michael ecochard in syria and lebanon

Karina&Swinson& Global&Practices& Student&ID:&13163098&&

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How!successful!were!Michel!Ecochard’s!master!plans!

for!Syria!and!Lebanon!in!guiding!both!of!their!

developments!under!the!French!mandate?!&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1"(Fig.1)&Cantacuzino&et&al.,&no&date&–&Development*plan*for*Byblos,*Lebanon&


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Introduction!!

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This& essay& will& focus& on& Michel& Ecochard’s& urbanization& methods& in& Syria& and&

Lebanon&after&World&War&Two&and&the&reception&of&his&proposals&from&a&political&

and& social& perspective.& In& the& first& section& of& this& investigation,& the& focus& will&

remain&on&Ecochard&and&how&he&started&his&career& in& the&Levant2,&with&his& first&

experience& being& in& Syria& in& the& 1930s.& Through& his& admiration& of& Islamic&

architecture,& Ecochard& was& extremely& successful& in& his& numerous& architectural&

works& as& well& as& his& urban& planning& methods& in& the& nation.& Because& of& his&

successfulness&in&Syria,&he&was&asked&to&design&a&master&plan,&the&first&of&its&kind,&

for&Beirut,&the&capital&of&Lebanon,&a&neighboring&country&to&Syria.&&

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In& the& following& sections& of& this& investigation,& the& focus& will& be& on& Ecochard’s&

master& plans& for& Syria& and& Lebanon& and& how& they& represented& a& change& in&

methodology& for& urban& planners& at& the& time& of& colonial& planning.& Ecochard&

introduced& the& innovative& act& of& collaborating& with& local& planners& to& better&

adhere& to& the& needs& of& the& nation.& In& theory,& by& collaborating& with& local&

architects,& engineers,& and&administrative&employees,&he&would&be&able& to&draw&

plans&in&a&more&personal&manner,&and&as&a&result,&have&a&more&positive&response&

from& the& locals.& Through& this& investigation& however,& it& was& discovered& that&

Ecochard&did&not&end&up&receiving&the&acclaimed&reviews&he&was&expecting.&&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2A region on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea north of the Arabian Peninsula and south of Turkey, usually including the area of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria. "


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In&a&time&of&great&political&transformation&in&both&countries,&Ecochard’s&proposals&

for& the&urban&planning&of& the& capital& cities&were&overly& ambitious.&Hence,& they&

faced&much& opposition& and&were& not& implemented& as& the& French& planner& had&

intended.&Ecochard&had&numerous&struggles&with&the&local&bourgeoisie&regarding&

real&estate&projects.&Yet,&in&both&cases,&Ecochard&remained&a&prominent&reference&

for&the&local&planners&in&each&country&for&decades&after&he&had&stopped&his&work.&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3"(Fig.2)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&Y&Beirut’s*plan*and*cities!


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A!brief!history!on!Michel!Ecochard!in!the!Levant!

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Michel& Ecochard& (1905Y1985)&was& a& renowned& French& architect& and& planner& in&

colonial& zones& throughout& the& French& colonial& era.& He& studied& architecture& at&

l’Ecole&des&Beaux&Arts&in&Paris.&Ecochard&had&a&long&history&of&successful&projects&

in& developing& countries,& from& his& early&work& in& Syria& in& the& early& 1930s,& to& his&

later&works& in&Lebanon&and&Morocco,&all&within&the&French&rule.&He&was&a&huge&

admirer&of&Le&Corbusier&and&brought&CIAMs4&modernist&planning&ideas&into&third&

world&countries.&According&to&Verdeil&E.& (2012),&Ecochard&was&said& to&represent&

the& “modernist& and& functionalist& approach& to& planning& in& a& time& of&

modernization”.&

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Ecochard&came& to&Syria& in&1930& in&order& to&gain&work&experience& in&a&different&

cultural& environment& to& that& he& had& in& France.& He& was& hired& by& the& French&

authorities&administration&and&assigned&to&the&archaeology&service.&Ecochard&was&

a& part& of& several& successful& design& projects& during& his& time& in& the& archeology&

service,&including&the&Azzem&Palace,&situated&in&Old&Damascus.&It&was&considered&

to&be&one&of&the&‘chefsYd'oeuvres’&of& Islamic&architecture& in&the&18th&century.&As&

noted&by&Cantacuzino&et&al.,&(no&date)&the&project&was&acclaimed&as&“an&important&

one& in& reYestablishing& cultural& identity& and& cultural& continuity”.& The&

reconstruction& of& the& Azzem& Palace& has& been& of& important& significance& in& the&

Islamic&world.&&&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""4"International&Congresses&of&Modern&Architecture "


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In& 1938,& Ecochard&was& chosen& to& lead& the& planning& administration& in& Syria.& As&

chief&of&the&planning&administration,&he&was&responsible&for&the&urban&planning&of&

many& of& the& major& cities& in& Syria.& Ecochard’s& discovery& of& the& organization& of&

antique& water& networks& was& one& of& the& reasons& for& him& joining& the& team.&

Ecochard&had&several&revolutionary&ideas&for&these&major&cities,&and&one&of&them&

was&the&introduction&of&lowYincome&housing.&&

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Ecochard&was&working&in&a&small&consulting&firm&in&Paris&during&his&time&in&Syria,&

having& revoked& his& duties& as& a& civil& servant,&where& he& had& served& as& a&military&

aircraft&pilot.&In&1941,&Ecochard&was&asked&to&visit&the&city&of&Beirut,&the&capital&of&

Lebanon,& in& order& to& assist& in& a& previously& drafted&master& plan& for& the& capital,&

which,&due&to&the&new&war&context&at&the&time,&needed&urgent&reorganization.&&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5"(Fig.3)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&The*Azzem*Palace*


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Michel!Ecochard!in!Syria!&

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Although& Syria& holds& the& title& of& the& ‘oldest& continuously& inhabited& city& in& the&

world’,& the& growth& of& Damascus& over& the& last& halfYcentury& has& taken& place&

without& any& strategic& or& coherent& structure,& and& as& a& result,& has& had& no&

framework& to& guide& its& development.& Under& the& French& mandate,& the& French&

decided& to& continue& the& urban& development& of& Syria& by& creating&master& plans.&

However,&as&Hopwood&(1988)&explained,&“the&French&entered&as&conquerors&not&

as&enlightened&guests&bearing&the&banner&of& the&League&of&Nations”& (p.23).&The&

cities&of&Damascus,&Aleppo,&and&numerous&others&were&being&developed&ignoring&

local&traditions&and&needs.&&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6"(Fig.4)&Lababedi,&2008&–&Quarters*and*Religions*in*Damascus*


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The&only&master&plan&to&have&ever&been&made&was&by&Michel&Ecochard&in&1968.&

The& year& 1968& marked& the& 20Yyear& anniversary& of& independence& for& Syria.&

Ecochard& had& been& asked& to& produce& a& master& plan& for& the& capital& city& of&

Damascus,&which&would&later&be&recognized&as&the&principles&of&‘functional’&town&

planning&from&the&Athens&Charter7.&As&he&had&already&been&involved&in&the&1936&

plan&for&Damascus,&he&was&the&ultimate&candidate.&

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For&the&1968&master&plan,&Ecochard&assembled&a&talented&team&of&architects&and&

planners:& the& Japanese& architectYplanner,& Gyoji& Banshoya,& Nobuo& Goto& and& J.&

Bugnincourt.& In& order& to& assemble& the& plan,& multiple& factors& had& to& be&

considered:& the& history& of& the& city,& hydrology,& demography,& regional& planning,&

studies& of& traffic& and& the& protection& of&water& sources& in& the& city.& “Les& diverses&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""7"A&paper&published&by&Le&Corbusier&in&1943&about&urban&planning"8"(Fig.5)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&1968*Master*Plan*for*Damascus*


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forms&de&villes…correspondent&a&un&milieu&physiquement,&ethnographiquement,&

socialement&et&historiquement&different.& Toutes&ont& leur&physionommie&et& leur&

personalite&propre”&(Rene&Danger9&quoted&in&Fries,&1994,&p.315).&&

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His&plan&aimed&to&control&and&direct&population&expansion.& It&was&also&designed&

to&protect&areas&such&as&the&AlYGhouta&oasis,&from&high&urbanization.&Damascus&is&

located&at&the&centre&of&the&AlYGhouta&desert,&an&area&that&has&provided&the&city&

with& “an& ecological& balance& for& the& past& thousands& of& years”& (AlYMhanna,& W.&

2008).& Ecochard’s& plan& would& ease& traffic& congestion& by& promoting& transport&

connections&with&neighboring&countries&and&towns.&Extensions&would&have&to&be&

made& from&southwest&areas&of& the& city& to& the&airport&area& in&order& to& improve&

circulation&and&allow&for&better&movement& in&regional&heavy&traffic.& &Also,&more&

links& needed& to& be&made& to& the& ‘route& de&Beyrouth’,& one&of& the&main& roads& in&

Damascus&leading&to&Lebanon.&&&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""9&Urban&Planner&who&collaborated&with&Ecochard&in&his&early&days&in&Syria&10"(Fig.6)&AlYMhanna&S.,&2008&–&Danger*–*Ecochard*planned*road*system*1935*


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Furthermore,& Ecochard& ignored& the& old& city& in& his& plans& as& he& considered& it& a&

“backward&place&for&indigenous&Arabs”11.&He&adopted&the&same&notion&as&planner&

Rene&Danger:&“the&separation&of&the&old&ethnic&city&and&of&the&modern&European&

city”12.&In&contrast&to&Danger&however,&Ecochard&was&determined&to&highlight&the&

ancient& city& of& ‘Citadel’& in& his& plan& to& emphasize& the& value& of& historical&

monuments.& He& proposed& the& opening& of& a& square& in& front& of& the& Ummayad&

Mosque&and&the&diggging&up&of&the&Roman&ruins&underneath&Salah&adYDin’s&grave&

in&order&to&create&an&archaeological&garden&of&sorts.&According&to&AlYMhanna&W.&

(2008),& “the& value& of& monuments& became& more& important& [to& him]& than& the&

control&or&development&of&the&city”.&&

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During&this&time&period,&the&Museum&of&Damascus&was&also&established,&located&

south&of&the&Barada&River&and&east&of&the&Ottoman&era&‘Tekkiyye&Suleimaniyee’,&

the& one& storey& design& was& in& complete& juxtaposition& of& the& Ottoman&

organization.& Ecochard& received& mixed& reviews& for& his& integration& of& historical&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""11"Lababedi,&Z.&(2008)&"12"Ibid!13"(Fig.7)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&Museum*of*Damascus*


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landmarks& in& the& town& planning:& “While& this& was& the& first& time& any& serious&

attention&had&been&paid&to&the&city’s&long&history,&other&aspects&of&development&

were&severely&neglected&–&such&as&the&destruction&of&the&oasis’&ecological&basin”&

(AlYMhanna&S.&2008).&

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Ecochard& also& insisted& on& the& importance& of& opening& up& the& ancient& city& to&

vehicular& traffic,&as& this&was& the&only&way& to&help& restore& the& residences&within&

the& city& and& sustain& the& commerce.& Hence,& he& proposed& a& radioYcentric& road&

system,&which&would&create&a&ring&road&around&the&old&city&and&the&new&city&to&

ease&the&congestion&problems&in&the&city&center&and&to&enable&access&across&the&

town.&“It&aims&to&relieve&pressure&on&the&existing&central&axis&by&developing&main&

roads&throughout&the&city,&making&more&areas&accessible”&(Lababedi,&Z.&2008).&&

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However,& the&Syrian&authorities&disagreed&with&Ecochard’s&proposals&of&altering&

the& ancient& city.& They& were& not& comfortable& altering& a& country& which& had&

‘organically’&developed&for&thousands&of&years.&They&did&however,&approve&of&his&

modernistic&views& for& the&planning&of& the&capital&city&and&were&happy&to&oblige&

with&what&he&had&planned& for& the& city,&with&only&minor&modifications.& Yet,& the&

Municipal& authorities& of& Damascus& never& fully& attempted& to& follow& Ecochard’s&

master&plan&for&the&city.&As&a&result,&urban&growth&was&left&unchecked&and&the&Al&

Ghouta& oasis& succumbed& to& rapid& urbanization,& which& led& to& its& ultimate&

destruction&due&to&a&shortage&in&water&supplies&as&desertification&spread.&&

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Michel!Ecochard!in!Lebanon!

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At& the& request& of& General& Catroux14,& in& 1941,& Ecochard&was& removed& from& his&

duties&as&director&of&urban&planning& in&Syria& in&order& to&establish&a&master&plan&

for&the&city&of&Beirut.&Catroux&urgently&needed&someone&to&plan&the&heart&of&the&

third& world& country& that& was& still& under& the& French& mandate& at& the& time.&

Ecochard’s& plan&was& one& that&was& completely& envisioned& in& the& context& of& the&

Second&World&War.&His&master&plan,&which&was&completed&in&1943,&proposed&the&

creation&of&a&new&town&and&the&reorganization&of&the&already&congested&districts&

in&the&city&centre.&&&

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In& 1956,& after& an& earthquake& had& hit& the& Jezzine& area& in& South& Lebanon,& the&

Lebanese&government&set&up&a&National&Authority&for&reconstruction&that&granted&

Ecochards& team& the& task& of& planning& the& city& of& Saida,& the& capital& of& South&

Lebanon& and& to& create& lowYincome& housing& projects.& In& 1958,& Ecochard& also&

obtained& grants& for& planning& the& rapidly& growing& coastal& cities& of& Jounieh& and&

Jbeil.& These& were&major& commissions& as& these& areas& hold& great& importance& in&

relation& to& the& capital& city.& Their& roads& lead& straight& into& Beirut& and& are& quite&

close& in& proximity.& Jbeil,& Byblos15 ,& is& a& widely& recognized& touristic& area& for&

foreigners,&as&it&is&well&known&for&its&amazing&sceneries,&ambiance&and&structure.&&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""14"French&Army&General"15"Refer&to&(Fig.1)"


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President& Fouad& Chehab,& the& French& educated& Lebanese& President& in& the& 60s,&

launched&a&program&for&regional&development&with&the&French&consultants,&IRFED&

and&its&director&Father&Lebret.&During&this&time,&Father&Lebret&became&an&adviser&

to&the&Lebanese&presidency&and&government,&where&he&worked&on&the&definition&

of& development& in& respect& to& cultural& diversity& and& religious& variety.& The& IRFED&

conducted& a& countrywide& socioYeconomic& study& in& 60& villages& that& spread& from&

1960&to&1964.&The&reliance&in&Lebanon&on&French&experts,&such&as&Father&Lebret,&

held& a& lot& of& geopolitical& meaning,& as& Chehab& found& France& indispensible& for&

Lebanon’s&successful&independence.&&

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Ecochard’s&master&plan&relied&mostly&on&physical&surveys&rather&than&systematic&

ones,& therefore& a& detailed& map& of& the& city& helped& determine& the& zones& best&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""16"(Fig.8)&Marlene,&2014&Y&Extension*zones*in*Beirut*


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suited& for& urbanization.& His& team& assigned& each& zone& with& a& different& density,&

which&then&decided&their&population.&This&simple&methodology&was&purely&based&

on&the&physical&attributes&of&the&city&which&local&experts&seemed&to&agree&with;&it&

was&know&as& ‘filling&the&holes’.&Ecochard&claimed&that&“The&orientation&we&have&

chosen&shows&that&even&by&using&contemporary&urban&design&concepts,&we&were&

able& to& achieve& the& same& builtYup& area& allowed& by& the& current& building& law”&

(Verdeil&E.&2008).&This&quotation&shows&how&Ecochard’s&priority&was&to&reach&an&

agreement&about&population&density.&

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Having&been&asked&to&strengthen&the&Lebanese&planning&administration,&Ecochard&

set&up&new&national&laws.&In&1964,&the&government&passed&two&decrees,&the&first&

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""17"(Fig.9)&Ibid*–&Zone&Hierarchy&of&Beirut&


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was&a&zoning&ordinance&setting&up&the&urban&guidelines&and&density&in&the&various&

parts&of&the&cities,&and&the&other,&was&the&approval&of&the&road&master&plan&in&the&

suburban&areas&of& Lebanon.&As&a& result,& the&development&of& the&administrative&

district&allowed&for&a&proposed&image&for&the&city&that&was&completely&ahead&of&

its&time&in&terms&of&modernity.&Public&buildings&were&collated& in&order&to&create&

an&administrative&centre,&along&the&‘Place&de&l’Etoile’.&Car&parking&was&prohibited&

in&the&surrounding&streets&as&a&parking&lot&had&already&been&planned.&In&addition,&

the&creation&of&a&second&roundabout&as&well&as&the&removal&of&the&city&blocks&of&

‘BabYIdriss’&helped&lower&the&traffic&congestion&in&the&city.&In&the&urban&planning&

proposals,&priority&has&been&given&to&pedestrian&walkways&with&the&separation&of&

two&of& pedestrian& and& automobile& traffic.& Pedestrian& routes&were& above& in& the&

line&of&hierarchy&in&the&urban&planning&schemes&by&Ecochard.&&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""18"(Fig.10)&Ibid&–&Initial&planning&for&the&removal&of&BabYIdriss&


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In& Lebanon,& problems& that& related& to& traffic& congestion& were& the&most& urgent&

matters& to& solve.& Hence,& Ecochard& proposed& three& systems& of& circulation& that&

would& be& capable& of& realizing& the& program& the& city& needed.& The& first& system,&

‘bypasses’,&aimed&to&establish&a&link&joining&the&town&of&Sidon&with&that&of&Tripoli&

through& two& stretches& of& road,& which& would& then& create& a& direct& connection&

between& the& road& to& Damascus& and& those& to& Tripoli& and& Sidon.& The& second&

systems,& ‘crossroads’,&were&designed&to&stop&at&the&outskirts&of&the&stretches&of&

the& bypass& routes& in& order& to& create& radiating& roads& within& these& major& road&

connections.& The& final& system& that& Ecochard& proposed& was& the& drilling& of& new&

parts&in&order&to&‘cut&to&the&heart’&of&the&city,&to&help&congestion&in&the&center.&&

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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""19&(Fig.11)&Ibid&–&Systems&of&Circulation&


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Housing&was&treated&as&a&separate&matter&as&it&requires&a&lot&of&research&in&regard&

to&light&and&climate.&Proposals&focused&on&relocating&slums,&especially&those&living&

in& the& area& of& ‘Qarantina’,& to& lowYcost& housing& (Ecochard& 1963,&Mission& IRFED&

1963).& The& proposed& new& town& on& the& southern& outskirts& of& the& city& clearly&

shows&the&acceptance&by&Ecochard&of&the&ideas&of&the&Modern&Movement&as&he&

refused&to&implement&the&standard&construction&of&streets&as&corridors&connected&

to&attached&houses.&The&areas&planned&must& incorporate&enough&space&in&order&

to&avoid&street& frontage&and&allow&for&the& location&of&buildings& in&the&middle&of&

open&green& land.&The&proposed&new&city&would&offer&a&better&standard&of& living&

for& the& working& class,& which& would,& as& a& result,& achieve& a& better& standard& of&

equality&for&this&social&class.&In&order&for&his&master&plan&to&be&accepted,&Ecochard&

had& to& set& aside& some& of& his& strongest& believes.& He& was& known& for& creating&

housing&projects&for&the&poor& in&multiple&third&world&countries&however,&only& in&

his&draft&report&for&Beirut&had&he&written&that&it&was&the&capital&of&social&injustice.&&

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Unfortunately&the&Lebanese&planning&administration&argued&with&Ecochard&plans&

to&implement&the&new&town&proposals&as&they&did&not&have&the&human&resources&

or& the& financial& means& to& implement& such& ambitious& projects.& Hence,& the&

Lebanese&committee&set&Ecochard’s&new&town&proposals&for&Lebanon&aside,&and&

as& a& result;& the& urban& areas& that& Ecochard& had& originally& approved& were& left&

unchecked&and&ended&up&with&much&higher&urban&densities&then&he&had&planned.&

This& was& something& Ecochard& did& not& recommend,& as& it& would& lead& to& more&

congested&areas&and&the&collapse&of&the&master&plan.&&


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After&the&end&of&Chehab’s&presidency&and&the&application&of&the&altered&Ecochard&

plan,& the& French& planner& did& not&work& in& Lebanon& again.& He& felt& betrayed& and&

publicly& criticized& the& Lebanese& government& and& the& administration.& With& the&

departure&of& the&French&experts&Michel&Ecochard&and&Father& Lebret,& it&was& the&

beginning&of&a&new&era,&where&local&planners&took&over&the&responsibilities&of&the&

French&foreigners.&Still,&many&of&the&methods&Ecochard&had&proposed&during&his&

time& working& in& Lebanon& still& rule& today’s& planning& regulations& in& Beirut,& forty&

years& later,& particularly& those& related& to& the& road& network& and& the& zoning&

ordinance.&

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Conclusion!

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It&is&evident&from&my&investigation&that&Ecochard’s&interference&in&both&countries&

was&successful&in&some&measures&and&a&failure&in&others.&He&managed&to&bring&a&

lot& of& the& modernistic& views& and& principles& from& the& Modern& Movement& into&

Syria&and&Lebanon,&although&much&of&what&he&had&planned&took&place&after&the&

French& mandate& had& come& to& an& end.& Nonetheless,& he& was& successful& in&

incorporating&successful&systems&of&circulation&in&both&countries&and&well&as&the&

introduction& of& lowYincome& housing.& This& was& already& a& huge& leap& forward& for&

both&countries,&something&that&would&have&taken&much&longer&if&Ecochard&hadn’t&

been&involved&in&their&master&plans.&&

&

Due&to&the&controversy&in&both&countries,&the&master&plans&Ecochard&had&planned&for&

the& different& cities& of& both& countries& were& not& realized& the& way& he& had& planned.&

Although,&there&was&much&less&struggle&for&Ecochard’s&plans&to&be&accepted&from&the&

Syrian& administration& than& that& of& Lebanon.&When& Chehab& had& initially& brought& in&

French&experts&to&help&study&the&situation&of&the&country,&the&Lebanese&had&seen&it&

as& an& attempt& to& adopt& their& nation& to& a& series& of& preconceived& methods& of&

modernistic&urban&planning&that&the&country&was&not&looking&for.&Syria&seemed&much&

more& open& to& his& modernistic& and& innovative& agenda& compared& to& the& Lebanese&

administration,& who,& were& not& ready& for& Ecochard.& Mardelli& B.& A.& (2012)& cited& a&

quotation&that&Ecochard&once&said,&“unlike&the&French,&the&Lebanese&never&had&the&

means& or& aspirations& of& ‘Empires’,& nor& the& ambitions& to& establish& grandiose&

monuments&to&compete&with&neighboring&empire&builders.”&


19"

In&conclusion,&from&my&investigation,&it&became&apparent&that&in&Syria&there&was&a&

very&different& relationship&between&society&and& state,&particularly& in&Damascus,&

where&the&state&had&been&able&to&impose&its&imprint&on&the&city&while,&in&Beirut,&

the&public&seemed&to&have&been&more&reluctant&to&surrender&to&the&States&grip.&

Conclusively,& in&agreement&with&Mardelli&B.&A.& (2012)&proclamation:&The&French&

labeled&Syria’s&conditions&as&“dictorial”,&and&Lebanon’s&as&“democratic”,&as&if&the&

perplexing&term&‘democracy’&meant&rebellion&in&the&Lebanese&lexicon.&&

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Bibliography!

AlYMhanna,&S.&(2008)&Interview&with&Zara&Lababedi,&16th&June&2008&&Cantacuzino,&S.,&Écochard,&M.,&Safran,&L.,&International,&S.&C.&E.&T.&and&Danger,&C.&(no&date)&Michel*Écochard.&Available&at:&http://archnet.org/authorities/33&(Accessed:&1&April&2015)&&Écochard,&M.&and&Safran,&L.&(no&date)&Collections*|*Architect’s*Archives*|*Michel*Ecochard*|*Plan*Directeur*de*Beyrouth*et*de*sa*Banlieue.&Available&at:&http://archnet.org/collections/29/sites/8377&(Accessed:&20&April&2015)&&Ecochard,&M&(1963)&‘Plan&Directeur&de&la&ville&de&Beyrouth&et&de&sa&Banlieue:&Enquête,&projets’&Beirut,&Lebanon&&&Fawaz,&M.&and&Peillen,&I.&(no&date)&Available&at:&http://www.hlrn.org/~hlrnnew/img/documents/Beirut%20(1).pdf&(Accessed:&1&April&2015)&&Fries,&F.&(1994)&‘Les&Plans&d’Alep&et&de&Damas,&un&Banc&d’Essai&pour&l’Urbanisme&des&Frères&Danger&1931Y1937&“Figures&de&l’Orientalisme&en&Architecture”&Revue&de&Monde&Musulman&et&de&la&Mediteranee&No&73Y74&Aix&en&Provence:&Edisur&p&311Y326&&Google*Books&(no&date)&Available&at:&https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&(Accessed:&10&April&2015)&&Lababedi,&Z.&(2008)&The*Urban*Development*of*Damascus:*A*study*of*its*past,*present*and*future.&Available&at:&http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/14328/1/14328.pdf&(Accessed:&10&April&2015)&&Mardelli,&B.&A.&(2012)&Middle*East*Perspectives.&Available&at:&https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1_JKo17u6yYC&(Accessed:&4&April&2015)&&Marlène,&G.&(2014)&Beyrouth*sous*mandat*français.*Construction*d’une*ville*moderne.&Available&at:&https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YectBAAAQBAJ&(Accessed:&18&April&2015)&

Mission&IRFED&(1963)&‘Besoins&et&possibilités&de&développement&du&Liban’&Beirut&République&libanaise,&CEGPVB,&Aménagement&du&centreYville&(quartier&Ghalghoul&et&quartier&est&de&la&Place&des&Canons)&Rapport&justificatif.&M.&Écochard,&G.&Banshoya,&architectes&urbanistes&coordinateurs,&Beyrouth,&13/4/1964.&A&more&developed&analysis&of&that&source&is&provided&in&Eric&Verdeil,&Une&ville&et&ses&urbanistes&:&Beyrouth&en&reconstruction,&PhD&in&geography,&Paris&PantheonYSorbonne&University,&2002,&pp.403Y407.&&

Neep,&D.&(2012)&Occupying*Syria*Under*the*French*Mandate.&Available&at:&https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Z7TbtGaAX8C&(Accessed:&19&April&2015)&&


21"

Pantuliano,&S.,&Metcalfe,&V.,&Haysom,&S.&and&Davey,&E.&(2012a)&‘Urban&vulnerability&and&displacement:&a&review&of&current&issues’,&Disasters,&36pp.&1–22.&doi:&10.1111/j.1467Y7717.2012.01282.x&&Pantuliano,&S.,&Metcalfe,&V.,&Haysom,&S.&and&Davey,&E.&(2012b)&‘Urban&vulnerability&and&displacement:&a&review&of&current&issues’,&Disasters,&36pp.&1–22.&doi:&10.1111/j.1467Y7717.2012.01282.x&&Totah,&F.&M.&(2014)&Preserving*the*Old*City*of*Damascus.&Available&at:&https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rX6TAwAAQBAJ&(Accessed:&11&April&2015)&&Verdeil,&E.&(no&date)&Available&at:&https://halshs.archivesYouvertes.fr/halshsY01114132/document&(Accessed:&1&April&2015)&

Eric&Verdeil.&Methodological&and&Political&Issues&in&the&Lebanese&Planning&Experiences.&Conference&City&Debates,&The&Lebanese&National&Master&Plan,&City&Debates&2003&Proceedings,&2004,&American&University&of&Beirut,&pp.16Y22,&2004.&<halshsY00002801>&

Verdeil&E.&Michel&Ecochard&in&Lebanon&and&Syria&(1956Y1968).&The&spread&of&Modernism,&the&Building&of&the&Independent&States&and&the&Rise&of&Local&professionals&of&planning.&Planning&Perspectives,&Taylor&&&Francis&(Routledge):&SSH&Titles,&2012,&27&(2),&pp.243Y260.&&&Photos!Bibliography!!(Fig.1)&Cantacuzino&et&al.,&no&date&–&Development*plan*for*Byblos,*Lebanon&"(Fig.2)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&Y&Beirut’s*plan*and*cities!"(Fig.3)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&The*Azzem*Palace*"(Fig.4)&Lababedi,&2008&–&Quarters*and*Religions*in*Damascus**(Fig.5)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&1968*Master*Plan*for*Damascus*"(Fig.6)&AlYMhanna&S.,&2008&–&Danger*–*Ecochard*planned*road*system*1935*"(Fig.7)&Ecochard&and&Safran,&no&date&–&Museum*of*Damascus**(Fig.8)&Marlene,&2014&Y&Extension*zones*in*Beirut*"(Fig.9)&Ibid*–&Zone&Hierarchy&of&Beirut&"(Fig.10)&Ibid&–&Initial&planning&for&the&removal&of&BabYIdriss&"(Fig.11)&Ibid&–&Systems&of&Circulation&

michael ecochard in syria and lebanon

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