microsatellite instability
TRANSCRIPT
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Microsatellite instability
Presenter Dr Dhanya A N Moderator Dr Rashmi M V
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Contents
• Background• Terminologies • Short sequence repeats • Types of short sequence repeats • Mutation at microsatellite • DNA methyl mismatch repair • Uses of microsatellite • Microsatellite instability
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Conti..
• Mechanism of MSI in HNPCC and colorectal cancer
• Histopathology of MSI associated CRC • Immunohistochemistry • MSI assay • Prognosis • Summary • References
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Background Gene • DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid• Double helix• Made up of pairs of nucleotides (A”, “C”, “G” and “T)• DNA is packed tightly around the histone and formed
into chromosome which is present inside the nucleus • DNA codes for amino acids to form proteins by
transcription and translation, which are building blocks of body
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Terminologies
• Allele - An allele is an alternative form of a gene (one
member of a pair) that is located at a specific position on a
specific chromosome.
• Homozygous - when identical alleles of the gene are present
on both chromosomes
• Heterozygous - when two different alleles of the gene are
present on both chromosomes
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• Epigenetics - the study of heritable chemical
modification of DNA or chromatin that does
not alter the DNA sequence itself.
– DNA methylation
– Histone acetylation
– mi RNA
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DNA methylation
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Histone acetylation
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Micro RNA
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Mutations 1.Point mutations - that causes a
single nucleotide base
substitution in the genetic
material
– Transition – purine by purine
or pyrimidine by pyrimidine
– Transversion – purine by
pyrimidine and vice versa
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2. Frame shift mutations is a genetic mutation caused
by insertions or deletions of a
number of nucleotides in a DNA
sequence, due to the triple nature
of gene expression by codons, the
insertion or deletion can change
the reading frame, resulting in a
completely different translation
from the original.
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• Loss of heterozygosity - (LOH) is the loss of
function of one allele of a gene in which the
other allele was already inactivated.
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Genomic instability
• Chromosomal instability when karyotype
shows abnormal karyotyping in the form of
abnormal number of chromosome
• Microsatellite instability
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Definition
• Short sequence repeat (SSR) - These are gene
loci harbor short or long stretches of repeated
nucleotide sequence.
• SSR constitute around 3% of human genome
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Types of SSR
1. Microsatellite : when the repeat units consists of 1
to 6 nucleotides, they are commonly seen in non
coding region.
• These repeat sequences are present in everyone at the same
chromosomal locations, but where the number of repeat units
varies from person to person. (polymorphism)
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• Dinucleotide repeats are the most common, followed
by mononucleotide and then by trinucleotide.
• Among dinucleotide, most frequent dinucleotide
will be (GT)n, followed by (AT)n.
• Most common trinucleotide repeats will be (TAA)n
• Human genome contains 50,000 to 1,00,000
microsatellite.
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They are polymorphic among individuals but are unique
and uniform in length in every tissue in each person
2. Minisatelliete : the repeats are longer consists
of 6-100 nucleotides
3. Satellite DNA :
• Repeat sequence > 100 nucleotide, often
found near the region of the centromere
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Microsatellite
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Properties of microsatellite
• Locus specific
• Co dominant - when the contributions of both alleles are
visible in the phenotype.
• Highly polymorphic – provide variable pattern
• Flanking region is highly conserved/ constant in related
species
• PCR based - Can be obtained from small amounts of tissues
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Co dominant
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Microsatellites are classified according to the type of repeat
sequence
1.Perfect- the repeat sequence is not interrupted
by any base not belonging to the repeat sequence
e.g. TATATATATATATATA.
2.Imperfect- there is a pair of bases between the repeated
sequence that does not match the repeat sequence
e.g. TATATATACGTATATA
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3. Interrupted- there is a small sequence within the
repeated sequence that does not match the repeat sequence
e.g. TATATACGTGTATATATATA
4. Composite- the sequence contains two adjacent
distinctive sequence-repeats
e.g. TATATATATAGTGTGTGTGT
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Microsatellite mutations
• Since it’s a region of repetitive sequence of nucleotide,
while replication and recombination they are very much
prone to mutations
• Mainly 2 types of mutations occur at this region
– Unequal crossing over
– Replication slippage
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Unequal crossing over • Microsatellite repetitive regions forms a hairpin during synapsis, • During crossing over unequal length of each chromosome will
be exchanged • One chromosome will receive a larger fragment because of the
larger number of microsatellite repeatsThe homologues chromosome receive a smaller number of repeats
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Unequal crossing over
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Replication slippage
• During DNA replication DNA polymerase slippage can occur in
which one DNA strand temporarily dissociates from the other and
rapidly rebinds in a different position, leading to base-pairing errors
and forms IDL, and continue the lengthening of the new strand
• An increase in the number of repeats (i.e. additions) occur if IDL is
on daughter strand or a decreased number of repeats (i.e. deletions)
occur if IDL occurs on parent strand
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Replication slippage
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DNA methyl mismatch repair mechanism
• Three important proteins - MutS, MutL, MutH
• The important genes responsible for the MMR proteins
are PMS2, MLH1, MSH2 PMS1, and MLH3, MSH6.
• After replication the parent strand will be methylated and
daughter strand is not methylated, so the MMR protein
can recognize the parent strand
• MutS will identify the mismatch nucleotide error
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• MutL will recognize the parent strand and brings the
mismatch strand closer to it for cleaving
• MutH will act as endonuclease and forms a nick
• Then UvrD protien acts as helicase and separates the
DNA strand and cleave the mutated strand
• The gap is filled with new nucleotides by DNA
polymerase enzyme and ligase enzyme
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Methyl mismatch repair
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Advantages of microsatellite
1. Gene mapping
2. Molecular forensics
3. Parentage testing
4. Analysis of genetic structure of populations
5. Assessment of phylogenetic relationships
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Microsatellite instability
• It is caused by mutational inactivation of genes
involved in DNA repair
• DNA polymerase sometimes makes errors
incorporating the correct number of bases
during replication of long repetitive DNA
sequences, such as microsatellites.
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• The MMR system consists of a family of
proteins that detect DNA replication errors, in
which the newly synthesized strand has
incorporated the wrong nucleotide
• Mutation rate ranging from 1 in 10² to 1 in 106
nucleotides per gene per cell
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• These errors can be recognized and repaired by
the MMR system.
• The important genes responsible for the MMR
factors are PMS2, MLH1, MSH2 PMS1, and
MLH3, MSH6
• Any mutations that occurs to these genes will lead
to non functional MMR, that lead to increase or
decrease of microsatellite. This is the basis of MSI
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MMR gene mutations
Hereditary
• Germ line mutation
– Point mutation
– Frame shift mutation
Sporadic/ Epigenetic mutation
• Hyper methylation – of cytosine at CpG region
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Microsatellite instability
• Microsatellite instability is associated with many tumor
conditions
– HNPCC/ Colorectal carcinoma
– Endometrial carcinoma
– Stomach carcinoma
– Ovarian carcinoma
– Urinary tract cancer
– Small intestine carcinoma
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Microsatellite instability in HNPCC/lynch syndrome and colorectal carcinoma
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MSI in HNPCC/ Lynch syndrome
• HNPCC is caused by inherited mutation in genes that
encode proteins responsible for the detection,
excision, repair of errors that occur during DNA
replication
• Majority will have MSH2 or MLH1 gene mutation or
epigenetic silencing.
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MSI in colorectal carcinoma
• Two molecular pathways are involved in CRC
– APC/β-catenin pathway – 80% sporadic colon tumors
includes mutation of APC gene early in the neoplastic
process
– Microsatellite instability pathway –20% sporadic
associated with defects in DNA MMR and
accumulation of mutated microsatellite repeats
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APC/β-catenin pathway
• APC promotes degradation of β catenin
• Loss of APC lead to accumulation of β catenin
• β catenin translocate to nucleus bind to DNA binding
factor TCF, transcription of MYC and cyclin D1 genes
which lead to cell proliferation
• Along with this, mutation of K-RAS promote the growth
and inhibit cell apoptosis
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• Tumor suppressor genes SMAD2, SMAD4 also
mutate which inhibit the TGF β signaling which lead
to unrestrained cell growth
• Tp53 mutation also occurs in the later stage of cancer
• Epigenetic mutation, Hyper methylation occurs at
CpG areas of tumor suppressor genes
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APC/β-catenin pathway
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Microsatellite instabilitypathway
• Microsatellite sometimes also seen in coding region and
encodes typeII TGF β receptor, because TGF β inhibits
the cell division and also encodes pro apoptotic protein
BAX which regulates the cell division
• Any mutation in microsatellite, abnormal typeII TGF β
receptor and BAX protein formed lead to cell proliferation
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• Mutation in DNA MMR genes MHL1, MSH2,
MSH6, PMS1, PMS2 lead to abnormal MMR
system proteins lead to microsatellite instability
• Hypermethylation at CpG island of MLH1
reduces its expression and repair function
• It is associate with BRAF gene mutation
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Microsatellite instability
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When to perform MSI testing ?
• Amsterdam criteria
• Bethesda criteria
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Amsterdam Criteria
1. At least 3 relatives with CRC (one must be a first-degree relative of the other two) or a Lynch syndrome–associated cancer*
2. CRC involving at least 2 successive generations3. One or more cancer cases before age 50 years4. Familial adenomatous polyposis should be
excluded5. Tumors should be verified by histologic
examination
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Bethesda criteria
1. Colorectal cancer diagnosed in an individual who is younger than 50 y.
2. Presence of multiple, synchronous or metachronous Lynch syndrome-associated tumors, regardless of age.
3. Colorectal cancer with MSI-high histology diagnosed in a patient who is younger than 60 y.
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4. Colorectal cancer diagnosed in 1 or more first
degree relatives with a Lynch syndrome-related
tumor, with 1 of the cancers being diagnosed in a
patient younger than 50 y.
5. Colorectal cancer diagnosed in 2 or more first
or second-degree relatives with LS-related
tumors, regardless of age.
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• The CRC occur due to MSI will have unique clinical
and pathological features
– more likely to arise in the proximal colon,
– less likely to be invasive, less aggressive
– less likely to have mutations in KRAS or p53,
– younger patients
– has a better prognosis
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Histopathology Signet Ring Cells:
• The presence of tumor cells with an intracytoplasmic mucin-filled vacuole causing lateral compression of the nucleus, whether within extracellular mucin lakes or infiltrating directly in stroma.
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Mucinous (Colloid) Histology:
• Extracellular mucin accumulation bounded either by neoplastic epithelium or by host stroma
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Medullary carcinoma
• The presence of an expansile appearance to the advancing tumor margin when viewed at low power
• subtype of poor differentiation, consisting of nests, trabecula, and sheets of small- to medium-sized tumor cells with scant to abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm, frequent mitotic figures and a distinct stromal population of small lymphocytes
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Necrotic
• characteristic
necrotic debris in glandular lumina, so-called “dirty necrosis”
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Host responseCrohn-like Lymphoid Reaction
• Composed of lymphoid
follicles of different sizes with germinal centers at the tumor edge
• In subserosal or pricolonic fat• Two or more large lymphoid
aggregates in a section are required for the this feature
• Resemble crohn trans mural inflammation
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Tumor intramural infiltrating lymphocytes • The presence of
small round lymphocytes within the tumor epithelium
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Immunohistochemistry (IHC)
• Immunohistochemical analysis is done using
antibodies against the MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6
and PMS1 proteins to identify carriers of MMR gene
mutations.
• Immunohistochemical staining can be performed on
formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections
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IHC staining for the mismatch repair proteins is interpreted as
follows:
• Loss of MLH1 and PMS2 protein staining may indicate MLH1
mutation
• Loss of PMS2 protein staining usually indicates a PMS2
mutation
• Loss of MSH2 and MSH6 protein staining usually indicates a
MSH2 mutation.
• Loss of MSH6 protein staining usually indicates a MSH6
mutation.
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Limitations of IHC
• Requires well experienced pathologists
• Difficult in interpretation, may vary the results
• Improper or patchy staining
• Defective MMR gene may still be antigenic
• Less sensitive
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MSI analysis
DNA isolation
• Genomic DNA of normal and tumor
tissue was isolated from the paraffin-embedded
material by taking tissue punches (diameter, 0.6 mm)
from tumor and normal areas selected on the basis of
a HE-stained slide.
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DNA isolation
Tissue fragments (proteinase K chelex resin)
Adding100 to 200 microliter lysis buffer overnight incubation at 56 CDissolved DNA is separated from cell debris by
centrifugation for 10 min ( 13,000 rpm)
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The DNA-containing supernatant is separated from the Chelex resin
(Chelex resin inhibits polymerase activity)
Transferred to another test tube
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Markers for MSI Marker Gene MS repeats Chromosomal
location
D2S123 Linked to MHS2 CA(n) 2p16
D5S346 Linked to APC CA(n) 5q22-23
D17S250 Linked to p53 CA(n) 17q12
BAT-25 C-kit A(25) 4q12
BAT-26 MSH2 A(26) 2p21
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Pentaplex panel of mononucleotide repeat markers
Markers Genes MS repeats Chromosomal location
BAT-25 c-kit A(25) 4q12
BAT-26 MSH2 A(26) 2p21
NR-21 SLC7A8 T(21) 14q11
NR-24 Zinc finger 2 (ZNF-2) T(24) 2q11
NR-27 Inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1
T(27) 11q22
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• Multiplex fluorescent PCR is done to identify the MSI
• Here the markers will be labeled with the fluorescent
dyes
• Amplified PCR products are passed through gel
electrophoresis
• The tumor gene length is compared with the normal gene
and the interpretation is done
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Tumors were classified as
(a) tumors with instability for >30%
of the markers ( > one marker ) (MSI-H),
(b) tumors with instability for <30% of
the markers ( only one marker ) (MSI-L),
(c) tumors with no instability [microsatellite stability (MSS)]
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Prognosis
• Tests for MSI can be useful prognostic tool
• Have a better overall survival rate
• Responsive to chemotherapy like 5-FU than
tumors without MSI
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Summary
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References
1. Kumar, Abbas, Aster. Neoplasia in Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 9th ed. New Delhi: Reed Elsevier India Private limited; 2014.
2. Turner RJ. The Gastrointestinal Tract in Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 9th ed. New Delhi: Reed Elsevier India Private limited; 2014.
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3. Antonarakis SE. Human Genome sequence and variation in Vogel and Motulsky’s Human Genetics. 4 th ed. London: Springer; 2010. p. 31-54.4. Horshthemke B. Epigenetics in Vogel and Motulsky’s Human Genetics. 4 th ed. London: Springer; 2010. p. 299- 318.
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5.de Jong AE, van Puijenbroek M, Hendriks Y, Tops C, Wijnen J, Ausems MG, et al. Microsatellite Instability immunohistochemistry, and Additional PMS2 Staining in Suspected Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2004 Feb 1;10(3):972-80
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6. Boland CR, Goel A. Microsatellite Instability in Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology. 2010 Jun;138(6):2073-2087.7. Bresalier RS. Colorectal Cancer in Sleisenger’s and Fordtran Gastrointestinal and liver diseases. 10 ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; p 2248-2296
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