used for the purpose of education, communication, information and

also entertainment.

References

Agelyia, M. & Wan Noorli, R (2011). Potential Use of Movies as Teaching Tool in English

Language Classroom to Encourage Active Participation and Critical Thinking.

Malaysia: RMI UITM Pulau Pinang.

Frei, S., Gammill, A & Irons, S. (2009). Integrating Technology into the Curriculum.

USA:Shell Education.

King, J (February 2002). ‘Using DVD Feature Films in the EFL Classroom’. The Weekly

Column Article 88. Retrieved on January 4th

2010 from http://www.eltnewsletter.com LeLoup, J. W. & Ponterio, R. (2000). Enhancing authentic language learning experiences

through Internet technology. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and

Linguistics Washington DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 442 277).

Wang, L. (2005). The advantages of using technology in second language education. T.H.E.

Journal, 32 (10), 1-6.

Young, R. E. (1980). ‘New Directions for Teaching and Learning – Fostering Critical

Thinking’. Jossey – Bass Inc. Publishers: America.

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Analysing the Reported Speech in Papua New Guinea’s Newspapers: Implications for

Teaching English for Journalism

Johnson Agwu Kalu

University of Papua New Guinea

The news report is a genre, a text type with peculiarities in function language and structure.

Its production, therefore, demands what Bhatia (2004:145) calls ‘generic competence’ - “the

ability to identify, construct, interpret, and successfully exploit a specific repertoire of

professional, disciplinary or workplace genres to participate in the daily activities and to

achieve the goals of a specific academic/professional community” (p.145). Managers of

newspaper houses are well aware of the importance of generic competence in newspaper

business. They thus engage specialists; each with a well-defined role, working as a team to

produce a perfect copy. In the chain of command of the newsroom, for example, the down

table subeditors ensure that every copy conforms to the newspaper’s house style in language,

content and structure.

In her book, Reporting in Australia, White (1996) notes the importance of observing the rules

of grammar and syntax in effective news reporting. Similarly, Lorenz and Vivian (1996:8)

stress the need for journalists to master the accepted rules of the English language and be able

to apply them appropriately in news writing. They note that news writing follows the

generally accepted rules of good English, avoiding euphemisms, jargons and convoluted

sentence constructions. In terms of structural and content configuration, a news story presents

facts which answer the who, what, when, where, why and how of the news event.

Kalu and Alimi (2003) suggest that studies that investigate errors in second language writing

should also explore strategies for using such errors as resource in teaching and learning. This

paper investigates errors of reported speech in newspapers in Papua New Guinea and

discusses the implications for teaching English to students of journalism.

Competence in the use of the reported speech is a crucial enabling proficiency for effective

news reporting. However, research suggests a general deviation from the norms of the use of

English among newspaper reporters in English second language contexts (Jubril, 1985;

Verma, 1996; Kalu, 2003). Jubril (1985) cites errors of grammar, spelling and pronunciation

as evidence of the imperfection of the linguistic performance of some Nigeria’s media

personnel, while Verma (1996:3) notes that “linguistic and sociocultural factors cause

deviation from standard English usage in Nepalese newspapers”. He adds that the deviations

manifest in three areas: use of non-English lexical items, transfer of Nepali grammatical

structures into English, and influence of Nepali stylistic conventions. Kalu’s (2003) study on

grammar in news reporting in two local newspapers in Swaziland pointed to poor training of

journalists in the fundamentals of grammar. A similar observation is being made on Papua

New Guinea where the poor writing skills of news reporters is a reflection of a general

underpreparedness of students in the use of English in secondary and tertiary

education(Winuan,2008;Vetunawa,2009;Gerry,2010;Kalu, 2011,2012).

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Rules of Use of the Reported Speech

Reporting what people say can be done in two ways: the use of direct speech and the use of

reported speech. Direct speech is reporting the exact words of the speaker by placing them in

quotation marks. On the other hand, reported speech is reporting what people say such that it

reflects the time of the statement.

Two rules apply in reporting (Ogbulogo, 1990). The first has to do with what happens in the

reported clause when changing a direct speech into reported speech. Following this rule,

when the reporting verb (the verb that says or expresses the speaker’s statements) is in the

present tense, the reported verb (the verb that shows the actual action in the sentence) can be

in any tense without undergoing any change, as in the following examples:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

1. Binta says “I don’t like mangoes”

2. Rahman says “ I will not dance”.

3. Juliet says “I did not sleep well”.

4. Harry says “I did everything right”,

Binta says that she doesn’t like mangoes.

Rahman says that he will not dance.

Juliet says that she did not sleep well.

Harry says that he did everything right.

On the other hand (and this is the second rule), when the reporting verb is in the past tense,

there is usually a shift in the sequence of tense in the reported clause, as in the following

examples:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present

He said: “I want to see the students”.

Present Continuous

She said: “I am visiting the zoo”.

Simple Past

They said: “We caught the thief”.

Past Continuous

Bob said: “I was waiting for ages”.

Present Perfect

Mina said:” I have been to France”.

Present Perfect Continuous

He said: “I have been dancing for six

hours”.

Simple Past

He said (that) he wanted to see the students

Past Continuous.

She said that she was visiting the zoo.

Past Perfect

They said that (that) they had caught the

fish.

Past Perfect Continuous

Bob said (that) he had been waiting for

ages.

Past Perfect

Mina said (that) she had been to France.

Past Perfect Continuous

He said (that) he had been dancing for six

hours.

The study. A total of 1,049 local news stories generated from ten issues of each of

newspapers under study (The National, Post-Courier, Weekly Chronicle and Pacific Business

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Review) were analysed for errors in reported speech. The table below encapsulates the data

and results of the study.

Name of Paper Total No. of

Stories

Total No. of

Errors

Percentage of

Errors

Average No.

of Errors

per Story

The National 339 28 8% 0.08

Post-Courier 252 274 108% 1.08

Pacific Business Review 186 496 267% 2.7

Weekly Chronicle 272 792 291% 2.9

Total 1,049 1,590 152% 1.69

The table shows a ranking of the total number of errors, their percentage distribution and

average spread per story. Only The National (with its low average error level of 0.08) could

be said to have conformed largely to the rules of use of the reported speech. The three other

newspapers deviated significantly, with the Post-Courier showing an average of at least one

error per story while the Pacific Business Review and Weekly Chronicle posted an average of

more than two errors per story respectively.

Declining standard of English at all levels of education in Papua New Guinea probably

accounts for the poor performance of newspaper reporters in the use of English in general and

the reported speech in particular. Studies on teacher performance in schools in Papua New

Guinea (Osborne, 1995 and McLaughlin, 1995) revealed that the English proficiency of most

community school teachers was so low they could not teach effectively. The situation does

not seem any better at university level. Vetunawa (2009) reports that some lecturers at the

University of Goroka have the same academic communication skills problems (incorrect

pronunciation, poor grammar, wrong lexical choice and deviant syntactic constructions) as

the students they teach. Bele (2012) bemoans the incoherence, redundancies and poor

grammar in her first year undergraduates’ essays. Kalu (2012) attributes the poor writing of

university students in Papua New Guinea to a lack of connection between reading and writing

in teaching and learning and recommends a genre-based approach to writing instruction. The

real reason for the poor performance in reported speech is that the reporters (most of whom

are university graduates) were not adequately prepared for the target workplace, in terms of

language needs, while in the university.

What then are the implications of this study for the teaching of English to students of

Journalism at the University of Papua New Guinea? First, there is an urgent need for an

undergraduate-level course, English for Journalism, which addresses real-life language needs

of journalism students, taking into account their present and target proficiencies and the

middle ground lacks and enablers. A needs survey has already been completed with data

generated from analysis of newspaper and journalism students’ writings, in addition to

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eliciting perceptions of senior media personnel (print and electronic) on the writing

challenges of graduate journalists. Second, there is an on-going development of a book with

the same title as the course (English for Journalism), and written in response to the results of

the needs survey. In the design of the new course and the development of the book, errors

from newspapers and students’ writing are used prominently for teaching and learning

purposes. Furthermore, university-wide service English courses are being reviewed to

emphasise the reading-writing interface and to incorporate critical strategies (analysis,

evaluation, synthesis, comparison and contrast, etc.) in the reading and production of texts.

The courses which now have generic and discipline-based components are expected to

provide better bridge and sieve as students transit from the world of secondary school

learning to the university. Finally a problem-based approach to teaching is being

implemented by the author, with the aim of introducing it in other academic communication

skills courses.

This paper set out to analyse the errors of reported speech in four newspapers in Papua New

Guinea. Results show a significant level of errors in three of the newspapers, and this is

attributed to the general decline in the standard of English in schools and universities in the

country. The paper reports concrete steps being taken at the University of Papua New Guinea

context of this study to improve the English language performance of journalism

undergraduates. These include profiling the real-world language needs of students, designing

a new English course for journalism students, development of a book on English for

Journalism, review of existing service English courses to make them more needs-sensitive

and a gradual implementation of a problem-based approach to teaching.

References

Bele, M. (2012). Communication Skills Literacy: Competency Level of University of Goroka

Students. Presented at the RASPNG Literacy Conference. Port Moresby, 5-6 September.

Bhatia, V. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View. Continuum: New

York.

Gerry, L. K. (2010). Language Dilemma in Contemporary PNG Classrooms: A Case for

Schools in the Eastern Highlands and Simbu Provinces. Language and Linguistics in

Oceania 1, 57-67.

Jubril, A. (1985). Use of English in Nigeria Media. Lagos: Lagos Notes and Records.

Kalu, J.A. & Alimi,M.M. (2003). Problems of Organization and Vocabulary in the Essays of

First Year Diploma Students of the University of Botswana. Botswana Journal of

Applied Linguistics 1, 59-71.

Kalu, J.A. (2003). Grammar in News Reporting in Two Swazi Newspapers: Implications for

Teaching Academic Communication Skills. UNISWA Research Journal 17, 30-37.

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Kalu, J.A. (2008). Using the Research Article as Resource for Teaching Project Report

Writing to Final Year Undergraduates of PNG University of Technology. Journal of

Language and Communication Studies 1 (2), 22-43

Kalu, J.A. (2011). From Secondary School to the University: A Study of Transitional

Writing Challenges of First Year Undergraduates of the University of Papua New

Guinea. Paper presented at the National School of Excellence Seminar. Hide-Away

Hotel, Port Moresby. 28 October

Kalu, J.A. (2012). On the State of Written English in Higher Education in Papua New

Guinea: Some Evidence from Research. Presented at the Reading Association of Papua

New Guinea (RASPNG) Literacy Conference. Port Moresby, 5-6 September.

Lorenz, L. and Vivian, J. (1996). News Reporting and Writing. Allyn and Bacon: Needham.

McLaughlin, D. (1995).Teaching for Understanding: The Melanesian Perspective. Papua

New Guinea Journal of Teacher Education 2 (1), 7-15.

Ogbulogo, C. (1990). Problem Areas in English Grammar and Usage. Logomedia: Lagos

Osborne, D. (1995). A Comparison between the French Immersion in Canada and English

Language Instruction in PNG.Tesla: A Journal for Teachers of English as a Second

Language in Papua New Guinea 1 (1), 55.

Verma, P. Y. (1996). Some Features of Nepali Newspaper English. In Baumgardner, R.J.

(Ed) South Asian English. University of Illinois Press: Illinois.

Vetunawa, H. (2009). The Decline of the Standard of English in Schools and Universities in

Papua New Guinea. Language and Linguistics in Oceania 1, 63-71.

White, S.A. (1996). Reporting in Australia. Macmillan Publishers Australia: South Yarra.

Winuan, M. (2008). Factors Influencing Students’ Use of English in Oral Communication.

Journal of Language and Communication Studies I (2), 83-99.

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A Generalized English For Academic Purposes (Eap) Needs Profile Of Undergraduate

Students

Soo Ruey Shing

University of Selangor, Malaysia (UNISEL)

English language, being the official language in Malaysia, is the major medium of instruction

at tertiary level. The mastery of the language will assure students to perform satisfactorily in

achieving both communicative and academic competencies. Thus, the students need to

possess the relevant language knowledge and study skills in order to gain the linguistic

competence in meeting the requirements of academic study. Realising this critical point,

many colleges and universities offer a diverse range of academic-based English language

courses namely remedial English, proficiency English, English for Specific Academic

Purposes (ESAP) and English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) to assist their students

to master the academic language. However, questions such as to what extent the courses are

helpful in assisting the students to learn in a tertiary setting, whether the course content

recapitulates what the students have already learned previously in schools and whether the

courses really provide what the students need or want still remain unanswered. This is

prompted from the criticisms that there is no single course that can cater to all the students’

needs and the language support that is provided to the students tend to be on an ad hoc basis

(Jordan, 2002). In addition, there is a lack of awareness of the existence of needs analysis as a

tool in English course design and many have overlooked course planning as an area in

syllabus design (Cowling, 2007).

Needs Analysis and EAP

‘Needs analysis’ or ‘needs assessment’ is always considered a crucial component and is

fundamental to an EAP approach to course design (Tajino, James & Kyoichi, 2005; Jordan,

1997). A comprehensive needs analysis is a necessary precursor to course development

where it provides a strong foundation to the stake-holders pertaining to the concrete idea of

offering a particular language course and at the same time it also serves as a means of

evaluating the course to ensure that it continues to be relevant to students’ needs. Hamp-

Lyons (2001, cited in Tajino et al., 2005) articulates that “EAP begins with learner and the

situation, whereas General English begins with the language” (p.27). It is understood that the

nature of EAP courses is different from other types of English language courses as the

institutions or course developers should consider the users’ voices when deciding on the

course content.

The concept of EAP is interpreted and implemented differently according to the situation of a

country’s educational policy. In Malaysia, it is a situation where certain subjects are taught in

English and the rest being in the national language (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998; Faiz,

2005). However, the question whether having either ESAP or EGAP courses by considering

the status of the language in the country is not a fixed idea as the nature of the EAP courses is

still largely dependent on the real needs of the students in the respective institutions (Soo &

Tam, 2011) and the answer to this question can only be obtained via a needs analysis. This

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study investigates the academic English language needs of undergraduate students from a

state university in Malaysia. It reports the students’ ability in the four English language skills,

academic English language needs and classroom leaning needs.

Methodology

The theoretical aspect of this study is based on the Target Situation Analysis (TSA), Present

Situation Analysis (PSA) and Learning Situation Analysis (LSA) approaches to needs

analysis (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998). The subjects of this study were 93 second

semester undergraduates from three faculties, 10 ESL lecturers and 8 subject lecturers.

Questionnaires were used to collect data. Three sets of parallel questionnaires were used to

collect the required data from students, ESL lecturers and subject lecturers. These survey

questionnaires contained close-ended questions, open-ended question and semi close-ended

questions. In developing the questionnaires, several related studies were referred to, including

Hutchinson and Waters (1987), Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), Deutch (2003), Banerjee

and Wall (2006), Evans and Green (2007) and Cowling (2007).

Results and Discussion

Ability in the Four English Language Skills (Present Situation Attributes)

Generally, the findings show that the students were much more proficient in their receptive

skills (reading and listening) than productive skills (speaking and writing).

Listening skills. Having to understand the lecturers when they speak fast in English

was identified as the only major difficulty encountered by the students (53.8%). This is

followed by difficulty in taking lecture notes (34.4%) and getting the important points of

lectures (33.3%). The ESL lecturers perceived that their students experienced the most

difficulty in following a classroom discussion which is conducted in the English medium and

in understanding lecturers who speak fast in English. On the contrary, all the subject lecturers

felt that their students did not face serious problems in most of the listening sub-skills.

Speaking skills. As perceived by the students and all the lecturers, the students face

either a lot or some difficulties in almost all the speaking sub-skills. At the top of the list is

the difficulty in using correct pronunciation and follow by speaking with friends inside and

outside of the classroom, using suitable words and sentences, speaking grammatically correct

English, speaking confidently and fluently, getting ideas to speak and giving presentation in

class. Additionally, the ESL lecturers also pointed out other problems such as failing to

pronounce or differentiating sounds like [th], [e] and [ae], always code-mix with native

language while speaking and unable to organize ideas or points clearly during presentation.

Reading skills. Although a greater number of students expressed some degree of ease

in most of the reading sub-skills, results show that they do face some difficulties in certain

sub-skills such as to understand difficult words in reading texts, understand the content of

textbooks and journals, reading quickly to get the general meaning of reading texts,

identifying main points and supporting details. The problem of understanding difficult words,

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which was claimed difficult by most of the students (44.1%), could be the main factor that

causes them to face difficulties in other sub-skills. This finding is largely corroborated by

those reported in Evans and Green (2007). Thus, it could be inferred that lexical competence

has an impact on reading ability.

Writing skills. Among the major difficulties encountered by the students include

writing grammatically correct sentences, linking sentences in a paragraph, citation, using a

variety of sentence patterns and words, using correct punctuation, writing bibliography,

getting ideas to write and using suitable words. The findings suggest that the students

experience greater difficulty with the language rather than the content or structure of

academic texts. Other problems include having difficulty in planning for writing; using direct

translation from mother tongue and using the same function words in writing were also

pointed out by the ESL lecturers. The students were also reported extremely weak in using

tenses, subject-verb agreement and preposition. However, all the subject lecturers

contradictorily perceived that the students did not face problems in writing except for citation

as they only require their students to focus more on the subject matter.

English Language Needs (Target Situation Needs)

Listening needs. The majority of the respondents perceived that the need to

understand lectures, understand discussions and to understanding social conversation as the

most important listening skills.

Speaking needs. The findings reveal the matching opinion between the respondents

with regard to the students’ need in speaking. They emphasised on the importance of having

ability in participating in discussion, communicating with lecturers inside and outside of the

classroom, presenting written assignments, making suggestions, communicating with other

students inside and outside of the classroom and communicating with people in different

social situation. For the ESL and subject lecturers, the needs for skills to communicate well

with other students inside and outside of the classroom and with people in different social

situations were regarded the urgent need of the students.

Reading needs. The students perceived academic reading needs include reading

lecture handouts, reading and making own notes, reading newspaper articles and reading

technical materials such as journal. However, a contradicting opinion was recorded among

the students with regard to the importance of reading articles on the internet. Additionally, the

subject lecturers placed the greatest emphasis on the students’ need in reading and

understanding technical material.

Writing needs. Topping the list of the perceived important writing needs is taking

lecture notes. This is followed by report-writing and project-writing. According to the results,

summary-writing and writing daily journals were deemed as the least important writing skill

by the respondents.

Students Learning Needs (Learning Situation Attributes)

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Instructional materials production and adaptation. The students strongly indicated

that the materials used in EAP courses should be (i) modified to suit the students’ level of

proficiency, (ii) related to the current issues, (iii) related to students’ programmes, and (iv)

related to students’ daily experience in the present and in the future. Similarly, all the ESL

lecturers also strongly agreed that the instructional materials used for EAP courses should be

designed based on these criteria.

Teaching aids. The result shows that the students were highly in favoured of four

types of teaching aids: computer with relevant courseware, TV, CD, PowerPoint Slides,

newspaper and magazine. Besides that, some students suggested the use of journal articles in

language class. However, most of the ESL lecturers disagreed to the use of PowerPoint. They

commented that it is more suitable for subject instructors to explain subject contents.

Assessment. A high percentage of the students strongly agreed to include these assessments

in EAP classes: test or short quizzes, final examination, paired-project work, group

presentation, oral test and listening test. Individual presentation and individual project work

were their least favourite ones.

Modes of conducting activities. The result indicates that most of the students preferred to

carry out academic tasks in small groups (3-4 persons) (90.4%) and in pairs (89.3%). On the

other hand, more than two-third of them did not like the idea of doing tasks as a whole-class

basis (57%) and in a large group which consists of more than 4 persons (39.8%). Similarly,

the ESL lecturers also preferred their students to do tasks individually, in pairs or in small

groups (3-4 persons). All of them also rejected the idea of asking students to do activities on a

whole-class basis and in a large group.

Types of activities. The data shows that the students’ preferred classroom activities include

reading comprehension (96.8%), lectures (94.6%), grammar exercise (94.6%), audio-visual

activities (90.3%), written assignments (90.3%), language games (90.3%) and public

speaking (89.2%). Debate, singing and homework, on other hand, are the least favourite

activities of the students. The data also witnessed a disagreement between the students and

ESL lecturers pertaining to language games in the language class. The ESL lecturers’ reasons

on this matter were: time-consuming, not suitable for adult learners and not suitable for a

large class and not suitable for classes that comprise of mixed-ability students.

Conclusion

With the outcomes obtained in needs analysis, the students’ real needs can be attained when

reviewing or planning for the EAP courses. The finding of this study suggests that ESAP

courses are more suitable in fulfilling the students’ current learning needs as compared to the

present EGAP courses. This is confirmed as the majority of the respondents expect the

students to learn the language in a content-based environment where the instructional

materials used in the language class should be relevant to the students’ course of learning.

Additionally, the students’ weaknesses in performing various language tasks have also been

identified. Although most of the sub-skills are covered in the present English courses, the

responses reveal that they are still not proficient enough in using the language in their studies.

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In this regard, the current syllabus should be enhanced or improved so that the students can

be exposed to sufficient language input and the mismatch between the courses and the

students’ actual learning needs could be reduced.

References

Banerjee, J., & Wall, D. (2006). Assessing and reporting performances on pre-sessional EAP

courses: Developing a final assessment checklist and investigating its validity. Journal

of English for Academic Purposes, 5, 50-69.

Cowling, J. D. (2007). Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus for a series of intensive

workplace courses at a leading Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes, 26,

426-442.

Deutch, Y. (2003). Needs analysis for academic legal English courses in Israel: a model of

setting priorities. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 2, 125-146.

Dudley Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A

multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Evans, S., & Green, C. (2007). Why EAP is necessary: A survey of Hong Kong tertiary

students. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 6, 3-17.

Faiz S, Abdullah. (2005). Analyzing EAP needs for the university. In S. H. Chan & M. E.

Vethamani (Eds.), ELT concerns in assessment (pp. 202-233). Petaling Jaya: Sasbadi

Sdn. Bhd.

Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purpose: A learning-centered

approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for

teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jordan, R. R. (2002). The growth of EAP in Britain. Journal of English for Academic

Purposes, 1, 69-78.

Soo, R. S., & Tam, S. S. (2011). EAP needs analysis in higher education: Significance and

future direction. English for Specific Purposes World, 11(33), 1-11.

Tajino, A., James, R., & Kyoichi, K. (2005). Beyond needs analysis: soft systems

methodology for meaningful collaboration in EAP course design. Journal of English

for Academic Purposes, 4, 27-42.

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Speak Right: Practical Teaching Of Suprasegmental

Features Of Pronunciation For Accent Reduction In Esl

Nate Conrad

ELS Language Centres Malaysia

The Importance of Suprasegmental Features of Pronunciation in ESL/EFL Teaching

Central to the study of English phonology are phonemes, also known as segments, the

individual sounds in English. Languages differ not only in their array of phonemes, but the

patterns of putting those phonemes together using suprasegmental features: patterns of speech

that apply to groups of segments. The features in one language can and do vary greatly from

those in another language. (Mehler, Bertoncini, Dupoux, & Pallier, 1995). Research

(Derwing, Munro, & Wiebe, 1998)has demonstrated that speakers who receive instruction

emphasizing suprasegmental features could in all likelihood transfer their learning to

spontaneous production more effectively than those who receive instruction with only

segmental features (consonants and vowels). Despite this, many ESL/EFL programs continue

to neglect the instruction of suprasegmentals in favour of instruction of simple segmentals.

This omission in curricula doesn’t seem due to lack of pedagogical knowledge, but more to

the difficulty found in teaching intonation and other suprasegmental features. Fully

integrating stress and rhythm into teaching has proven troublesome (Celce-Murcia, 1987) and

the complexity of intonation makes it very difficult to teach (Roach, Emotions, attitudes and

the English speaker, 1996). Joshua Cohen (Cohen, 2007)says “Because of its significance in

English, teaching suprasegmental aspects to students is quintessential to their comprehension

and their comprehensibility.” The understanding and use of these pronunciation features leads

to smoother transmission and reception of language – essentially, accent reduction. In adding

suprasegmental instruction to a curriculum, one should keep in mind the features that are of

particular importance in English: stress, intonation, and how sounds change in connected

speech (Kelly, 2000). What follows are practical and tested classroom activities for teaching

these features.

Practical suprasegmental instruction: stress. Syllabic word stress in English mostly

follows grammatical patterns and is best taught at the time of introduction of new lexical

items. Stressed syllables don’t exist in isolation; in order for one syllable to be perceived as

stressed, the syllables around it need to be unstressed. There are several common ways to

indicate stress when presenting new words to students:

Circles can be used to show the stressed syllable: strawberry

Or boxes: banana

Some teachers use a mark before the stressed syllable (common in dictionaries): to

‘ma to

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Others underline the stressed syllable: asparagus

Or capitalise it: avoCAdo

Sentence stress is primarily based on two factors: contrastive (the ever-shifting tonic

syllables) and the use of weak forms: the condensed, ‘squashed’ versions of certain words

(i.e. can, from, are, him, etc.). Contrastive stress is the effect shifting tonic (stressed) syllables

have on meaning and is closely related to accentual intonation, another suprasegmental

feature. For instance, consider the differences in meaning of these sentences with stress on

the capitalised words:

“I’d like a cup of Jasmine tea” (simple request)

“I’d like a CUP of Jasmine tea” (a cup, not a mug)

“I’d like a cup of JASMINE tea” (Jasmine, not Earl Grey tea).

This illustrative method of contrastive stress is further expanded in “Misunderstanding

dialogues,” an activity from Gerald Kelly’s How to Teach Pronunciation (Kelly, 2000):

In this activity, a dialogue is used which involves a series of misunderstandings. This

exercise is best done with no student preparation and helps to emphasize the idea of

contrastive stress. Students A and B should receive different cue cards:

Student A

I’d like a big, red cotton shirt.

No, I said a big, red cotton SHIRT.

No, I said a big, red COTTON shirt.

No, I said a big, RED cotton shirt.

Student B

Here you are. A big, red cotton

skirt.

Here you are. A big, red nylon

shirt.

Here you are. A big, blue cotton

shirt.

Sorry, I haven’t got one.

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The instruction of weak forms in English is best accomplished through listening

exercises, presenting the target form and controlled speaking practice leading to freer

practice. For instance, both the full and weak forms of the modal verb ‘can’ are utilized

when students are taught and then practice these three sentences:

“Can you swim?”

“Yes, I can.”

“He can swim, too.”

For free practice of the full and weak forms of the word ‘can’, Liang Wenxia details an

excellent communicative activity in her China-centric “Teaching Weak Forms” (Liang,

2003):

In pairs, students interview each other about the special skills each of them has.

Some interview questions should contain can, for example: “Can you play _____

(a game or sport)?” “What else can you do?” “I remember you can _____, can't

you?” The answers “Yes, I can” and “No, I can't” will be used. In step 2, the

statement “I can ______” will be used spontaneously. In this activity, both the

strong form and weak form should be used frequently and the instructor will have

plenty of opportunities for assessment and error correction.

Of course, the stress features in English do not exist in isolation; another wonderful

activity, “Find a Partner” from Gerald Kelly’s How to Teach Pronunciation (Kelly,

2000), combines word and sentence stress (weak forms and perhaps even, contrastive

stress). It is an activity that has proven equally effective in both the cold warm-up and hot

application stages:

Give half the students a card with a word and the other half a card with a sentence.

Each word card has a sentence card match: the word and the sentence have the

same stress pattern. Students can use oral clues to find their correct partner.

Sample cards might be:

Politician / It’s important.

Policeman / He’s English.

Electrician / Can I help you?

Photographer / You idiot!

Interior Designer / I want to go to London.

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Practical suprasegmental instruction: intonation. In a comprehensive sense,

intonation in English can be categorized (Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology : A

practical course, 1991)into six functional areas: grammatical (familiar patterns which

generally follow grammar generalizations), attitudinal (emotional or situational input),

discourse (transactional cues in natural speaking), accentual (closely related to tonic

stress in that words that carry great meaning are emphasized in speech), indexical (the

intonations particular to a social identity, i.e. doctor, surfer, gangster), and psychological

(artificial boundaries separating packages of information). Classroom activities for the

first three functions are detailed below.

Some functions of grammatical intonation may seem very familiar: falling pitch on who,

what, where, etc., questions and rising pitch on yes / no questions. Other examples

include falling pitch on statements and imperatives, and a rising and then falling pitch for

lists of items. With questions tags, the pitch may rise or fall, depending on the expected

answer. In this activity, students use question tags and alternate their pitch between rising

(expecting conformation) and falling (less certainty in the answer):

Your name is __________, isn’t it?

You are from __________, aren’t you?

You have been studying English for __________, haven’t you?

You think English is __________, don’t you?

Outside of school, you __________, don’t you?

Later tonight, you are going to __________, aren’t you?

Attitudinal intonation is the emotional input not inherent in words; it is somewhat

universal to the human condition, and can be quite familiar to students, even to complete

beginners. Pitch is not the only aspect at play here: tempo, precision and body language

also play important roles. In this activity, students can practice using appropriate

intonation when greeting:

A friend you see all the time

A friend you haven’t seen in a long time

A baby

Someone you don’t like

A student misbehaving

Someone on a phone

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Discourse intonation concerns itself with the changes speakers make in relationship to

surrounding sounds. Generally speaking, pitch falls on information thought to be new,

and falls then rises on information thought to be shared. In this activity, students practice

a simple dialogue at a restaurant:

M: Can I help you?

C: I’d like a cheese (fall) roti canai.

M: One cheese (fall-rise) roti canai. Anything else?

C: One iced (fall) Milo.

M: One cheese (fall-rise) roti canai, one iced (fall-rise) Milo. Anything else?

C: Yes. One cheese (fall-rise) roti canai, one iced (fall-rise) Milo, and one

tandoori (fall) chicken.

Practical suprasegmental instruction: how sounds change in connected

speech. In authentic English speaking, words are not pronounced as separate, individual

units. Words blend together, are shortened or simply change all together. Examples of

connected speech include contractions (I am = I’m, that is = that’s), blends (this will =

this’ll, where did = where’d), linking (found out = foun doubt , pet turtle = pettturtle,

swim the channel = swimthe channel, may I go? = ma yi go?, blue is back = blue wis

back), assimilation (in Malaysia = im Malaysia, fished = fisht, did you = didZuw), and

deletions (going to = gonna, you are = you’re, chocolate = choc lit, family = fam lee,

months = muns, hands = hanz).

The aspects of connected speech are best handled through integration into all areas of

language instruction. For instance, in a reading class, the meaning and spelling of a new

word or phrase can be accompanied by the pronunciation in natural speech. However, it

is possible to target specific aspects, like linking in phrasal verbs for instance. In this

activity, “Story gaps,” students are given a set of sentences containing phrasal verbs that

infer gaps in the story and are tasked with filling in the missing narrative:

“When the doorbell rang, he stood up and turned off the TV set…”

“… they got around to discussing the time they first ran into each other …”

“… he was glad that she had dropped in to see him.”

The suprasegmental impact. According to the Longman Dictionary of

Contemporary English, a dictionary compiled for advanced ESL and EFL learners,

accent is “the way some one pronounces the words of a language, showing which country

or which part of a country they come from” (Pearson Education, 2003). Pronunciation is

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“the way in which a particular word or language is pronounced [spoken]” (Pearson

Education, 2003). So, if ‘accent’ is the way a language is spoken, pronunciation is how a

language is spoken. While there are often many ‘ways,’ there is usually just a single

‘how.’ Thus, while accent among English speakers will vary according to nationality and

culture, pronunciation and the suprasegmental features discussed here are universal.

References

Celce-Murcia, M. (1987). Teaching pronunciation as communication. In J. Morley (Ed.),

Current Perspectives on Pronunciation: Practices Anchored in Theory (pp. 5-12).

Washington D.C.: TESOL.

Cohen, J. (November, 2007). Suprasegmentals: Pronunciation Practice for Your EFL

Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, XIII(11). Retrieved from The Internet

TESL Journal: http://iteslj.org/techniques/Cohen-Suprasegmentals

Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Wiebe, G. (September , 1998). Evidence in Favor of a

Broad Framework for Pronunciation Instruction. Language Learning, Volume

48(3), 393–410.

Kelly, G. (2000). How to Teach Pronunciation. Harlow, Essex, England: Pearson

Education.

Liang, W. (2003). Teaching Weak Forms. English Teaching Forum, 41(2).

Mehler, J., Bertoncini, J., Dupoux, E., & Pallier, C. (1995). The role of suprasegmentals

in speech perception and acquistion. International School for Advanced Studies

(SISSA), Cognitive Neuroscience.

Pearson Education. (2003). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (7 ed.).

Harlow, Essex, England: Pearson Education.

Roach, P. (1991). English Phonetics and Phonology : A practical course (2 ed.).

Cambridge: CUP.

Roach, P. (Summer, 1996). Emotions, attitudes and the English speaker. (M. Vaughan-

Rees, Ed.) Speak Out! Changes in Pronunciation, 45-49.

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Excellent Students' Voice: English Public Speaking Activities are Fun!

Evelyn Yeap Ewe Lin1, Hawanum Hussein2, Mohd Anwar Muslimen3 and Mohd Ariff

Ahmad Tarmizi4

Department of Languages and Communication

College of Foundation and General Studies

Universiti Tenaga Nasional

Introduction

The importance of public speaking to influence others and share ideas has become a

social norm to the world. People speak in public all the time, for example, when one is

presenting a paper in a conference, or one is giving his idea in a meeting, etc. It is

definitely an important tool used by everyone in this world to convey important messages

to others (Lucas, 2009). However, before anyone is able to speak effectively and in

public, training is essential in providing the skill to stand up and speak in front of the

public especially when people have to speak in English which is not their native language

in Malaysia. Therefore, in many institutions in Malaysia, public speaking courses or

presentation skills courses in English are required to be taught to the undergraduates in

order to equip them to face future challenges in working contexts. According to Latisha

and Surina (2010), one of the most important criteria required by employers is the ability

to communicate well and to give a good presentation in English. However, apprehension

to speak in public or to give a presentation in public in English is still a big problem

among fresh graduates.

Hence, solutions to overcome or reduce public speaking anxiety needs to be realized

before they even graduated. To reduce their anxiety, this needs to be commenced first in

a classroom context whereby the teachers need to first obtain their interest in learning the

skill in class. The teachers’ effort in obtaining students’ interest in class is very important

as it will enhance students’ concentration to be engaged in learning.

With that thought in mind, a series of fun learning activities has been initiated to obtain

students’ interest in enhancing public speaking skills which will help them in getting used

to speak in public and finally to reduce the level of anxiety in public speaking. This series

of activities were designed to supplement the textbook used in ENGF103 (English for

Academic Purposes) classes in Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) which is a public

speaking course. ENGF103 is a compulsory course for all Foundation students in

UNITEN. It is one of the most required skills to enter their next level of studies. This is

because, in bachelor degree, they will have to give a lot of presentation regarding their

core subjects. This public speaking course consists of three main speeches that students

have to deliver namely – Impromptu speech, informative speech, and persuasive speech.

The course content covers both theoretical concepts of oral communication and also the

mechanics of speech preparation and presentation.

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Literature Review

Activities Facilitate Teaching and Learning

According to Sarjit (2005), teachers are very much required to be aware that the amount

of enthusiasm they portray in their teaching is carried through to their students. She

further emphasized that the use of variety of aids and activities in imparting content is

essential to help students to understand the content better.

This study also utilizes part of the Experiential Learning Model by Kolb (1984) which

stated that students learn from a cycle of four processes, which he insisted that they must

be present for learning to occur most completely. The cycle involves learner’s personal

involvement in the learning itself. From the involvement in the activities designed, the

learner will then reflect on the experiences from many points of view to seek for the

meaning (Reflective observation). From all the reflection the learner made, he will then

draws logical conclusions (abstract conceptualization) that will help him relate the

activities and theories learnt which will finally lead to the decisions and actions (active

experimentation) that lead to new experiences (concrete experiences).

Figure 1: Experiential Learning Cycle, Kolb (1984)

For example, when students are involved in activities conducted in the class related to the

subject they are learning at that particular time, the will start to reflect on the activities

done as how it relates to the subject taught theoretically by adding many viewpoints from

other knowledge. After that students will draw a conclusion by what they have done in

the activities by adding in the theory learnt. Then, it will guide them to make decision

that will then be added to their new concrete experience in mind.

Public Speaking Anxiety

According to past research, there are four forms of CA namely traitlike, audience-based,

situational, and context-based. Public speaking anxiety is a context-based form of CA

where a context-based CA is defined the anxiety to speak in a particular setting such as

public speaking, meetings, etc (Richmond and McCroskey, 1995).

This increased the interest of the research to find out whether the series of activities

designed by the researcher is able to reduce the level of anxiety among the students.

However, the current study is an exploratory research to first find out the perception of

Concrete Experience

Active Experimentation

Abstract Conceptualization

Reflective Observation

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the students on the activities conducted before an experimental study should be carried.

This fits as a pilot study for the next study that will be conducted soon after this study.

Methodology

Design

The current study is an exploratory study which will gauge the students’ feedback on the

activities conducted throughout the semester of whether the activities help in reducing

their level of anxiety to speak in public. This study is necessary before an experimental

study should be conducted to avoid the use of fault treatment.

Sample

The sample for this study was two classes of excellent scholars whose studies were

sponsored by Public Service Department (JPA) and Council of Trust for the Indigenous

People (MARA) chosen to be enrolled at UNITEN. The total number of sample in this

study consists of 75 students who are closely monitored under the Excellent Student

Programme in UNITEN. Both classes consist of a mixture of male and female students in

a multicultural classroom environment.

English Public Speaking Activities as Treatment

There are 7 activities conducted to supplement most of the core topic in the book. They

are:

Expressive Introduction

Students were instructed to use different expressions of emotions to introduce themselves

on the first day of class. They will draw from a box filled with expressions of emotions

written down on pieces of small papers. Students will then introduce themselves using the

expression drawn.

10 Creative Ways to Use an Object

This activity was carried out immediately before students giving their impromptu

speeches. It will help them to think creatively and think on their feet. Students will draw

the object from a bag filled with weird objects. They will have to figure out what they can

do with the objects. It will trigger humour as they may not even know what the object is.

Charade

This is a familiar activity conducted by many teachers. This is a warm-up before teaching

delivery.

Sound Story

This is an activity to be credited to Mdm. Juridah Rashid, from Universiti Putra Malaysia

(UPM). This activity was carried out to help students with their effective use of voice

during presentation.

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Chocolate VS Ice-cream

This is an activity used to practice their persuasive skills before delivering persuasive

speech. Students were instructed to promote their own newly created ice-cream or

chocolate with advertisements and posters. This is a competitive activity between two big

groups of students.

Lord Moulton’s Heir and Property

Students were placed in a court-like environment with lawyers and judges. Students were

the lawyers and the judges for this activity. The judge will determine who should get the

property. This is also an activity used to practice their persuasive skills before delivering

persuasive speech.

Blindly Arrange in Order

This activity was carried to supplement lecture on how to work in a group in the

textbook. Students were asked to arrange themselves in order from the shortest to the

tallest.

Instrument

The questionnaire consists of 4 sections. Section A is students demographic data, Section

B is students’ feedbacks on whether they like to have fun activities conducted in class or

just learning through theories from the textbook. This is a two-choice yes-no questions.

While, Section C will be students’ preferences on the list of activities conducted through

percentage. Lastly, Section D which will gauge their responses on their level of anxiety

with the use of Likert Scale from “1 as strongly disagree” and “5 as strongly agree”. The

overall reliability of the questionnaire is α = .79.

Results and Discussion

Students’ Responses on the Activities

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Students Feedback 75 1.00 1.64 1.07 .11

Valid N (listwise) 75

Table 1: Overall Students’ responses on the English Public Speaking Activities

Overall, students preferred to have lively classes which is more student-centred as

compared to classes which is theoretical based. Among all the 75 students, almost all of

them stated that they like to have this kind of classes in future. The mean score as shown

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in Table 1 has stated evidence from the responses of the students with the total score of

M=1.07, SD=.11 where 1 = Yes and 2 = No.

Students’ Preferences of Activities

Descriptive Statistics

Table 2: Students’ Preferences of English Public Speaking Activities

Referring to Table 2, the most preferred activity is the “10 Creative Ways to Use an

Object” which M = 74.50, SD = 20.37. The second and third preferred activities are

“Sound Story” and “Chocolate VS Ice Cream”. While the least preferred activity is

“Expressive Introduction”. This is probably because this activity was carried out during

their first class where students were still not warmed up.

Students’ Level of Anxiety

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Level of Anxiety 75 2.38 4.90 3.6121 .42

Valid N (listwise) 75

Table 3: Students’ Level of Anxiety

English Public Speaking Activities N Min Max Mean SD

1. 10 Creative Ways to Use an Object 75 .00 100.00 74.50 20.37

2. Sound Story 75 .00 100.00 73.83 19.47

3. Chocolate VS Ice-cream 75 .00 100.00 73.21 22.14

4. Charade 75 .00 100.00 67.89 24.72

5. Arrange in order – shorter to taller 75 .00 100.00 67.49 22.69

6. Lord Moulton’s Heir and Property 75 .00 100.00 65.79 25.07

7. Expressive Introduction 75 .00 100.00 55.69 23.13

Valid N (listwise) 75

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Table 3 shows that most of the students have agreed that they are less anxious to speak in

public after learning from the activities conducted which helped them to enjoy in class

and helped them to understand the course better. The overall scale shown the agreement

with M=3.61, SD=.42.

Conclusion and Recommendation

To conclude, further research can be conducted as the results shown that most students

enjoyed the activities while learning through the whole semester. Furthermore, activities

like this will also create a strong bond among the students which will then reduce their

anxiety level in public speaking. However, this is the first time the researcher conduct

this series of activities, further improvement on how to conduct the activities to create

maximum learning impact on the learners need to be explored. It is also important to use

a complete module for the upcoming study as to maximize the knowledge to be shared to

all academicians around the world on this series of activities.

Reference

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and

development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Latisha Asmaak Shafie and Surina Nayan (2010). Employability awareness among

Malaysian undergraduates. International Journal of Business and Management,

5(8), 119-123.

Lucas, S. E. (2009). The art of public speaking (10th

Ed.). NY: McGraw Hill.

Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1995). Communication: Apprehension,

Avoidance, and Effectiveness, 4th edition. Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch

Scarisbrick.

Sarjit Kaur (July, 2005). Suggestion for Teaching Public Speaking and Evaluating

Speeches. The Internet TESL Journal, 11 (7), 1-9.

Sellnow, D. D. (2005). Confident Public Speaking. USA: Thomson Wadsworth.

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Iranian EFL learners’ listening performance and listening test item formats

Majid Nematpour

Educational office of Mazandaran. Babol

Background

The application of various kinds of tasks in teaching foreign languages and skills related

to language skills is inevitable. Therefore; in testing situation, it seems highly desirable to

include various forms of tasks and items which are connected with different types of

validity particularly construct validity.

Read (2007) considered two major sources of information in the process of listening. The

first one refers to systemic or linguistic knowledge, including phonology, lexis, syntax,

semantics and pragmatics; besides, the other one covers non-linguistic information,

which consists of a related grasp of the topic, memory and individual experience; as a

result, this enables the learners to combine what they hear with what the know. By

contrast, Buck (2001) regards the context of communication as a principal factor which

affects the listeners’ interpretation of what a speaker says. Consequently, context

functions as a third sort of knowledge, which brings about expectations for what we hear

and the best suitable condition for listeners is to have all three kinds of knowledge

mentioned above.

A number of factors that may affect listening task difficulty have been identified by

various researchers. Brindely ( 2001) summarized those prominent features as follows:

1. the nature of the input: speech rate, length of passage, syntactic complexity,

vocabulary, discourse structure, noise level, accent, register, propositional density,

amount of redundancy, etc.;

2. the nature of the assessment task: amount of context provided, clarity of

instructions, response format, availability of question preview, etc.;

3. the individual listener factors: memory, interest, background knowledge,

motivation, etc. (p.375)

Davies et al.(1999) believed that the terms “ item” and “ task” overlap with each other.

He considered items to be shorter and less complex in contrast with tasks which are

supposed to be larger and more complex. A test may include either a large number of

short items or a small number of complex tasks. In addition, the major factors that

influence the difficulty of listening comprehension items in different task types include:

1. amount of lexical overlap between the text and the response format (Freedle and

Kostin, 1996; Buck and Tatsuoka, 1998)

2. length of text preceding the information required to respond (Jensen et al ., 1997);

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3. length of required response (Jensen et al., 1996; Buck and Tatsuoka, 1998);

4. repetition of tested information (Freedle and Kostin, 1996; Jensen et al., 1997; Buck and

Tatsuoka, 1998);

5. whether responses and repetitions of information are verbatim or paraphrases (Jensen et al .,

1997)

According to Brindley and Slatyer(2002), five variables which can affect listening test

performance are as follows:

1. Speech rate: Buck (1990: 91-93) reviews a range of studies, all of which suggest that

faster rates of delivery can reduce comprehension.

2. Text type: the extent to which the text includes features of spoken as opposed to

written language influences listening test scores. Shoamy and Inbar (1991)found that

listening passages differ from each other based on spoken features which are called

‘orality’. Besides, other studies suggested that inclusion of negotiated discourse and

recycling of propositions can help comprehension (Rost and Ross, 1991; Ross and

Langille, 1997).

3. Number of hearings: Listening sections in various tests based on the purpose they

intend to achieve are played in different times. Skehan(1998) recommends that

listening to a text just once enhances the cognitive load since it requires more online

processing; as a result, it makes the task more demanding.

4. Channel of administration: different modes of presentation including live (i.e., text

spoken by a person), video and audio are potentially variable with regard to

contextualization, discourse structure and propositional density.

5. Item formats: The results of some studies show that different item formats may need

various processing demands(Berne, 1992; Hansen and Jensen, 1994; Nissan et al.,

1996). Berne(1992) showed that test takers outperform in multiple choice questions

in comparison to an open-ended or cloze task. He suggested that recognition items

are easier than those need production and retrieval.

While the effects of various assessment tasks have been investigated in L2 reading

comprehension research( Shohamy, 1984; Lee, 1987; Wolf, 1991), extensive exploration

based on the relative effects of different assessment tasks cannot be observed in listening

comprehension. Rubin and Roberts (1987) used both multiple choice and open-ended

tasks to study the performance of subjects’ listening performance. The result of their

study showed that subjects outperform in open-ended section in comparison to multiple-

choice. Berne(1992) applied multiple choice, open-ended and cloze passage tasks to

compare subjects’ performance. The result of his study confirmed that subjects receiving

the multiple-choice task scored higher than the other listening test assessment.

Current study

The probable interaction between test item formats ( i.e., multiple choice, true/false, and

fill in the blanks) and EFL test takers’ listening test performance remains an important

issue. Therefore, the present study intends to investigate the probability of any existing

interaction between Iranian EFL test takers’ listening test performance and the type of

listening test items Thus, the question in this study is as follows:

Is there any relation between Iranian EFL test takers’ listening test performance and

listening test items( True/ False, Fill in the blanks and Multiple choice)?

Method

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Design

An ex post facto design was used to explore the probable interaction between Iranian

EFL test takers’ listening test performance and listening test item formats. Six groups of

Iranian EFL learners’(N=180) was supposed to answer the same listening test including

48 items with the same number of questions, even with no little change in any parts. The

scores achieved by this group was used for the within comparison of this group and the

probable interaction of listening test items with regard to test takers’ listening

performance .

Participants

Six groups of Iranian EFL learners who belonged to intermediate level was selected out

of 538 students through administering a placement test (Interchange Placement and

Evaluation Package published by Cambridge, 2005). All of the participants were boys

and studied in grade 1, 2 ,3 and 4 of Shahid Beheshti High School in Babol.

Materials

Placement test

It was based on interchange (2005) placement and evaluation package published by

Cambridge. It included a 70-item multiple-choice test and consisted of three parts

including: listening(20 items), reading (20 items) and language use (30 items). The

questions in all sections consisted of four-option multiple-choice items and it was

administered in 30 minutes. After the administration of this placement test, the

participants whose scores fell within 43-49 were selected for this study.

Listening test

The construction of the listening test was based on Buck’s (2001)default listening

construct. It includes the ability to (a) process extended samples of realistic, spoken

language, automatically and in real time; (b) understand all the linguistic information that

is unequivocally included in the text; and (c) draw whatever inferences are clearly

implicit in the content of the passage. Besides, the listening test had a social target

language use domain and included four street interviews based on Top Notch Video

series developed by Saslow and Ascher (2006). It had an acceptable internal consistency,

with Chronbach’s alpha coefficient= 0.84 and consisted of an equal number of

Multiple- choice, True/False and Fill in the blanks. Each of the street interviews lasted

approximately between 2 to 3 minutes followed by the same number of questions

depicted in table1.

Table 1. Listening test items

Task Content

No. Of multiple

choice

No. of fill in the

blanks

No. of

true / false

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The test-takers were allowed two minutes to read the 12 questions for each clip and each clip

was played just once, then they were given three minutes to answer all questions related with

each part. The whole listening test lasted roughly 40 minutes.

Data Collection

The listening test was administered within one session which lasted for about 40 minutes.

The test booklet with 48 items was given to each group and then the listening items were

played for them. All participants were supposed to write their answers in the test booklet.

The test was scored by the researcher and it was checked again by two other teachers who

were experts in TEFL in order to avoid any mistakes. One point was given to each

correct answer and the total points for each test was 48. There was no partial credit for

incomplete answers in fill in the blanks section.

Data analysis

The collected data went through statistical analysis by using SPSS 15. Descriptive

statistics for each of the test items was calculated and the assumptions of normality were

analyzed. The internal consistency reliability estimates were calculated by using

Cronbach’s alpha.

Since we were expected to investigate the probable relation between listening test item

formats and test takers’ listening performance in our research question , a multiple

regression was used as a statistical technique in order to explore the relationship between

test takers’ overall listening test scores and three independent variables which are fill in

the blanks, true/false, multiple choice formats of listening test in this study. Multiple

regression can be divided into three techniques including standard, hierarchical and

stepwise and for the purpose of this study standard type was selected since all the

independent variables were entered into the equation simultaneously. Each independent

variable was evaluated with regard to its predictive power, over and above that offered by

all the other independent variables.

According to Pallant(2007), multiple regression can be run if the following assumptions

are met:

Favorite Movies

4 4 4

Hotel Experience

4 4 4

Personality types

4 4 4

Computer use

4 4 4

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1. Sample size: the required sample depends on the number of independent variables

that you wish to use: N > 50+8m ( m refers to the number of independent

variables)

2. Multicollinearity and singularity: Multicollinearity exits when the independent

variables are highly correlated( r = .9 and above). Singularity occurs when one

independent variable is actually a combination of other independent variables.

Thus, both multicollinearity and singularity do not contribute to a good regression

model.

3. Outliers: very high or low scores can threaten multiple regression

4. Normality, linearity, homoscedaticity, independence of residuals: they refer to

various aspects of the distribution of scores and the nature of the underlying

relationship between the variables. Residuals are the differences between the

obtained and the predicted dependent variable scores

Results

Checking the assumptions for multiple regression

The correlations in our model are provided in table 2. As can be seen, all our independent

variables show at least some relation with our dependent variable ( preferably above .3).

In this study, all three test items correlate with total listening test score. Also, the

correlation between each of our independent variables is not too high since all of them

are less than .7. Therefore, all variables were retained.

Table 2 - Correlations

Score

Multiple

choice

True /

False Production

Pearson

Correlation

Score 1.000 .336 .337 .453

M .336 1.000 .550 .184

T .337 .550 1.000 .192

P .453 .184 .192 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) Score . .000 .000 .000

M .000 . .000 .007

T .000 .000 . .005

P .000 .007 .005 .

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Table 3 shows the coefficients which refer to collinearity diagnostics on our variables as

a part of the multiple regression procedure. In this study no violation of multicollinearity

and singularity can be observed since Tolerance = .69, .68, .95 which are not less than .10

and VIF= 1.44, 1.45, 1.04 which are not above 10.

Table 3. Coefficients

Model

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

Correlations

Collinearity

Statistics

Beta Part Tolerance VIF

1 (Constant) 7.637 .000

Multiple

choice .172 2.238 .027 .143 .691 1.446

T / F .168 2.177 .031 .139 .689 1.451

Production .389 5.930 .000 .380 .954 1.048

Normal Probability Plot(P.P) of the Regression Standardized Residual and the Scatterplot

were used to check outliers, normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, independence of

residuals. As can be seen in the Normal Probability Plot(P.P) of the Regression

Standardized Residual, the points are placed in an almost diagonal line from bottom left

to top right. This would suggest no major deviations from normality. In the Scatterplot of

the standard residuals, the residuals were roughly rectangularly distributed. According to

Tabacknick and Fidel(2007). Outliers are cases that have a standardized residuals of more

than 3.3 or less than -3.3 and this cannot be observed in the Scatterplot.

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The R Square presented in table 4 which is the model summary shows that our model in

this study explains 29.1 per cent of the variance in total listening test score. To assess the

statistical significance of the result, it is necessary to look at table 4 which is called

ANOVA. This tests the null hypothesis that multiple R in the population equals .0. The

model in this study reaches statistical significance ( Sig= .000; this really means p<

.0005).

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Table 4. Model summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 .539 .291 .278 3.56047

The next thing which was considered in this study was which of the variables included in

the model contributed to the prediction of the dependent variable. By looking back at

table 2, we can see that the largest Beta value belongs to fill in the blanks items ( B=.57)

and for true/ false and multiple choice items its values are .42 and .44, respectively and

the difference between that last two item formats is not that much noticeable

By comparing the Sig. value of each item test format, it can be concluded that all of them

make a statistically significant contribution since all of them are less than .05. Besides,

the Part correlation confidents shows if we square this for each test item format, fill in the

blanks format of the listening test in this study has the highest contribution to the total R

square ( fill in the blanks uniquely explains 14 per cent of the variance in the total

listening test score while true/false and multiple choice formats explain 1.6 and 1.9 per

cent of the variance, respectively) . It can be concluded that multiple choice and

true/false formats are strongly correlated( r=.55).

Discussion

As for our research question, ‘Is there any relation between Iranian EFL test takers’

listening test performance and listening test items( True/ False, Fill in the blanks and

Multiple choice)?’

, it can be observed that listening test item format which includes fill in the blanks items

can make more contribution to the overall score of test takers’ listening score, while the

other two test item formats ( true/false and multiple choice) make less contribution in

comparison to fill in the blanks items.

The findings of this study are in parallel with the findings of some researcher that

various item formats may include differing processing demands on test takers’

performance in listening tests

( Berne, 1993; Hansen and Jensen , 1994; Nissan et al., 1996). The findings of this

study are in contrast with Berne’s (1993) findings in which subjects outperform on

multiple choice items rather than open-ended or cloze task, suggesting that items

requiring only recognition are easier than those needing retrieval and production. One

reason for the little difference between true/false and multiple-choice test items is that

both of them are based on recognition and the processes involved in answering these

items may seem similar. However, it cannot be claimed that recognition test items

facilitate listening comprehension. The better performance of test takers on fill in the

blanks items can refer to their higher reliability; besides, they limit guessing so that they

can help learners to enhance their concentration while listening.

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As a result, the characteristics of listening tasks should be taken into account and be

based on the purpose of the test and TLU domain( Backman and Palmer, 1996). This

can help test makers to avoid replacing them instead of each other. Thus, the

combination of various test item formats can help test developers to use different kinds

of items rather than just one type which may be accompanied with more bias and cannot

assess the real listening ability of test takers.

Conclusion

The results of this study showed that each type of listening test item format can influence

test takers’ listening performance and make its own contribution, although one type can

make more contribution.

This study had some limitations which should be considered. Firstly, only one type of

genre ( street interview) was selected for this study and it does not reflect all

authentic listening, thus it narrows the findings of the current study and the necessity for

more thorough investigation is apparent. Secondly, this study was conducted merely

quantitatively, as a result, the qualitative considerations of future studies can make a

better contribution for more meticulous exploration on the effect of item test formats on

test takers’ listening performance. Furthermore, all test takers in this study belonged to

intermediate level and other studies with regard to different language proficiency levels

can be conducted in future. Last but not least, the inclusion of other possible listening test

item formats can also be investigated in more details in future studies.

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Oxford.

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Berne, J.E. (1992). The effect of text type ,assessment task, and target language

experience on foreign language learners’ performance on listening comprehension test.

Unpublished PH.D dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.

Brindley, G. (2001). Investigating rater consistency in competency-based language

assessment. In Brindley, G. and Burrows, C., editors, Studies in immigrant English

language assessment. Volume 2. Sydney: National Centre for English Language

Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, 59–80.

Brindley, G., & Slatyer, H. (2002). Exploring task difficulty in ESL listening assessment.

Language Testing, 19, 369-394.

Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Buck, G. and Tatsuoka, K. (1998). Application of the rule-space procedure to language

testing: examining attributes of a free response listening test. Language Testing 15, 119–

57.

Davies, A., Brown, A., Elder, C., Hill, K., Lumley, T. and McNamara, T. (1999)

Dictionary of language testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fidell, L.S, and Tabachnic,B.G. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics: International Edition, 5ed.

Boston : Allyn and Bacon.

Freedle, R. and Kostin, I. (1996). The prediction of TOEFL listening comprehension item

difficulty for minitalk passages: implications for construct validity. TOEFL Research Report 56.

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Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Jensen, C., Hansen, C., Green, S. and Akey, T. (1997). An investigation of item difficulty

incorporating

the structure of listening tests: a hierarchical linear modeling analysis. In Huhta, A., Kohonen, V.,

Kurki-Suonio, L. and Luoma, S., editors, Current developments and alternatives in language

assessment. Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla, 151–64.

Hansen, C. and Jensen, C. (1994) Evaluating lecture comprehension. In Flowerdew, J., editor,

Academic listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 241–68.

Lee, J.F. ( 1987). Comprehending the Spanish subjunctive: An information processing

perspective. Modern language journal , 71. 50-57.

Lesley,T., Hansen, C., Zukowski, J.(2005). Interchange and Passages placement and

evaluation package. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nissan, S., DeVincenzi, F. and Tang K.L.(1996)). An analysis of factors affecting the difficulty

of dialogue items in TOEFL listening comprehension. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing

Service.

Pallant, J.( 2007). SPSS survival manual.: A step by step guide to data analysis using

SPSS for windows. 3rd

edition. New York, NY: Open University Press.

Ross, S. and Langille, J. (1997).Negotiated discourse and interlanguage accent effects on a second

language listening test. In Brindley, G. and Wigglesworth, G., editors, Access: issues in language test

design and delivery. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie

University, 87–116.

Rost, M. and Ross, S.( 1991). Learner use of strategies in interaction: typology and

teachability. Language Learning 41, 235–73.

Rubin, R.B. & Roberts, C.V. ( 1987). A comparative examination and analysis of three

listening tests. Communication Education. 36, 142-153.

Saslow, J. Ascher, A.(2006). Top Notch T.V. Activity Worksheet. New York: Pearson

Longman.

Shohamy, E. and Inbar, O. (1991). Validation of listening comprehension tests: the effect

of text and question type. Language Testing 8, 23–40.

Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Shoamy, E. (1984). Does the testing method make a difference? The case of reading comprehension.

Language testing. 1, 147-170.

Wolf, D.F. (1991). The effects of task, language of assessment, and target language

experience on foreign language learners’ performance on reading comprehension tests.

Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.

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Baptism of Fire into the Teaching Profession: Tips from the Practicum

Habsah Hussin

Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia

The practicum is ESL (English as a Second Language) trainee teachers’ debut into the

teaching profession. Ideally, these trainee teachers should be looking forward to

undertaking the practicum as it is the culmination of their study at the university and an

avenue for them to hone their skills as teachers in applying the knowledge gained, and

translating theories into practice appropriate to the context, and needs of their learners.

As they are teaching in a ‘real context’ of the profession for the first time, the practicum

is their ‘baptism of fire’ into the teaching profession and could prove to be an over-

whelming experience for some of them. As such, they are bound to make mistakes (both

serious and mild) which if not curbed and rectified, may affect their effectiveness in their

teaching.

In this paper, I am going to focus specifically on common mistakes made by trainee

teachers in the early part of their practicum (before the interventions by their mentors and

supervisors) in the planning stage and in implementing the lesson planned.

The Planning Stage

These trainee teachers have two areas of weaknesses in the planning stage (as discerned

in their lesson plans) i.e. in delineating the objectives and the activities incorporated into

the lesson.

Specific objectives. Often, trainee teachers do not delineate the specific objectives of the

lesson succinctly. They may not be aware that even the wording of the objectives is

crucial. For instance, to write the opening line of the specific objectives in this way: ‘By

the end of the lesson ...’ is not appropriate because this gives the impression that

evaluation is summative, and all evaluation throughout the lesson is accumulated at the

end of the lesson. A better idea is to write the opening line like this: ‘As the lesson

progresses ...’ to illustrate that evaluation is on-going (formative) throughout the lesson.

Trainee teachers are observed to adhere closely to the traditional way of writing the

specific objectives: ‘... students should be able to answer 4 out of 8 questions correctly.’

Writing the objective in this way indicates that by inference, the teacher’s expectation of

his/her students is just average. The catch in this type of objective is that when the

teacher’s target is high: ‘... students should be able to answer 9 out of 10 questions’.

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However, if students manage to answer only 8 questions right, the teacher has not

achieved the objective(s) as specified; does it mean that the lesson is a failure? Another

pitfall made by trainee teachers is the use of abstract verbs in formulating the objectives

such as “...students will be able to understand...” and “...enhance their knowledge.” The

question now is how to measure understanding and knowledge? For both situations,

writing the objective in general like this: ‘Students demonstrate their understanding of the

lesson content by their ability to perform the tasks assigned by the teacher throughout the

lesson.’ is more suitable.

The CCTS objectives. The Critical and Creative Thinking Skills (CCTS) objectives are

often neglected by trainee teachers yet these objectives are crucial in elevating students’

thinking by inviting them to share their ideas and opinions, tapping on their creativity and

kindling their emotions.

Activities. Activities are formulated to achieve the objectives set for the lesson. As such,

activities incorporated into the lesson should be realistic, practical, relevant and related to

students’ ability. Activities should be developmental: i.e. from simpler to more

challenging ones, to ensure that even weak students would be able to do the easier tasks,

which would help to instil them with some degree of confidence.

The Implementation Stage

The implementation of the planned lesson is the crux of the practicum. A well-executed

lesson should be taught as planned. Areas that trainee teachers are still weak in, as

observed during their practicum are in teacher input and instruction, teacher-students

interaction, time management and class management.

Teacher input and instruction. The information and instruction given by the trainee

teacher for the class throughout the lesson are in this category. It is good practice to

inform the class the topic and the content that they are going to learn in the lesson,

especially after the set induction in order for them to know what to expect. Doing it in

this way will indicate that the teacher is organised, prepared and ‘knowledgeable’; and

this can help to instil students’ confidence in the teacher’s ability. It is also a good idea

to signal the move from one activity to the next one (sign-posting) such as “_ next, we are

going to do this (activity) _. You are given 10 minutes to complete it.” This kind of

instruction will make students stay focus and on-task.

Before delivering any instruction, the teacher should make sure that all students are

attentive; otherwise those who have not been paying attention when the teacher was

giving the instruction the first time would keep on asking the same question again and

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again. This will result in disrupting the lesson’s progress, as well as be very taxing for

the teacher too especially when this happens while the lesson is being observed by the

supervisor or mentor. Also, trainee teachers need to be consistent in giving their

instruction, as changing the instruction mid-way could confuse the students about which

instruction to follow. Another pitfall trainee teachers should avoid is being too dependent

on the textbook or workbook(s) in their teaching, resulting in the lesson being taught in

isolation i.e. not relating the lesson to students’ life experience, existing knowledge and

their learning environment.

Teacher-students interaction. This aspect is seen the most in the teacher’s techniques

of posing question to the class. A common mistake often observed among trainee

teachers is the tendency to pick a student first, then only to pose a question to ‘the’

student, resulting in the selected student having to face the question alone, with the rest of

the class not paying attention, because they are ‘safe’. The teacher may try to hasten a

response from the student due to constraint of time, thus inadvertently not giving him/her

the ‘wait time’ to process the question. When he/she is unable to provide an appropriate

answer and the teacher poses the same question to another student using the same process

i.e. pick the student first, then only poses the question, the teacher has succeeded in

creating a hostile and stressful classroom environment and injuring his/her students’

fragile emotion. By right, the teacher should pose the question to the class and invite

volunteers to answer the question. Students who are ready may volunteer a response.

Even if the response is not ‘accurate’, the teacher should provide positive feedback to

motivate other students to volunteer next. This can help to create conducive environment

for learning and nobody is humiliated.

Posing a question to each student (i.e. Question 1 to Student 1, Question 2 to Student 2

etc.) and accepting the answer by Student 1 as ‘the answer’ for Question 1 will limit the

range of possible answers for each question, deny students the opportunity to explore

ideas and be very tedious for the teacher to prepare. A better way of doing this is for the

teacher to pose the same question to five students picked at random across the class. If

one or two of the selected students give a response different from the others, the teacher

should ask them to rationalise their responses. Then ask the class for a consensus

response on the question. The manifold benefits of posing questions in this way are that

students are very much engaged in the learning process, SCL (Student-Centred Learning)

very much advocated nowadays is being practiced, reduce TTT (Teacher Talking Time)

and increase STT (Student Talking Time), all students are alert (who’s next? Me?), the

teacher acts as a facilitator and mentor, and students feel appreciated.

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Trainee teachers have difficulty designing CCTS questions when in reality CCTS

questions are so accessible. The teacher just has to invite his/her students to express

opinions and ideas, taking a stance on selected issues, students are interested in.

Another weakness commonly observed among trainee teachers during their practicum is

their tendency to be overly accommodating towards their students. For instance, during

group work activities, the teacher would normally go around to answer every student’s

question. This can be very time consuming and tedious for the teacher to go ‘walk-about’

especially in a large class, as there are many groups. A smart way to handle this situation

is for the teacher to stand in front of the class, ask the student who would like to ask a

question to stand up and pose the question to the class, not to the teacher. The teacher

then should encourage the class to attempt answering the question. The teacher would

confirm the appropriateness of the answer provided by a student volunteer or the class; or

give the correct answer himself/herself if none is forthcoming from the students. Doing it

this way helps the teacher to showcase his/her authority, demonstrate to his/her students

various ways of obtaining information and learning (teacher-students and peer-learning)

while at the same time building teacher-students rapport and cooperation among students

which can result into a very supportive teaching-learning environment for both teacher

and students.

Time management. Trainee teachers should specify clearly the time allocation for each

stage of the lesson. Failure to do this may make the teacher use more time for a simple

task and allocating insufficient time for the more challenging ones. The maximum time

allocation for each stage should be +/- 15 minutes. Longer duration may bore the

students.

Assigning more time for each stage of the lesson will reduce the number of activities

which may make the lesson (seems) to be under-planned. Conversely, allocating shorter

time for each task will enable the teacher to incorporate more tasks into the lesson.

When the school bell rings to signal the end of the lesson, the teacher should leave

immediately in order not to infringe on the time of another teacher who is coming in for

the next lesson with the class. It is very crucial for the teacher not to entertain any

students who would like to ask a lot of last minute questions. The in-coming teacher may

have something important to do with the students (e.g. monthly test, a quiz) and may not

be happy with a reduced time to do his/her work.

Class management. This aspect is discerned in the way the teacher manages the class

throughout the lesson, which to a certain extent would reflect on the teacher’s personality

(strict, laissez-faire etc.), his/her beliefs about the teaching-learning process, and the

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students. No matter how well-executed the lesson is, poor classroom management may

render the lesson to be a failure.

Some trainee teachers are so ‘focused’ in their teaching that they seem unperturbed by the

unruly behaviour of their students. So whom are they teaching, when their students are

not listening and be there with them? What the trainee teacher should do is to spread out

/ span his/her attention across the room (akin to the light at the lighthouse) to encompass

the whole class while in the act of teaching. The teacher should curb any students’

misbehaviours immediately, as case by case, gently yet firmly. Although unruly

behaviour is not accepted, it does not mean that the class has to be rigid. Conducive

noise (conversation during group discussion, applauding their friend’s presentations)

should be welcome, as this is an indication that learning is in progress.

Conclusion

The practicum is trainee teachers’ baptism of fire into the teaching profession.

This paper has scrutinised ‘areas’ trainee teachers are weak in, which could affect the

effectiveness of their teaching during the practicum. The detailed suggestions provided

on how to improve these ‘areas’ hopefully will help them to be more vigilant in the

planning and implementation of their lessons.

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The Making Of Debaters

Moomala binti Othman (Universiti Putra Malaysia)

Literature review.

According to Collins English Dictionary (1), debate is defined as a formal discussion of

a topic or an issue in which opposing arguments are put forward. In a debate

competition, the debater puts across his argument to a third party, for example, a panel of

judges, who will then call for a vote to decide which team is better in its argument and

ability.

Debate is also said to be the oldest activity of the Western civilization rooted in the

tradition of democracy (Ericson, 2003). Proponent of debate such as the International

Debate Education Association (IDEA) states in its website (http://www.idebate.org/)

,“Debate is an essential activity in democratic societies.” Perhaps, this is the reason why

many find debate appealing as it is often linked to democracy. According to Malaysian

for Debate and Public Speaking (www.midp.edu.my/)/there has been a recent surge of

interest in debate as seen in the many tournaments held annually. Advocates of

debate often claim debate offers many benefits (Tumposky,2004). A review of the

literature on debate in the classroom confirms this. Among the advantages are, it

enhances communicative skills (Hall,2011), bolsters teamwork (Gervey,2009) and

understanding of content knowledge(Vo,2006), fosters leadership quality

(Christudeson,2003), improves listening and research skills and cultivates persuasive

public speaking (Oros,2007). As Christudeson (2008) asserts ,"Debate offers all in one

go."

From the educational aspect, debate is an interactive activity involving an authentic give

and take communicative interchange where the speaking and listening skill is intricately

integrated (Brown, 1994). According to MacGilcrist (2011), recent work in the field of

neuroscience has reminded educators of the crucial role that spoken language plays in the

cognitive development of pupils at all stages of schooling. Primary practitioners involved

in school improvement projects emphasize that curriculum should provide sufficient

opportunities for speaking and listening alongside the current emphasis on literacy ( ibid,

pg60).

However, debate has some major drawbacks. In a case study involving undergraduates at

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Gervey (2009) reported that these students found

debating uncomfortable and was a source of anxiety. In the Malaysian context, debate

in schools is an exclusive affair where only three or four upper secondary students are

involved at the district or the national debate competition. It is not possible for school to

hold a debate tournament involving all the students as the number of language teachers

are not many. Similarly due to the constraints of time and the large number of students,

not every student will have the chance to debate in a classroom debate. Hence, an

educational experience was set up to make debate accessible to all by engaging everyone

in a competition. The debate competition undertook a community service learning

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approach where members of their peers would organize, oversee and adjudicate the

debate. Service learning is a teaching method where students will apply their knowledge

and skills to solve a problem or address a real need of their own community (Ohn,

2009). According to Judge(2011), it is a pedagogical strategy to facilitate student’s

potential and growth in academic , communication , collaboration and leadership. This

can be carried out in curricular or co-curricular settings. (Judge,ibid). Hence, this

debate competition project is an example of a specific community–centered service

learning initiative that combines experiential learning and service learning in a co-

curricular activity. The purpose of this paper is to present the Debate tournament project

as a model pedagogical strategy that can assist teachers in various settings to achieve

broad educational objectives related to language learning. At the end of the project, a

survey was undertaken to gauge students’ satisfaction and perception of their

participation.

Methodology : In this project, the competition adopted a parliamentary debate style. A

feature of parliamentary style debate is the use of point of information (POI). A point of

information is a request to the speaker who holds the floor to yield some of his time for

a point of information by the opposing team . This is done by extending his hand or

rising and saying, “ point of information” .

A. Participants

The debate competition constituted three groups: The debaters (debate teams), the

organizers and the adjudicators. 36 members of the English Language Club were selected

as the organizers. They ran the debate competition and were responsible for setting the

venue and deciding the fixture. They were initially given briefings about debate , its

structure and information such as debate topics (motions) , debate fixture, number of

teams and debaters, speaking order and speaking time limits, preparation period, point of

information, etc. 24 students who did well in their English exam were selected as

adjudicators. The recommendation came from their English teachers. A workshop was

held for them on how to adjudicate.

The debaters for this tournament were 120 students of form one and 120 students of form

two. Students of each form were divided into their respective house system. The house

system has six houses. At every debate venue, each house would be represented by a

pair of debaters . 6 debaters, representing three houses, would form the proposition team

while 6 other debaters ( the other three houses) would form the opposition team. In other

words, at each debate venue, 12 debaters were involved. The proposition team would

argue for the motion while the opposition team would oppose.

B. Debate Procedures

The execution of the debate project undergoes three stages:

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1. Pre- debate tournament : During this stage, workshops and briefing about debates

were given separately to organizers and adjudicators. Subsequently, organizers gave

briefings to participants.

2. Debate tournaments : Participants would debate at least four times.

3. Post Debate : A survey was undertaken by the students to find out their perception of

the debate and to gauge their satisfaction participating .

C. Instrumentation

The instrument used in this study was a survey which uses a questionnaire and

interviews on the adjudicators . The interview was carried out at random to determine

the adjudicators’ opinion of the overall performance of the participants and what they felt

of the program.

The survey of the questionnaire looked at seven aspects:

A. Strategies used

B. Ideas

C. Confidence

D. Advantages of debating

E. Effects of debating

F. Recommendations

G. Suggestions

The questionnaire items used a Likert scale ranging from 1- strongly disagree to 5 –

strongly agree. The midpoint rating of “3” was defined as “not sure”.

D. Data Analyses

An SPSS descriptive data analysis was run on the data obtained from the survey.

Results & Discussion :

1) Analysis of Questionnaire :

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Section A : Strategies used

The survey looked into 4 strategies used during debate. The mean for each strategy of

each form is as follow:

No Strategy Form one Form two

mean Most

favoured

mean Most

favoured

1. Discussion with debate partner 4.02 2 3.25 2

2. Writing down their speech in

complete sentences

2.6 3 3.15 3

3. Writing down ideas in point

form

4.15 1 4.04 1

4. Repetition 1.7 4 1.72 4

As shown above , both forms have the same favorite strategy : writing down their ideas

in points, was the most favoured, followed by discussion with debate partner and then

writing down their speech in complete sentences. Repetition was last . In other words,

they seldom use repetition as a strategy.

B. Ideas.

No. Item (Form one)

mean

(Form two)

mean

1. I had ideas 4.01 4.0

2. I could elaborate my points/ideas 3.3 3.2

3. I gave more than one idea 3.5 3.48

4. I did not repeat points given 3.36 3.17

Both forms had high mean for this section. The form one and form two had ideas , their

mean was 4.01 and 4.0 respectively. For elaboration of ideas , the mean for the form

one was 3.3 and 3.2 respectively. Both forms could give more than one argument, the

means was 3.5 and 3.48 respectively. Lastly , both form did not repeat what was said,

the mean was 3.36 and 3.17 respectively. What this meant was simply that since they

had ideas ( this is related to the fact that they could come up with more than one point)

and could elaborate on them, there was no need to use repetition as a strategy .

Section B : Confidence:

The overall mean for confidence was high for both forms. It was 3.03 and 3.27 for the

form one and form two respectively. The mean was moderately high for

loudness ,

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not worried about making grammar mistakes,

confident in giving and accepting POIs from the opponents.

not scared to accept POIs

Despite this ,the majority felt they could not answer well the POIs given. The mean for

the form one and two students were 2.53 and 2.4 respectively . Similarly, the mean for

those who stated that debate was easy was moderately low. The mean for the form one

and two students were both 2.9. In other words, despite the confidence, the students

found debate was not easy.

Section C : Benefits of Debating

This looks at benefits of debate from the language aspect. In listening improvement the

mean was 4.2 for the form one and 3.9 for the form two. The mean for speaking

improvement was 4.2 (form one) and 4.5 (form two). The mean for confidence in

speaking was 3.82 and 3.9 for form one and two respectively. In getting ideas for

argument it was 3.95 (form) one) and 4.05 (form two). In conclusion, both forms found

debate helps in language improvement.

Section D : Effects of Debate

The effects of debate for both forms was positive. For the form one, students found

debating fun

( mean -3.5) , were glad they had debated ( mean- 3.6) and wanted to participate (mean-

3.37)and debate again( mean-3.01) . The mean for each of these was also high among the

form two. The mean for “debating was fun” was 3.5, “wanted to participate again” was

3.2 and “wanted to debate again” was 3.07 . The mean for “was glad I Had debated” was

3.48.

Section E : Recommendations.

Students were asked if they wanted to have debate every weekend during prep hour. The

mean was moderately low. The mean for form one was 2.18 whereas for the form two it

was 2.36. A majority of the form one and two disagree to have it during their weekend

prep class.

Students were also asked if the program should be carried again and the mean obtained

was moderately high. The mean obtained from the form one was 3.18 and from the form

two was 3.0 Overall, the response was favorable.

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Section F : Suggestions

The survey also looked into two suggestions :

1. Adjudicators should inform debaters of their weaknesses after each debate,

2. Adjudicators should discuss the motion of the debate after each debate.

For both forms, the mean for each of the above was high. The form students wanted the

adjudicators to discuss the motion after each debate ( the mean was 3.77) and they also

wanted to be informed of their weaknesses ( the mean was 3.87). Similarly, among the

form two, they wanted the adjudicators to discuss the motion after each debate ( the mean

was 3.09 and that they be informed of their weaknesses after debating ( the mean was

3.7).

2. Interview Feedback from the Form Four Adjudicators

According to the adjudicators, most of the participants were repeating the same point

and elaboration was lacking. Despite this , they felt the debate program was a worthy one

as students did improve and so it should be carried out again .

Conclusion

Overall the debaters had a positive perception of the experience. They felt the debate

was beneficial and fun and they wanted to carry the activity again. However, there was

a mismatch of perception. The debaters felt they had ideas and could elaborate on them

but this contradicted with the adjudicators’ feedback who felt they lacked ideas and

could not elaborate well. The workshop provided merely explained the debate structure

and roles of each participant . The debaters were not shown how to elaborate effectively

nor how to use evidence. Probably, this aspect need to be incorporated in future debate

workshop. The suggestion made by the debaters need also to be incorporated- debaters

need feedback from the adjudicators of debaters’ weaknesses and suggestion on how to

further improve in subsequent debate. Lastly , this project showed that community

service learning is a worthwhile pedagogical strategy that can assist teachers to achieve

objectives related to language learning. As suggested by Ohn (2009), it is a worthy

teaching method as students will apply their knowledge and skills to solve a problem or

address a real need of their own community. As in this project , the organizers and

adjudicators made it possible for meaningful learning to take place for their own

community members.

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References

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Integrating Historical Inquiry in Community Service –Learning. September /October

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Malaysian postgraduate teachers use of Facebook in the ESL classroom:

Friend of foe?

Nooreen Noordin & Sharmila Ganapathy

Universiti Putra Malaysia/HELP University College

The internet age in Malaysia began its inception in 1995 in accordance with the rapid

growth in the number of internet hosts that saw the birth of search engines. A Malaysian

internet survey conducted in 1995 by MIMOS and Beta Interactive Services revealed

that one out of every thousand Malaysians had access to the internet. With more world

citizens gaining access to computers and the Internet every day, the Internet is fast

gaining traction in language education.

Facebook (FB), a social network site created by Mark Zuckerberg along with several of

his friends gained popularity within a period short of time. Inside Facebook Gold

(2010) reported that in 2011, Facebook had 661.3 million users worldwide. As of 31

March 2012, there are 12,365,780 Facebook users in Malaysia in which young people

between the age of 12 to 18 is reported to have access to a computer and internet and

has a Facebook account as well.

Statement of the Problem

Current literature shows that studies involving the use of Facebook have been carried

out across various disciplines and various fields and research on Facebook in education

from Western countries has been abundant but studies from the Asian context have been

scarce. Past studies show that most research carried out had focused more on the

students and not teachers. It is important to note that the use of technology as a

teaching aid in the English language classroom is not new of course; computer-assisted

language learning or CALL has been used in varying degrees in language classrooms as

early as the 1980s. Young adults in Malaysia with Internet access are already using the

medium for social, informational and entertainment purposes, hence using these

technologies in the language classroom may help them better digest learning materials

compared to static technologies such as word processors and software CDs. As most of

these young adults are also learners, educators have been looking for ways to

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understand the phenomena in order to harness its potential for use in education. Hence,

it is imperative that a research that explores the potential of using Facebook in second

language context be carried out as failure to do so might result in Malaysia ESL

teachers falling behind their global counterparts in adopting new technologies in

utilizing far more advanced teaching tools in language teaching. Malaysian ESL

teachers should not miss out on using Facebook to engage with students (who use it) as

a tool to improve English language skills. Seeing that there is a lack of research on

teacher academic usage of Facebook in the Malaysian context, the study attempted to

investigate ESL postgraduate teachers’ academic usage of Facebook.

Review of Literature

Boyd (2008) states that social network sites include web-based services that allow

individuals to: (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2)

articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and

traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.

In addtion, Kirkpatrick (2010) noted people aged 35 to 49 make up a third of FB users

and women account for more than half of FB users. Wong, Sidek, A., Mohd Yunus,

Sidek, Abu Bakar, Meseran, & Atan (2005) found females more competent than males in

some areas of ICT. These findings clearly show how Facebook has become an

important necessity in life as people combine both their physical life as well as virtual

life.

In a study done by Guo, Dobson, and Petrina (2008), it was found that there is no

significant difference in effective use of technology in teaching between teachers who

are ‘digital immigrants’ and ‘digital natives’ as coined by Prensky (2001). Bosch (2009)

on the other hand emphasized that Facebook allow students to ask questions that they are

not comfortable asking during class. In addition, a study done by Carter, Foulger, and

Ewbank (2008) found that high school teachers reacted positively towards the use of

Facebook as it allowed them to establish deeper relationships with and understand

students better. By tapping into the potential of Facebook, educators could tie classroom

instruction to “real life” for students. Mazamm and Usleul (2010) concluded by saying

that social network tools result in interaction, collaboration, active participation,

information and resource sharing, and critical thinking.

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Facebook in Language Education

The use of Facebook could prove to be useful especially in learning a second language

learning as it involves reading and writing as well as engaging in social skills in

cyberspace. In a study done by Fouser (2010), results showed that students learning

Korean as a foreign language used it for discussions and to exchange information.

Meanwhile, Kabilan et al. (2010) found that Malaysian university students perceived

Facebook as a useful medium for them to confidently practice writing, reading and

communication skills. In addition, Skerrett (2010) found that teachers who use Facebook

create a Facebook profile for a character in a literature text as they believed the activity

added novelty and excitement to learning process.

Methodology

The study was carried out in three stages:

Stage 1 - Pilot study: Identified tertiary-level lecturers in MEd. (TESL) and

MSc.(TESL) programmes at UPM and their friends/peers who are Facebook users

(n=20). The researcher did a pilot study to test run both the 48 item questionnaire and

interview questions with 2 (10%) of respondents.

Stage 2 - Actual Study: Administration of the questionnaire via convenience sampling

method was done and semi-structured interviews were carried out with 10% of the

respondents.

Stage 3 - Tabulation of quantitative findings and qualitative information found as well

as presentation of the results and conclusions that emerged from the study.

The questionnaire was adapted from Shin and Son (2007) and Roblyer, McDaniel,

Webb, Herman and Witty (2010).

Results

The results of the study shows there is no significant difference between male and female

teachers in terms of frequency of Facebook usage. It was also found that there is no

significant difference in tertiary-level teachers’ Facebook use in reference to their age.

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Majority use Facebook largely for personal and social uses rather than communicating

with or teaching their current students. Three teachers use Facebook to teach writing,

speaking, vocabulary and grammar skills. The reasons why teachers use Facebook for

teaching include: free, easy to access, up to date and support from students.

On the other hand, the reasons why some teachers do not use Facebook for language

teaching in the classroom include: limited class hours, limited computer facilities, slow

and/or limited Internet access. In addition, lack of support from management in using

technology in language teaching as well as difficulty in integrating Facebook into the

curriculum were among other reasons why teachers do not use Facebook in teaching.

Conclusion

The study shows that ESL teachers who are tech-savvy as well as those who are not are

actually equally competent in using Facebook. Some teachers use it mainly for

communicating with current and ex-students for both academic and personal reasons.

Teachers who use Facebook in English language teaching prove that it works as a

medium to enhance in-class language instruction. It also proves that Facebook can be a

useful peer review tool and strengthens teacher-student rapport. Hence, it is evident that

engaging in the “digital, social, mobile and 24/7” teaching and learning style (a.k.a.

Facebook) improves teaching outcomes and student-teacher communication or vice-

versa.

References

Boyd, D. (2008). Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics

in teenage social life. In D. Buckingham (Ed.), Youth, Identity, and Digital Media

(pp. 119-142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Carter, H.L., T. Foulger, and A. Ewbank. (2008) Have You Googled Your Teacher

Lately? Teachers’ Use of Social Networking Sites. Phi Delta Kappan, May, pp.

681-685.

Fouser, R. (July 19 – 23, 2010). From CMS to SNS: Exploring the Use of Facebook in

the Social Constructivist Paradigm. International Symposium on Applications

and the Internet, Seoul, Korea.

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Guo, R. X., Dobson, T., & Petrina, S. (2008). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants: An

analysis of Age and ICT Competence in Teacher Education. Journal of

Educational Computing Research, 38(3), 235 – 254.

Kabilan, M. K., Ahmad, N., & Abidin, M. J. Z. (2010). Facebook: An online

environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education? The

Internet and HigherEducation, 13(4), 179-187. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.

2010.07.003

Kirkpatrick, D. (2010) The Facebook Effect: The Inside Story of the Company That is

Connecting the World, Simon & Schuster, New York.

Mazamm, S., & Usleul, Y. (2010). Modeling Educational Usage of Facebook.

Computers & Education, 55(2), 444-453.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5),

1 – 6.

Roblyer, M., McDaniel, M., Webb, M., Herman, J., & Witty, J. (2010). Findings on

Facebook in Higher Education: A Comparison of College Faculty and Student

Uses and Perceptions of Social Networking Sites. The Internet and Higher

Education, 13(3), 134-140.

Shin, H. J., & Son, J. B. (2007). EFL teachers' perceptions and perspectives on

Internet- assisted language teaching. CALL-EJ Online, 8(2). Retrieved July 17,

2008, from

http://www.tell.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/journal/8-2/h-js_j-bs.html

Skerrett, A. (2010). Lolita, facebook, and the third space of literacy teacher

education. Educational Studies, 46(1), 67-84.

Wong Su Luan, Sidek Abdul Aziz, Aida Suraya Mohd Yunus, Zakaria Sidek, Kamariah

Abu Bakar, Hamidah Meseran & Hanafi Atan (2005). Gender Differences in

ICT Competencies among Academicians at Universiti Putra Malaysia

Malaysian Online Journal of Instructional Technology (MOJIT), Vol. 2,

No. 3, pp 62-69

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Pragmatic strategies and linguistic structures in making ‘suggestions’: Towards

comprehensive taxonomies

Hossein Abolfathi asl & Ain Nadzimah Abdullah

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Introduction

Research on second language pragmatics acquisition or development has been

synonymous with studying various speech acts in different cultural and pedagogical

settings. Researchers have tried to develop classifications for structures and strategies

used to perform different speech acts through cross-cultural and cross-linguistic studies in

recent years. These classifications and taxonomies can be used by other researchers in

pragmatics research, especially in interventional studies. They can also comprise teaching

material in ESL/EFL classroom. Suggesting is one of the face-threatening speech acts

which has not been studied much in pragmatics research. Few taxonomies and

classifications have been proposed for suggesting strategies and structures so far, yet

there is not a comprehensive set of taxonomies of the structures and strategies involved in

making L2 suggestions. In this paper, an improved taxonomy of linguistic structures for

making suggestions will be presented based on existing taxonomies and a set of

politeness strategies will be provided to make a more comprehensive set of taxonomies

for ‘suggestions’. The next section will define the speech act of suggesting, followed by

linguistic structure and politeness strategy classifications proposed in order to move

towards more inclusive taxonomies for the speech act of suggesting.

Defining the Speech Act of Suggesting

Suggesting belongs to directive speech acts in which, according to Searle (1976), the

speaker’s aim is to get the hearer to commit themselves to some future course of action.

Based on this definition, many researchers regard suggesting as a directive speech act

(Brown and Levinson, 1978; Holmes, 1983; Schmidt and Richards, 1985; Banerjee and

Carrell, 1988 among others). Banerjee and Carrell (1988) define suggestion as “an

utterance that the speaker intends the hearer to perceive as a directive to do something

that will be to the hearer’s benefit” (p. 319). In Bach and Harnish’s (1979) definition of

directives, it is implied that the speaker’s intention in an utterance must be taken as a

reason for the hearer’s future action. The necessary interaction between the speaker and

the hearer is one of the features distinguishing directives from other groups of speech

acts. According to Trosborg (1995), the hearer’s future action is part of the speaker’s

intention only in the case of directives. Thomas (1995) also believes that both the speaker

and the hearer should be considered in producing directive speech acts.

According to Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness theory, suggesting is regarded as a

face-threatening act (FTA) since the interlocutor who makes the suggestion somehow

intrudes into the hearer’s world through performing an act to get the latter to do

something. Banerjee and Carrell (1988) regard suggestions as an imposition on the

hearer by affronting their negative face. In making suggestions several factors should be

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taken into account such as the degree of embarrassment in the situation, the urgency of

suggestion, the social distance and power between the interlocutors (Brown and

Levinson, 1987). Regarding these factors and the extent to which a situation can be more

or less threatening, the speaker might try to employ some politeness strategies to soften

or mitigate the speech act and thus prevent or minimize the chances of the hearer’s being

offended (Martinez-Flor, 2005).

Linguistic Structures Used for Making Suggestions

Successful speech act performance involves possessing socio-cultural and sociolinguistic

knowledge by the interlocutors (Cohen, 1996). Sociocultural knowledge determines when

and which speech act is appropriate in a given situation and sociolinguistic knowledge,

also referred to as pragmalinguistic knowledge (Thomas, 1983; Bardovi-Harlig, 1999;

Kasper and Rose, 2002), determines the linguistic realization of a speech act which is

appropriate in a specific situation. This type of knowledge encompasses the knowledge

about linguistic and strategic resources available for communicating through performing

a speech act. According to Kasper (1997), these resources include pragmatic strategies,

routines, and a variety of linguistic structures that can intensify or mitigate

communicative acts. Thus, a large range of linguistic structures and having knowledge of

these forms is an essential component of speech act performance.

In an attempt to come up with a comprehensive list of linguistic structures used for

making suggestions, the author reviewed the previous studies and taxonomies provided

for these structures in the literature. The linguistic structures used for making suggestions

provided by Jiang (2006) and Martinez-Flor (2005) were found to be the most recent and

comprehensive lists available to be used in the current study. The list of structures

provided by Jiang (2006) is based on corpus data analysis, thus it reflects real-life usage

of the structures well. A new list of structures would be created by merging the two lists

mentioned above in order to provide a more inclusive taxonomy to be used in the study.

Using naturally occurring data from office hours and study groups of the TOEFL 2000

Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus (data from US universities) by Biber et

al. (2002) and generating a list of possible and most commonly used structures for

making suggestions from different sources, Jiang (2006) conducted a concordance search

to determine each structure’s frequency of occurrence and also the register differences

between office hours and study groups (i.e. corpus data) in terms of using the structures.

In the list provided by Jiang (2006), the structures are classified into nine categories

based on their grammatical features, including Let’s…, modals and semi-modals, Wh-

questions, conditionals, performatives, pseudo cleft structures, extraposed to-clauses, yes-

no questions, and imperatives. A list of the structures with examples for each category is

illustrated in Table 2.

LINGUISTIC

STRUCTURE

EXAMPLE

Let’s . . .

Modals and semi-modals You need to… You should…You must. . .

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Wh-questions Why don’t you…? How about…?

Conditionals If I were… If you….

Performatives suggest/recommend/suggestion/recommendation/proposal

Pseudo-cleft structures One thing you could do is. . .All…is… what…..is….

Extraposed to-clauses It might be. . . to…

It never hurts/. . .won’t hurt… to...

Yes–no questions

Have you thought of/about . . .?

Would you consider . . .?

Imperatives

Try… Write…

Table 1 List of structures used for making suggestions (Jiang, 2006)

Martinez-Flor (2005) also proposed a taxonomy of suggestion linguistic realization

strategies including three main types of direct, conventionalized and indirect forms. The

direct strategies in which the speaker clearly states what he/she means are performed

using performative verbs, a noun of suggestion, imperatives and negative imperatives. It

has been argued that the use of performative verbs to make suggestions is not very

common in everyday life regarding its high level of directness. However, Martinez-Flor’s

(2004) findings show that native speakers sometimes use performative verbs to make

suggestions in formal situations. The use of a noun of suggestion is regarded as a very

direct type of suggestion as well (Tsui, 1994). Making suggestions using imperatives is

regarded as the most direct and impolite forms of suggesting (Edmonson and House,

1981; Koike, 1997; Hinkel, 1997; Martinez-Flor, 2005) since they carry the most literal

pragmatic force.

The second type of forms used to make suggestions in Martinez-Flor’s taxonomy is

conventionalized forms. These forms are not as direct as the first type of suggestions and

the illocutionary force indicator appears in the utterance so that the hearer can understand

the speaker’s intentions behind the suggestion. The conventionalized type includes the

use of specific formulae (i.e. interrogative forms), expressions of possibility or

probability, the use of verbs should and need, and the use of conditionals.

The third type of linguistic suggesting strategies is referred to as indirect suggestions

(Martinez-Flor, 2005). In these forms of suggestions, there is no indicator of illocutionary

force in the utterance so the speaker’s intention should be inferred by the hearer. Using

various impersonal forms and also hints has been regarded as two ways of making

indirect suggestions (Hinkel, 1994, 1997; Koike, 1994; Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford,

1996). The taxonomy of suggestion linguistic realization strate gies provided by

Martinez-Flor (2005) is shown in Table 0

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TYPE STRATEGY EXAMPLE DIRECT Performative verb I suggest that you...

I advise you to ...

I recommend that you ... Noun of suggestion My suggestion would be... Imperative Try using... Negative

imperative

Don't trv to... CONVENTIONALISED

FORMS

Specific formulae

(interrogative

forms)

Why don't you...?

How about...?

What about...?

Have you thought about... ? Possibility/probabil

ity

You can... You could... You

may... You might...

Should You should... Need You need to... Conditional If I were you, I would ...

INDIRECT Impersonal One thing (that you can do)

would be

Here's one possibility: ...

There are a number of options

that

you...

It would be helpful if you...

It might be better to ...

A good idea would be ...

It would be nice if...

Hints I've heard that...

Table 0 Taxonomy of Suggestion Linguistic Realization Strategies (Martinez-

Flor, 2005)

Although classifications of linguistic forms used for making suggestions provided by

Jiang (2006) and Martinez-Flor (2005) overlap to some extent, there are specific features

to either classification which are absent in the other one. The list provided by Jiang

(2006) does not provide strategies of making suggestions; however, it seems to be a more

inclusive list regarding the categorization of linguistic structures. Martinez-Flor’s (2005)

taxonomy provides three types of strategies as well, even though the structure

classification is not as inclusive as the one presented in Jiang’s (2006) list. Thus, merging

the two taxonomies would provide a more inclusive taxonomy of linguistic structures and

strategies used for performing the speech act of suggesting. Table 3 illustrates the

taxonomy developed from combining previously discussed taxonomies in order to make

a more inclusive categorization of suggesting strategies and structures.

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SUGGESTING

STRATEGY

STRUCTURE EXAMPLES

DIRECT

Performatives: Performative

Verbs & Noun of Suggestion

-I suggest/recommend/propose

-My suggestion/advice is that…

Imperatives & Negative

imperatives

-Ask them about…

-Don’t try to use…

Let’s… Let’s work together on the project.

INDIRECT

Pseudo-cleft Structures

-All…is…

-One thing you could do is…

-One important thing to keep in

mind is…

Extraposed to-clauses

-It might (not) be …to…

-It is …to…

Hints -I’ve read/heard that…

CONVENTIONALIZED

FORMS

Modals & Semi-modals

-You…have to/need to/should

(shouldn’t)/ought

to/can/could/might/had better…

Conditionals

-If you…

-If I were you…

Wh-Questions (interrogative)

-Why don’t you…?

-How about…?

Why not…?

Yes-no Questions

(interrogative)

-Would you consider…?

-Have you thought of…?

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Table 3 An inclusive list of linguistic realization strategies used for making

suggestions

Politeness Strategies in Making Suggestions

In addition to linguistic structures used for making the speech act of suggesting, the

pragmatic strategies that one chooses to make suggestions appropriately should also be

taken into account. For the purpose of the current study, the most recent cross-cultural

studies on pragmatic strategies used for making suggestions were reviewed as well to

identify a list of politeness strategies used for performing the speech act of suggesting. Of

the previous comparative studies done on suggesting strategies and classifications

provided, Li’s (2010) classification of suggesting strategies would be used in the study

for the following reasons. First, Li’s (2010) study has provided classifications for both

directness and politeness strategies. Second, it is the most recent comparative study

addressing the suggesting strategies and has taken into account previous studies as well,

e.g. the Cross-cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) scheme (Blum-Kulka,

1989).

According to Li (2010), there are three aspects of pragmatic strategies in making

suggestions which should be considered and analyzed, namely perspective, directness and

politeness. Politeness strategy is believed to be the central issue in linguistic performance.

Pragmatic strategies used for suggestions are examined in terms of politeness as well.

Suggestion is regarded as a face-threatening act (Brown and Levinson, 1987; Banerjee

and Carrell, 1988), thus an interlocutor makes a suggestion in one of two ways, namely

bald on record, i.e. without any redressive action and with redressive actions to lessen the

face-threatening force. There are two types of redressive actions, namely internal and

external redressive actions. Internal redressive actions are indicated inside the suggestion

utterance while external actions are linguistic elements or supportive moves that exist

outside the suggestion utterance in order to mitigate the intrusive force of making the

suggestion. Internal redressive actions include subjectivizers, appealers, tense forms,

cajolers, politeness markers, subjunctives and downtoners. External redressive actions

comprise grounder, politeness marker, preparatory, downgrading commitment and

imposition minimizer. A list of internal and external redressive actions with examples

adopted from Li (2010: 604-5) is shown below.

(1) Subjectivizers are elements used by the speaker to expresses the idea that the

suggestion only represents his/her subjective opinion, thus lowering the assertive force of

it.

(2) Appealers are elements used by the speaker to appeal to the hearer’s benevolent

understanding.

(3) In English, past tense forms can be used with present time reference to downgrade the

assertive force.

(4) Cajolers are conventionalized speech items in which their semantic contents are of

little transparent relevance to their discourse meaning to downgrade the assertive force of

a suggestion.

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(5) Politeness markers are elements added to a suggestion aiming for cooperation from

the hearer.

(6) Subjunctives forms like might can be used by the speakers to soften the imposition

force in making suggestion.

(7) Downtoners are sentential or propositional modifiers to modify the impact the

suggestion is likely to have on the hearer.

External redressive actions include the following acts:

(1) Grounders refer to any reasons, explanations or justifications that the speaker gives

for his/her suggestion.

(2) External politeness markers are any elements inserted to suggestion aiming for

cooperation from the hearer.

(3) Preparators are any moves in which the speaker asks about the potential possibility of

carrying out the suggestion, or asks for the hearer’s permission to make a suggestion in

order to prepare the hearer for ensuing suggestion without giving away the content of the

speech act.

(4) Downgrading commitments are modifiers that the speaker employs to minimize the

degree of his/her commitment to a suggestion.

(5) Imposition minimizers are elements through which the speaker tries to reduce the

imposition placed on the hearer by his/her suggestion.

POLITENESS STRATEGY ACTION EXAMPLE

INTERNAL REDRESSIVE

ACTION

Subjectivizers

-I think it’d be better to go to

the movies.

Appealers -Let’s do it tomorrow, okay?

Past tense

-I wanted to get him a book for

present.

Cajolers

-You know, I think you should

take that course.

Politeness markers

-Let’s try once more, if you

don’t mind.

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Subjunctive forms

-It’d be better if we finished it

today.

Downtoners

-You should perhaps move to

another place.

EXTERNAL REDRESSIVE

ACTION

Grounders

-How about going to the

beach. I bet we will have a

great time there.

External politeness markers

-You’d better drop that course.

What do you think?

Preparators

-Can I suggest something? I

think you have to take some

time off work.

Downgrading commitments

-I’m not too sure but I think

you need to check it online.

Imposition minimizers -I think you should go and talk

to the manager if you are not

against it.

Table 4 Politeness strategies in making suggestions adapted from Li (2010)

Summary

This paper was an attempt to move towards providing more inclusive and comprehensive

taxonomies and classifications of strategies and structures used for making the speech act

of suggesting. Although some taxonomies and lists of suggesting strategies and structures

have been proposed by researchers mainly in cross-cultural studies, bringing these

taxonomies together, comparing/contrasting them and presenting a rather improved set of

classifications seems to be a worthwhile act since researchers and L2 teachers can make

use of these taxonomies in their pragmatics studies and instructional settings. However,

these taxonomies are expected to be improved to be even more inclusive in reflecting the

strategies and structures used in performing suggestions in future studies.

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References

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MA: MIT Press

Banerjee, J. & Carrell, P. L. (1988). Tuck in your shirt, you squid: Suggestions in

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Blum-Kulka, Sh. (1989). Playing it safe: the role of conventionality in indirectness. In:

Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, House, Juliane, Kasper, Gabriele (Eds.), Cross-cultural

Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Ablex, New Jersey, pp. 37–70.

Brown, P. & Levinson, S.C. (1987): Politeness: Some universals in language use.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jiang, X. (2006). Suggestions: What should ESL students know? System 34 (2006) 36–

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Li, E.S. (2010). Making suggestions: A contrastive study of young Hong Kong and

Australian students. Journal of Pragmatics 42 (2010) 598–616.

Martinez-Flor, A. (2005). A Theoretical Review of the Speech Act of Suggesting:

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Searle, J. R. (1969): Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge:

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Trosborg, A. (1995): Interlanguage pragmatics. Requests, complaints and apologies.

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