24. RSNR 403/503 Overview

Nick Reid

Learning objectivesOn completion of this topic you should have an overview of all of individual the topics studied in this unit.

Key terms and concepts Adaptive management, animal welfare, balance sheet, benchmarking, biodiversity, capacity building, catchment management and planning, chemical use, climate change, conservation, crops, decomposers, designing landscapes, dieback, drought lot feeding, ecologically sustainable development, ecological sustainability, economic sustainability, ecosystem function, ecosystem services, environmental indicators, environmentally and ethically responsible production, environmental management systems, erosion, externalities, fertiliser, gap analysis, global trade, global warming, grazing management, greenhouse emissions, hydrological cycle and aquatic linkages, input/output price ratios, integrated pest management, land capability, land condition, land management unit, livestock behaviour, management, monitoring, native pasture, native species, native vegetation management, natural capital, natural resource base, nutrient cycling, pastures, perenniality, physical property plan, policy mechanisms, policy process, precautionary principle, precision agriculture, production functions, productivity per head and per hectare, profit, property planning, public goods, public policy, rainfall use efficiency, remnant vegetation, revegetation, riparian zone management, river regulation, salinity, social capital, social sustainability, soil acidification, soil biota, soil fertility, soil structural stability, stakeholder, supply and demand, sustainability, sustainable agriculture, sustainable grazing systems, sustainable land management, terms of trade, triple bottom line, vegetation condition, water regime, water extraction, woody weed management, wool.

Introduction to the topicThis topic summarises all topics covered in the Sustainable Agriculture and Catchment Management unit. It covers the sustainability issues challenging Australian farms especially across southern and eastern Australia.

24.1 Introduction to unitThis topic introduced the unit focus on on-farm practices and catchment impacts. It provided an overview of the concept of sustainability, and profiled the sheep industry as an example of Australian farming. The sheep industry is an appropriate case study because the sheepmeat or wool industries extend to just about all agricultural regions across southern and eastern Australia, including the high rainfall, wheat/sheep and pastoral zones. Major environmental challenges facing the sheep industry include weeds, salinity, acidity, erosion, soil structure decline, sodicity, woody plant increase, biodiversity loss, vertebrate pests, sown pasture decline and chemical residues.

Although decision making at the farm scale ultimately determines the sustainability of much of rural Australia, and government policy has been traditionally focussed at both the farm and State or Territory scale, the Commonwealth and State Governments are increasingly injecting funding and looking for solutions at a catchment or regional scale. The burgeoning global population, declining quality of the world environment and the continuing deterioration in natural resources in Australia mean that ecological sustainability has never been more important. An environmentally sustainable Australia is one of four national research priorities.

RSNR403/503 24 - 1

Sustainability literally means the capacity to continue indefinitely. Sustainable agriculture was defined by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in New Zealand (Anon. 1997) as the use of practices and systems which maintain or enhance the:

ability of people and communities to provide for their social and cultural wellbeing economic viability of agriculture natural resource base of agriculture ecosystems influenced by agricultural activities and quality and safety of food and fibre.

In 1992, the Australian Commonwealth and State Governments defined ‘ecologically sustainable development’ (Commonwealth of Australia 1992) as:

using, conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the future can be increased

A number of technologies are being developed to help Australian business (including agriculture) and the community move towards a more sustainable society. Examples include:

Environmental management systems (EMS) Catchment management plans, blueprints and organisations Property management planning Landcare Decision support systems for farm management.

The challenge of sustainable land management is that it is a complex, multi-faceted and ever-moving target. Managers need to continually refine and update their goals and methods. Solutions tend to be context or system-specific. Solutions generally rely on information from a number of disciplines, are often developed through trial and error, and must be modified as external conditions change. One person’s solution may be unacceptable to another and today’s solutions can sometimes become tomorrow’s problems.

24.2 Introduction to ecology This topic charted the development of the concept of sustainable development in the World Conservation Strategy (simultaneous production and conservation) (Anon. 1980) and the Brundtland Report (WCED 1987), which state that sustainable development seeks:

… to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future.

Since sustainable development strives to maintain environmental integrity, economic efficiency and social equity, the topic was the first of three to provide a refresher to the three core disciplines of sustainability: ecology, economics and sociology.

Ecology is the study of organisms in their habitat and of their interactions and relationships with the biotic and abiotic environment. Ecological entities and processes are studied at a number of scales, from the organismic level, through populations, communities, ecosystems and ecoregions to the biosphere. Ecology is a central concern of sustainable development because the present generation is obliged to ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of future generations. Key ecological issues relevant to sustainable agriculture and catchment management include ecosystem productivity, biodiversity, ecosystem services and ecosystem dynamics.

Ecosystem productivity concepts allow us to understand the inputs and management required for agricultural production. Biodiversity is important because it sustains all life of earth but is also being irreparably lost as a result of human actions, potentially jeopardising future options and perhaps life as we know it. Biodiversity underpins ecosystem services, the wide variety of goods and services

24 - 2 RSNR403//503

that benefit humans, many of which are ‘free’ but are affected by human activities and that we damage at our peril. The precise relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem productivity and ecosystem services are poorly understood, so questions like how much and what kinds of biodiversity are sufficient to sustain an adequate level of production and services remain unanswered.

Ecosystems are defined by their plants, animals and soils, and are a product of climate, parent material, the organisms present, fire and management. Consequently, ecosystems vary in both time and space. State and transition models are a useful means of cataloguing different ecosystem types and the ecological conditions required to effect transitions between different states. Plants respond to the levels of disturbance and environmental stress (shortages of water, nutrients etc.) in particular environments, and ecosystem composition can be predicted if sufficient information is available about the responses of different species to disturbance and stress (including competitive ability, growth rate and response to fertility and disturbance).

24.3 Economic sustainabilityThis topic described the changes in land use and natural resource policy in Australia over the past 60 years, recounted the economic principles of sustainability and the role of government in setting sustainability policy, and explained some of the past and future economic issues facing the sheep industry.

Sheep industryWool accounts for no more than 3% of total world fibre consumption. However, Australia accounts for some 25% of world wool production and about half of total world wool exports. The global price of wool fluctuated markedly through the 20th century, as a result of recessions, wars, the advent of new technology, droughts, and government controls and policy failures. The issue for woolgrowers is whether at ruling levels of production and prices, wool production is profitable on a sustainable basis.

Half of all broadacre farms in Australia run sheep, and wool is a primary income source for roughly 16 000 properties. Since the collapse of the Wool Reserve Price Scheme in 1991, sheep specialist properties have been less profitable than other forms of broadacre agriculture. Appreciation in the capital value of sheep properties from 1991 to 2004 was only $204,000, less than one-quarter of the average gain for other broadacre farm types. However, large wool growing properties (> 3000 sheep) have performed better than broadacre farms. A principal response to the absolute and relative financial pressures facing sheep producers over the past 15 years has been a shift in enterprise so that lamb sales now account for an increased share of cash receipts compared to wool.

SustainabilityAustralian resource use policy over the past 60 years has changed from a pro-development stance to one of steadily increasing controls to contain natural resource degradation and biodiversity loss. This history has been influenced by policy initiatives concerned with sustainable development on the world stage, although successive Australian governments have tended to focus more on intergenerational equity whereas international conventions have focused more on intragenerational equity. A key lesson is that it can take a very long time between, first, realising there is a problem, second, identifying its causes and, third, resolving it and dealing with its aftermath. Meanwhile, environmental damage continues.

Sustainability is an issue because we are using up or damaging scarce resources and we don’t know the future. Scarcity and uncertainty are fundamental issues to sustainability. Economics is concerned with how people and societies best use scarce resources to make valuable products and how these are distributed among different individuals and groups. The precautionary principle was introduced to afford due consideration to uncertainty in development decision making. It states that:

Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.

RSNR403/503 24 - 3

The precautionary principle places the burden of proof that harm will not occur from a development on the proponent, rather than require the opponent to prove that it will. It does not mean, however, that all developments with uncertain ecological impacts should not proceed.

The need for government intervention to improve the sustainability of agricultural production can be understood in terms of supply and demand curves and the negative externalities caused by farming. Negative externalities such as damaging, off-site environmental impacts resulting from farming are uncompensated costs of production, and their existence means that demand curves based on private marginal costs allow over-production of the agricultural good or service, at the expense of society generally. ‘The environment’, broadly speaking, is a public good (not owned by anyone) and hence prone to over-use. The use of the atmosphere as a dump for greenhouse gases and particulate matter is a classic example, as is the tendency to overgraze public land. Where an externality can be managed through some form of abatement that the producer pays for directly, a tax or standard should be imposed directly on the externality (e.g. off-site pollution) rather than the production activity that causes it. Note that the source of the externality (e.g. farming) or the externality itself should not necessarily be banned, although sometimes this may be appropriate (e.g. aerial insecticide applications adjacent to residential areas): the economic issue is to manage the problem.

The task of sustainability is an optimal control one – define the path of economic activity that maximises net wellbeing to the present and all future generations, all the while taking account of:

current resource levels future resource discoveries future technological change that will alter the way resources can be used the disasters that might affect the Earth the substitution possibilities between physical and human-made capital, etc.

Since the future is unknowable, it is impossible to set up the optimal control problem in any exact way, or define ‘sustainability’ or ‘sustainable development’ or ‘ecologically sustainable development’ in any analytical sense that is devoid of value judgements and implicit trade-offs. Consequently there will always be a need to exercise judgement and to make uncertain trade-offs that will end up favouring either the current or future generations, or different groups and interests within society. Nevertheless, the concept has value because it helps broaden the decision framework and helps ensure that current material progress bought at the expense of environmental degradation is not valued without accounting for negative effects.

The world and Australia are still not firmly on the path to sustainable development because solutions often involve substantial costs to particular individuals, groups or societies, and there is no one common solution or approach to sustainability problems. Generic approaches include education (e.g. developing appropriate mind-sets in both consumers and producers, information on the costs and benefits of different actions), establishing markets for public goods (e.g. property rights for natural resources), and government intervention to correct market failure (e.g. pollution taxes, research subsidies and grants, removal of perverse government policies, regulation). Transparent policy frameworks and formal benefit-cost analysis for environmental and sustainability purposes can ensure thorough scrutiny and informed debate about public policy options. In comparing options with different impact time paths, it is wise to discount future flows of benefits and costs to their present values which is when the decision has to be made. Private discount rates will normally be higher than those used for government and community decision making.

24.4 Social sustainability in agricultureThis topic began by charting the development of the concept of sustainability (or sustainable development) internationally and nationally. It emphasised the 29 sustainability principles in Agenda 21 (Anon. 1992), which was one of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, or Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, as well as the Australian response, the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD Steering Committee 1992). The latter document emphasised just five principles of ecologically sustainable development:

24 - 4 RSNR403//503

intergenerational equity intragenerational equity the Precautionary Principle conservation of biological diversity internalisation of environmental costs.

The topic subsequently focused on the meaning of social sustainability in the context of Australian agriculture.

Sustainability is an elusive goal and is best thought of as a journey or process rather than a destination or end-point. Social sustainability has received less consideration than biophysical or economic sustainability, and so the concept remains vague. Thinking about the social meaning of sustainability is important, however, because it changes various outcomes that might be sought from purely ecological and economic viewpoints. Sustainability is a social concern, the objective being to enhance individual and community wellbeing and welfare, and to promote intra- and intergenerational equity. Its focus varies with scale:

At the societal level, social sustainability is about capacity building At the community level, enhancing quality of life is the focus A farming family might put their social sustainability goal thus: We, as a family, staying on

our farm into the future and continuing to earn an adequate living, for a reasonable amount of work, without destroying the asset value or natural resource base of the farm

At the level of the individual, the world needs optimistic, motivated, good communicators with high levels of self-esteem and a sense of humour.

‘Quality of life’ might seem an intangible concept but social scientists have defined some of the outcomes required for enhanced community wellbeing:

healthy communities, meaning a state of complete mental, physical and social wellbeing employment options and choice sense of belonging and social networks sense of place and connection with nature intragenerational equity (e.g. equity of access to services, employment and income

security) intergenerational equity (meaning that future generations are not disadvantaged by our

actions) justice, fairness, and respect for human rights and dignity acceptance of diversity and difference and a system ensuring the positive aspects are

valued and protected time for family, friends and community service democratic governance and widespread citizen participation in all community-related

decision making.

Many of these goals for social sustainability and more were identified by the rural community of the Woady-Yaloak catchment (Figure 24.1). Social engineering is required to maintain and enhance these attributes of quality of life and community wellbeing. Thus, capacity building is at the essence of social sustainability.

RSNR403/503 24 - 5

Figure 24.1 Main themes identified as important for the social well-being of the Woady Yaloak catchment. Source: Pepperdine (2000).

24.5 Sustainability in contextThis topic defined some of the attributes of sustainable agriculture. Due to the long-term problem of declining terms of trade (the ratio of prices received over prices paid) facing Australian agriculture, Australian farms need to maintain or increase profits. Greater value adding on-farm is an area in which Australian primary producers might concentrate in future. Other sustainable agricultural objectives include:

managing land according to its capability avoiding unnatural leakage or runoff of nutrients and water including greater reliance on

perennial-based production systems minimal adverse impacts on the natural resource base maintaining and improving soil health and fertility minimal chemical residues energy efficiency flexible production alternatives and a diversity of enterprises to cope with climate and price

fluctuations continual fine-tuning of ecological, economic and social outcomes.

At a catchment scale, land owners and managers and society at large need to agree on:

minimising land and water degradation producing food where it is most sustainable leaving vulnerable land undamaged careful management of temporary and permanent riparian zones due to the erosion hazard defining areas within catchments that are most suited to farming, agroforestry and nature

conservation best management practices to guide farmers in sustainable land use.

Indicators of sustainable agriculture need to be developed for the benefit of both farmers and regulators. Natural resource management professionals need to be mindful of the long time-frames and large scales (e.g. catchment, region, global) over which sustainability issues often need to be considered, and the frustration that this can cause farmers operating at the paddock and farm scale.

24 - 6 RSNR403//503

24.6 Soil sustainability This topic outlined the principles of soil health which underpin sustainable farming systems. Soil health means the maintenance of chemical and physical soil fertility, which is in part maintained by the soil biota. The soil biota consists of two main groups, the microbes and invertebrates. The microbes are mainly bacteria and microscopic fungi that use dead organic matter as a food source (‘decomposer’ organisms). Some soil microbes form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (e.g. mycorrhizal fungi, nitrogen-fixing bacteria). Other microbes are plant root pathogens. The soil invertebrates are divided into the macrofauna, mesofauna and microfauna (protozoans). Important functional roles of soil biota include sustaining soil chemical fertility (through decomposition and nutrient cycling) and enhancing soil structural stability (soil physical fertility). Soil biota enhances soil physical fertility through the formation of macropores, maintaining water-stable soil aggregates and the mixing of soil layers.

There is a huge diversity of soil biota and the functional importance of this diversity is uncertain. Although agricultural management can affect soil biota in various ways, there is little evidence that the loss of particular species of soil biota is problematic for Australian agriculture. For instance, cosmopolitan species of springtail replace native species when sown pastures replace native pastures on the Northern Tablelands of NSW, and primary production increases three times. However, tree clearing, grazing, sown pasture development and fertiliser use, cultivation, and pesticide use can all affect the abundance or biomass of soil biota with potentially deleterious consequences for productivity.

To maintain agricultural soil health, it is important to maintain high levels of ground cover, litter and soil organic matter, avoid soil compaction, and counteract soil acidification.

24.7 Water sustainabilityThis topic covered the ecological processes underpinning the sustainable production of water at farm, catchment and global scales, both in terms of quantity and quality. The hydrological cycle is the continuous circulation of water between the earth and the atmosphere, and is powered by gravity and solar energy. All water is linked at multiple scales. These linkages mean that changes in the water cycle in one place can have far-reaching and long-term impacts elsewhere. The water regime at a particular point is defined as the timing, frequency, duration, extent, depth and variability in the availability of water. The water regime and quality of water can be affected by what happens upstream, by land use anywhere in the catchment above that point, by atmospheric processes, and by vertical linkages to groundwater.

Australia is arid. Its continental surface drainage has been divided into 245 river basins, forming the basis for catchment management plans, river rehabilitation plans and the development of river flow objectives. One of the major issues in surface water management is over-allocation (Table 24.1).

RSNR403/503 24 - 7

Table 24.1 Divertible and developed water resources (1995-1996). All units are GL (109 L). Source: DPIE (1987), Thomas et al. (1999).

Australia is quite well-endowed with

groundwater, and major sedimentary aquifers of variable water quality lie under 60% of the continent. Groundwater is assessed in 61 ‘groundwater provinces’. Groundwater provides the main water resource in much of the semi-arid and arid inland regions, and is also heavily used in some coastal areas. Serious concerns about over-use are emerging, and rising concentrations of nutrients and salt in groundwater threaten continued use. Groundwater extraction exceeds supply in seven of the 13 Australian groundwater systems under greatest threat. Environmental and productive values in many Australian surface and groundwater systems are threatened by over-commitment, pollution and over-extraction. Some of the negative impacts on catchment and farm water supplies as a result of human-induced changes in the hydrological cycle include salinisation, eutrophication, sedimentation and contamination with pesticide residues. Particular environmental concerns include the draining and damming of standing wetlands, the over-extraction of groundwater, river regulation (through damming), the management of environmental flows, and the extraction of river water and the loss of downstream utility (for production and conservation).

Physical, chemical and biological indicators are used to measure the impacts of human activities on river and wetland health, although no single indicator is sufficient by itself.

The authors concluded the topic with five myths for you to ponder:

1. Water is a free good2. Water can be managed in isolation3. The desert can be made to bloom4. Social values will not change5. Water management is mainly a technical matter.

24 - 8 RSNR403//503

Spatial Unit DivertibleFresh

Surface Water

DivertibleFresh

Groundwater

TotalDivertible

Fresh Resource

Total Usein

1995-96

Use(%)

Qld coast 6000 1220 7220 2740 38L. Eyre Basin, Qld 160 170 330 80 24Cape York 20 130 620 20 750 400 2NSW coast 11 160 820 11 980 1460 12Vic. Coast 3830 380 4210 1030 24Tasmania 10 860 180 11 040 560 5Murray-Darling, NSW 5140 710 5850 6750 115Murray-Darling, Vic. 6530 60 6590 3790 57Murray-Darling, Qld 720 230 950 370 39Murray-Darling, SA 20 0 20 500 2500SE coast of SA 80 1090 1170 490 42Adelaide area 150 230 380 290 76Remaining SA 10 320 330 80 24SW of WA 1390 730 2120 980 46Goldfields-Esperance 10 50 60 30 50Gascoyne/Pilbara 300 90 390 150 38Kimberley 8660 490 9150 130 1NT 17 320 2420 19 740 120 1Total 92 470 9 800 102 360 19 950 20

24.8 Plant sustainabilityThis topic explored the concept of plant sustainability in a range of crop and livestock enterprises. In both cropping and pasture systems, sustainability objectives include:

minimising surface and groundwater pollution protecting and enhancing the soil incorporating perennial plants to underpin and better buffer the agricultural system over long

periods of time.

The various enterprises on a sustainable farm are well integrated so as to complement each other and their interactions with the environment and minimise externalities.

Use of native pasture species in grazing systems should not be a requirement of sustainable pasture and grazing systems simply on nature (biodiversity) conservation grounds. Many farmers are interested in conserving nature but financial incentives (or, better still, markets) will be required to increase the amount of nature conservation on farm. Generally, areas managed for nature conservation will be different from areas managed for pastures or crops so as not to compromise production or conservation outcomes.

Some of the sustainability issues confronting grain growers include the perception of better economic performance on specialist grains farms compared to mixed farms, the decline in mixed farming due to poor prices for wool, the difficulties of managing stock in large industrial cropping paddocks, problems particularly with lucerne in crop rotations, and the simplicity and quality of life benefits of grain-only farms compared to mixed farms. Because of the traditional division between research on livestock and crops, issues concerning the profitability and sustainability of mixed farming systems have been neglected.

Grazing systems research has benefited over the past 15 years from a series of national experiments on sustainable temperate pastures and grazing systems. Livestock carrying capacity is largely dictated by plant-available soil moisture (not simply precipitation), soil fertility, soil pH, rest from grazing and the pasture legume percentage. The drivers of plant and animal production across southern Australia, particularly the relationship between productivity and fertiliser (phosphorus) application, are consequently well understood.

In the nation’s arid rangelands, where production is low, climatic variability is high and management options are economically limited, sustainability objectives are much the same as for higher rainfall areas: a balanced hydrology, nutrient and soil retention, adequate ground cover at all times, control of weeds and feral animals, and control of grazing by domestic livestock.

The trend towards more intensive farming systems (greater productivity per unit area) and agricultural industry deregulation has major consequences for sustainability, such as changes in the continental patterns of nutrient translocation, energy efficiency of food and fibre production, increased pressures on irrigation water supplies, increased environmental impact at both a local and regional scale, and social upheaval of rural communities.

24.9 Remnant vegetationRemnant vegetation is the native vegetation that remains after broad-scale clearing, and largely occurs on private land across southern and eastern Australia. This topic examined the values and benefits of remnant vegetation (focusing on ecosystem services), its extent and condition, the threats and pressures on remnant vegetation, and management and monitoring principles.

Remnant vegetation is valuable because it helps prevent land and water degradation, sustains profitable fine-wool enterprises, and provides habitat for many of Australia’s unique flora and fauna. Farmers, themselves, consider remnant vegetation valuable because it:

RSNR403/503 24 - 9

contributes to human health and quality of life is an important legacy for future generations sustains farming systems in a biophysical sense increases farm profits.

Management guidelines have been developed for fine-wool production from native pastures in Tasmania:

Match stocking rate to carrying capacity, seasonally and from year to year. Understand the lifecycle of all pasture species (desirable and undesirable). Allow enough recovery time following grazing to sustain or enhance the competitive ability

and seed production of desirable pasture species. Strategically graze pastures so that competition and seed production from undesirable

species is reduced.

Remnant vegetation sustains farming systems through a variety of ecosystem services, including:

maintenance of hydrological balance natural control of pests maintenance of productive, biologically active soils water filtration mitigation of floods and droughts break down of wastes and pollutants provision of shade and shelter pollination.

Remnant vegetation constitutes less than half the land area over most of the wheat-sheep and high rainfall zones of southern and eastern Australia. Many regions in Victoria, South Australia and southern Queensland have less than 10% remnant vegetation left. The amount of remnant vegetation, its configuration in a landscape, and its condition determine the provision of ecosystem services and the likelihood of its persistence in the long-term. ‘Habitat Hectares’ is a site-based measure of native vegetation condition, and considers several attributes of remnant vegetation as well as its landscape context (Table 24.2).

Table 24.2 Components and weightings of the habitat score used in the Habitat Hectares approach Source: DSE (2004).

Component Maximum value (%)Site condition Large trees 10

Tree (canopy) cover 5Understorey (non-tree)

strata25

Lack of weeds 15Recruitment 10Organic litter 5

Logs 5Landscape context Patch size 10

Neighbourhood 10Distance to core area 5

Total 100

The extent, condition and long-term persistence of remnant vegetation in agricultural areas are threatened by:

vegetation clearance dryland salinisation pests and weeds altered fire, flood and grazing regimes diseases climate change intensification of resource use lack of social and institutional capacity to address the above issues.

24 - 10 RSNR403//503

Temperate native woodlands and grasslands are among the most endangered natural ecosystems because of their utility for agriculture. A variety of State and Federal Government programs, policies and statutes aim to conserve and improve the management of remnant vegetation, threatened species and vegetation communities.

The principles of improved management of on-farm remnant vegetation include:1. property planning and integration of remnant vegetation in farm management2. considering landscape design issues3. defining clear management objectives for remnant vegetation4. managing vegetation condition and revegetation5. monitoring and adaptively managing remnant vegetation.

24.10 Animal sustainabilityThe primary focus of this topic was on the balance required to maintain the long-term sustainability of animal (principally sheep) production systems. Broad-acre farmers are custodians of 25% of our land, water and vegetation, and must proactively respond and demonstrate their environmental and ethical credentials to regulators, society and consumers. This is not a threat but an opportunity, as sustainability ‘from fibre to fashion’ or ‘paddock to plate’ will be an increasingly important marketing criterion. Proactive investment can help avoid unrealistic environmental legislation, policies and targets. At the same time, the community quite rightly expects natural resources to be maintained and enhanced, not degraded by farming.

A sustainable grazing system was defined as (Mason et al. 2003):

a process of continuous improvement that balances the following seven general requirements and prioritises them for a particular farm situation:

1. increase productivity and profit from the grazing system2. increase water use efficiency3. protect the on-farm natural resources4. create more opportunities for biodiversity5. reduce off-site impacts from the grazing system6. improve the welfare of livestock7. improve producer satisfaction, motivation and capacity to implement change

The recent ‘mulesing’ debate in the wool industry focused attention on animal welfare. Animal welfare has always been a key objective of any farmer, but it is now a public issue and will undoubtedly become an increasingly important marketing focus in the future. The Victorian Department of Agriculture’s Code of Practice for sheep welfare lists the basic requirements as (Bureau of Animal Welfare 2001):

1. A level of nutrition adequate to sustain good health and vigour2. Access to sufficient water of suitable quality to meet physiological needs3. Social contact with other sheep; but with sufficient space to stand, to lie down and stretch

their limbs4. Protection from predation5. Protection from pain, injury and disease6. Protection from extremes of weather which may be life threatening7. Provision of reasonable precautions against the effects of natural disasters (e.g. firebreaks

and fodder storage)8. Handling facilities which under normal usage do not cause injury and which minimise stress

to the sheep.

Understanding animal behaviour makes livestock management easier, especially in relation to grazing management, paddock, yard and shed design. Important concepts for handling livestock include the ‘point of balance’ and ‘flight zone’.

RSNR403/503 24 - 11

The nutritional requirements of livestock such as sheep are well known although new information continues to come to light. For example, good nutrition of ewes is important during pregnancy to the wool production and fibre diameter of lambs throughout their lives. The importance of good quality drinking water should not be overlooked, as livestock feed intake is determined by drinking water intake, which is itself determined by water quality. At the same time, farmers can influence downstream water quality through conservative grazing management in riparian zones.

Predators (foxes, dogs), toxic plants and internal and external parasites are important impediments to livestock production in some regions and seasons. Carefully thought out plans are recommended to manage vertebrate pests, poisonous plants and parasites. Due to widespread and increasing levels of resistance to drenches and the increasing pressure to reduce chemical use, growers are being advised to adopt integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to combat internal parasites. In addition to use of drenches, IPM strategies include (AWI/Sheep CRC 2005):

monitoring worm populations using egg counts testing drench efficacy regularly to know which ones work maximising use of non-chemical options such as:

- developing specific (‘smart’) grazing plans for particular paddocks and especially mobs of young sheep

- cross grazing with cattle- spelling pasture paddocks for long periods (> 10 weeks)- improving livestock nutrition to improve resistance to parasites- breeding worm-resistant sheep- using fodder crops and crops stubbles to reduce worm burdens- maximising the efficacy of any drench application, including removing feed from sheep

under certain circumstances.

Maintaining the resource base is an important requirement of sustainable grazing systems. Groundcover is probably the most important sustainability indicator for grazing systems, and at least 70% groundcover should be maintained at all times. While rotational grazing may lead to increased groundcover and less runoff than continuous grazing at the same stocking rate, set stocking is often preferred at lambing (to lessen mismothering) and for breeding purposes (progeny identification, single sire matings). Native and planted vegetation can provide substantial benefits for livestock and pasture production in terms of shade, shelter and animal welfare. Riparian zone management is crucial in terms of both on-farm water quality and downstream impacts.

Resource materials are now available to help Australian farmers assess their environmental performance, and work towards adopting environmental best practice.

24.11 Sustainable biophysical systemsThis topic integrated the material covered in topics 6-10 within an ecosystem framework. Some 59% of the Australian continent is used for agriculture, but only 6% is capable of sustaining crops and sown pastures. Sustainable bioyphysical systems (SBS) are characterised by four ecosystem components (‘internal drivers’): (1) soil, (2) decomposers, (3) plants and (4) grazers (domestic livestock), and controlled by two main ‘external drivers’ (climate and management influences). In turn, the four main ecosystem components are linked to 14 important factors (Figure 24.2).

24 - 12 RSNR403//503

Figure 24.2 Fourteen inter-connecting factors which draw together SBS function. Source: Hutchinson and King (Unpublished).

The 14 factors are:

1. Geology and landforms – these determine soil type and, to a large extent, land capability.2. Physical fertility – is restored by soil biological activity and organic matter and damaged by

livestock compaction and farm machinery. Soil organic matter has a critical role in absorbing and retaining moisture.

3. Biological processes – in addition to their role in sustaining physical fertility, the soil biota recycle nutrients from soil organic matter and play a pivotal role in the paddock to global-scale cycles of the major macronutrients (carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur etc.).

4. Nutrient additions – most Australian soils are geologically very old, highly weathered and lack the nutrients required for productive agriculture. Temperate pastures have generally been amended with superphosphate as a source of phosphorus and sulphur along with legumes for nitrogen (N). Cropping systems generally have N fertiliser applied directly to the soil, excepting use of a ley-phase. Nutrient inputs need to fully replace nutrients exported in farm products, but in most cases, fertility needs to be rebuilt due to past exploitative practices to return to sustained potential yields.

5. Sown species – only about 6% of grazing lands have been fertilised and sown to introduced pasture grasses and legumes, but sown pastures support 41% of the nation’s livestock. Sown fertilised pastures generally support a three-fold increase in livestock production compared to unfertilised native pastures. Sown species are also used for ley pastures in crop rotations to improve soil structure, restore soil N, and reduce crop diseases.

6. Stability – the stability of a system is the constancy of its behaviour; its resilience is the extent, manner and success of its recovery after disturbance. Australian agricultural systems need to be resilient if not stable.

7. Native species – native pastures contribute to grassland and livestock production over most of the continent. In the high rainfall zone, native pastures and ‘semi-improved’ pastures (native pastures amended with superphosphate and introduced legumes) are retained on land of intermediate and lower capability where, in addition to pasture production, they control erosion and acid soil dysfunction.

8. Livestock nutrition – The book, Feeding Standards for Australian Livestock – Ruminants (SCA 1990), summarises the energy, protein and mineral needs of grazing sheep and cattle in both temperate and tropical grasslands. If the appropriate plant and animal data are available, above-ground production of the grazed pasture ecosystem can be calculated from the book’s equations.

RSNR403/503 24 - 13

9. Animal ethics – Duty of care towards animals, including domestic livestock, is a statutory requirement in Australia and involves providing for their nutritional, behavioural, health (disease control) and environmental (e.g. shelter) needs. Animal Ethics Committees are one manifestation of these responsibilities in the university environment.

10. Grazing community – Phillip Grime’s competition-stress-ruderal (C-S-R) model (Grime 1979) is useful for understanding plant response to environment and management. Ruderal plants are favoured in high disturbance-low stress environments, stress-tolerators occur in high stress-low disturbance conditions, and competitive species dominate in low stress-low disturbance conditions. This model helps explain the loss of sown species from heavily stocked pastures in severe drought.

11. Land capability – assessment of the potential of land to sustain varying types and intensities of land use should continue to underpin farm decision making and land use planning at farm and regional scales respectively.

12. Farm production – Australia ranks fourth in the world in terms of grain exports after the US, Canada and the European Union, and we are obliged to continue to export food to help feed the global population. Pasture-based livestock production systems are efficient producers of human protein and can be managed sustainably with little environmental impact.

13. Catchment health – Landcare and catchment organisations were formed as a result of public concern about the on-farm and off-site environmental impacts of agriculture. A relatively limited set of land and water indicators are sufficient to monitor catchment condition and trend.

14. Water needs and quality – since there is a linear relationship between crop yield and transpiration of available soil moisture, the difference between the actual and potential water use efficiency of a crop indicates prevailing production constraints (e.g. disease, nutrient deficiencies etc.). Available soil moisture in the root zone is also a principal driver of pasture yield. The water needs of livestock are well known and need to be incorporated in farm planning and management.

24.12 Natural resource policy This topic explained why natural resource policy, particularly in relation to agriculture, has changed and expanded so rapidly over the past decade. It recounted the division of powers between the Federal Government and the States and Territories, the latters’ assumption of primary responsibility for natural resource and agricultural policy, and the Commonwealth’s coordinating and financial role. It explained how governments develop policies and the policy instruments used by governments to achieve their policy goals. The problems of engaging stakeholders in the policy process were detailed. The topic concluded by affirming the importance of two principles, ecologically sustainable development and the precautionary principle, in formulating natural resource policy in Australia.

Public policy is how government’s effect their stated aims and goals. Natural resource policy covering water use and quality, native vegetation, catchment management, salinity, Landcare and biodiversity has developed rapidly over the last decade, due to:

over-use and over-allocation of natural resources unforeseen environmental impacts associated with agriculture the cumulative impacts of many small decisions on 100 000 farms better measurement of the condition and trends in natural resources better appreciation of the obligations of intergenerational equity the changing philosophy of society from an anthropocentric, develop-at-all costs mentality,

to a more eco-centric approach embodied by sustainable development.

Natural resource policy is complex because it demands a balance between environmental, economic and social outcomes, and often requires inter-jurisdictional cooperation within and between the three tiers of government (Local, State or Territory and Federal). The rapid introduction of new policies is adding to the complexity, creating uncertainty and confusion for natural resource users. As natural resource policy affects the rights and privileges associated with resource use and access, it is important that those involved in agriculture understand these policies.

24 - 14 RSNR403//503

Under the Australian Constitution (Howard 1978), the Federal Government cannot pass laws about things not mentioned in Section 51. The only natural resource issues mentioned are:

astronomical and meteorological observations quarantine and fisheries in Australian waters beyond territorial limits.

Statutory responsibility for agriculture, water, fisheries, forestry, catchment management, dryland salinity, landcare implementation, native vegetation, and the resources sectors thus rests primarily with the States and Territories. However, the Federal Government makes laws about natural resource management (NRM) by resorting to a variety of Section 51 powers (e.g. about woodchip exports by means of its trade and commerce power). Moreover, legislation is just one policy instrument, and the Federal Government uses a wide range of other instruments to implement its natural resource, environmental and agricultural policies. In recent years, the Commonwealth has played a pivotal role nationally in:

water reform biodiversity conservation natural heritage landcare greenhouse salinity NRM monitoring and evaluation the Murray-Darling Basin wetlands forests rangelands ecologically sustainable development state of the environment reporting.

Policies are developed and adopted by governments according to a general process (Table 24.3). The most important step is to get an issue on the ‘policy agenda’ (i.e. given serious consideration by politicians and their public servants). If policy evaluation is omitted, often policies and outcomes do not improve over time and the mistakes of the past may be repeated.

Table 24.3 Conceptual framework of the policy process. Source: Adapted from Anderson et al. (1978).

Policy Terminology

Stage 1

Policy Agenda

Stage 2

PolicyFormulation

Stage 3

Policy Adoption

Stage 4

Policy Implementation

Stage 5

PolicyEvaluation

Definition Problems which

receive serious

attention from Govt

Development of proposed courses of action (‘tools’)

which are acceptable and

effective

Development of support for a

specific proposal so that a policy can be

authorised

Applying the govt’s policy to

the problem

Efforts by the govt to

determine if the policy was

effective and why or why not.

The likelihood of a policy achieving its intended outcome is dependent on the mix of policy instruments or mechanisms (tools) chosen to implement it. The six types of policy mechanism are:

1. regulatory (legislation, regulations, statutory plans, leases etc.)2. information-related (awareness raising, education and training)3. financial4. policy-related5. infrastructure6. research and development.

RSNR403/503 24 - 15

Traditionally governments developed policy with only limited consultation with the community or affected parties. Increasingly, governments attempt to engage the community or interested parties (‘stakeholders’) because of their interests and because better policy often results. Problems in engaging stakeholders in natural resource policy formulation include:

conflicts between government and stakeholders or between different stakeholders difficulty in engaging disorganised or unrepresented stakeholders the large number of potential stakeholders.

Two key principles are now routinely employed in developing natural resource policy in Australia:

ecologically sustainable development precautionary principle.

24.13 Catchment managementNo summary for this topic at this point. This topic will have been delivered to you mid-semester.

24.14 Property planningThis remarkable and innovative topic introduced the concept of property planning and the economic basis of management. It explained a range of potential management goals (e.g. sustainability, profit maximisation, income maximisation, production maximisation etc.), and the fact that these goals are mutually exclusive. Economic theory was used to demonstrate how farmers can judge whether they are under or over-producing from several years of farm taxation records. The authors recommended gap analysis to determine which quality or quality factors are most limiting, and explained the importance of farmers calculating their rainfall use efficiency, a whole-farm water budget, and water budgets for their best and worst paddocks. The use of overlays in physical property planning overlays was explained and a series of planning tips provided.

Because the real gross value of agricultural production has remained constant for the past 40 years, any extra income earned by one farmer has to come from another farmer. Competition between farmers drives everyone towards the lowest common denominator. If this involves unsustainable natural resource management on the part of one farmer, it eventually flows through to all farmers if they wish to survive. The historical aggregate data show that the period when Australian agriculture (in real terms) was most profitable (1962-67) differed from that when the real gross value of agricultural production peaked (1975-1980), which was different again to the most recent period recording the greatest volume of production. It can be shown from first principles that as production increases on an individual farm, profit is maximised before income which, in turn, is maximised before production. Since there are always costs of production unaccounted for (e.g. soil erosion, biodiversity decline, unpaid domestic labour, depreciating plant and equipment), sustainability occurs even before maximum profit. Farmers (and others) often wrongly think that maximising sustainability, profit, income and production are the same thing and can be achieved simultaneously. The most important point in this topic and, indeed, the whole unit is that these goals are mutually exclusive and achieved sequentially along a production function.

Property planning is a farm management decision making and evaluation process. Sustainability and profitability are primarily determined by a farmer’s responses to perceived problems, not the external factors adversely impacting agriculture that are commonly blamed. Farm businesses often fail because of failure to perceive or anticipate problems, inappropriate values, and poor farm management. Poor farm decision making can be attributed to stress, inadequate skills, incomplete knowledge, inappropriate assumptions, and particular values and behavioural styles.

Property planning starts with the owner-managers setting goals. Since every property and owner is different, there is a unique, optimal solution for every farm that is dependent only on existing management. Australian farmers have substantial scope to improve their sustainability because:

24 - 16 RSNR403//503

1. Data from a large number of farms in northern NSW suggests that half of annual rainfall is wasted due to production inefficiency

2. Many paddocks on many farms are not breaking even – it would be more profitable to retire these parts of the farm from production than to continue losing money on them

3. Profit is generated in about equal proportions from production, management and marketing. Most farmers do not have robust monitoring systems for assessing management nor are they adept at marketing

4. As noted previously, most farmers confuse the concepts of sustainability, profit, income and production. Given the appropriate tools, most farmers could make more astute economic management decisions. Many are over-producing and going out the back door doing so. On the other hand, there is increasing anecdotal evidence to suggest that reducing stock numbers has improved the personal, financial and environmental wellbeing of Northern Tablelands graziers.

For an individual farm, production functions provide the basis for rational decision making. Production functions measure the response of outputs to changing volumes of inputs. For a given ratio of the cost of inputs (Pi) to outputs (Po), profit is maximised at the point where a line with slope, Pi/Po, is tangential to the production function. Fortunately, we do not need to know the production function. The ratio of total costs to total income from a farmer’s tax accounts provides an approximation of the Pi/Po ratio. This ratio may be rising, falling or constant. If the ratio is constant, costs and income are moving in the same direction at the same rate and profit is being maximised under existing management (Table 29.4).

If the ratio is rising or falling, the year-on-year change in total farm (or enterprise) costs indicates how the farm (or enterprise) can return to maximum profit. If the ratio is rising because costs are rising faster than income, the year- on-year change in total costs will be positive and the farm (or enterprise) will be over-producing for maximum profit. Other scenarios are detailed in Table 24.4. These indicators can be used to monitor the efficacy of management change.

Table 24.4 Management implications of farm (or enterprise) trends in cost to income ratio and year-on-year changes in total costs. Source: Gardiner and Browne (2004).Ratio of Total

Farm (or Enterprise)

Costs to Total Income (Pi/Po)

Year-on-year Changes in Total Farm (or Enterprise) Costs

Zero Negative Positive

Constant Maximum profit

Implies costs and income are falling

proportionally. Maximum profit

Implies costs and income are rising

proportionally. Maximum profit

Rising

Income is falling. Check prices and natural resource

condition

Business is producing less. Increase production for

maximum profit

Business is producing more. Reduce production for

maximum profit

Falling

Income is rising. Check prices and natural resource

condition

Business is producing less. Increase production for

maximum profit

Business is producing more. Reduce production for

maximum profit

Note that the cost to income ratio identifies whether economic profit is being maximised. This ratio will only determine whether the existing management is sustainable in the unlikely case that all costs are accounted for. Natural resource rundown, off-site impacts, debt and repayments, operator’s allowance and depreciation all lead to a higher level of production than is sustainable.

Until optimal enterprise size and mix are known, it is very difficult to make cogent decisions about appropriate management of a farm’s natural resources. Gap analysis is a stepwise process aimed at identifying whether quality or productivity factors are most limiting. Gap analysis forces the producer to think about their product and undertake market research. For instance, if gap analysis suggests the major problem areas for a producer are environmental (e.g. vegetable fault and tensile strength of wool), it is unlikely that genetics will fix the problems. When productivity factors are analysed, current production per

RSNR403/503 24 - 17

head is often found to be 10% less than target, implying that equivalent production is probably achievable from lower stock numbers. Gap analysis allows the producer to target the main strengths and weaknesses in the existing production system. Once the problems (or opportunities) have been identified, management changes are more likely to produce outcomes that achieve long-term personal, financial and natural resource goals.

Rainfall use efficiency (RUE) is used to determine whether poor farm profitability is the result of poor product or poor NRM. RUE can also be used to measure land capability across a farm and the management capability of different farmers. Remember that the optimal level of production is derived from farm financial data, not what is physically possible utilising all available rainfall.

When rain falls it can only end up in four places – runoff, deep drainage, transpiration or evaporation (inefficiency). Farm production figures and water budgets show an average RUE of between 10 and 30% across wide areas of northern NSW, with runoff varying between 4-15%, deep drainage 2-8%, and evaporation (inefficiencies) of 15-65%. Although it is difficult to extract the last 15% of evaporation (or inefficiency) out of the system, there is clearly considerable scope for productivity growth on existing cleared land if farm taxation records indicate that this is required to increase profit. Note that productivity growth includes the possibility of achieving the same level of production from less land or less inputs – the concept of doing less, better. Productivity growth might be achieved by reducing runoff, deep drainage, evaporation from bare surfaces and inefficiencies due to soil nutrient availability, inefficient grazing techniques, unproductive plant species, and lack of shade and shelter across the farm.

Effective placement of farm infrastructure in relation to natural resources and land capability assists management. An aerial photograph enlargement of the farm with overlays of existing infrastructure, natural resources and physical geography, and planned changes in infrastructure is an invaluable tool. Many handy tips concerning land capability, litter, wind run and shelter, tax deductions, and infrastructure replacement are provided.

24.15 Measuring, monitoring and benchmarking for sustainability

This topic began by defining several key terms. Farmer interview data were cited in support of the concept that many farmers judge their success in economic, social and environmental terms (the ‘triple bottom line’). Motivating factors that might encourage farmers to monitor their triple bottom line were suggested. National, regional and local initiatives to monitor farm production and financials were described, as were recent initiatives in developing and measuring the social and environmental sustainability of farms. The topic concluded with the reality check that farmers are busy, that scientists and farmers have different perspectives, and that the formal recording of sustainability measures is not generally beneficial for farmers, hence they don’t do it. However, careful attention to planning changes to the production system and monitoring the success of management changes are likely to be worthwhile.

Farmers measure a lot fewer things on-farm than they monitor and they record fewer things again. Benchmarking is the process of measuring inputs, outputs, services and practices against the toughest competitors or those recognised as industry leaders. The ‘triple bottom line’ (giving weight to financial, social and environmental outcomes) is currently very popular in management and reporting, and underpins this whole unit. Farmers intuitively operate according to a triple bottom line, so measuring, monitoring and benchmarking for sustainability is a sensible concept.

Reasons that farmers might measure and record aspects of their farm’s performance include (in approximate order of priority) legal obligation, market requirements, peer pressure, decision support, farm planning and budgeting, the utility of benchmarking and comparative analysis, community expectations, quality assurance and environmental management systems, and finally catchment targets. Most of these relate to the financial or production aspects of the farm business, in recognition that a successful business operation is readily measured and a prerequisite to farm survival, unlike social and environmental sustainability.

24 - 18 RSNR403//503

At a national scale, the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics conducts annual farm surveys of the broadacre and dairy industries for government and industry. At farm scale, most of the major consultants and consulting groups in the agriculture sector offer a benchmarking service to their clients. The Farm Monitor Project is a benchmarking survey and comparative analysis of wool growers in south-west west Victoria, and has been run for 33 years. The difference in profitability of the top 20% of woolgrowers ($2.38 per kg of wool) is not driven by higher prices obtained, but almost entirely by lower costs per kg of wool produced.

A range of social sustainability measures at farm scale (e.g. producer satisfaction) and environmental measures at paddock and farm scale have been proposed (e.g. nutrient balance, crop water use efficiency, perenniality index). These measures were found to be subjective compared to the production and financial information collected by the Farm Monitor Project.

Environmental Management Systems (EMS) are a structured way to identify and manage impacts on the environment and to report on progress. The most rigorous and internationally accepted form of EMS was developed in the late 1990s by the International Organisation for Standards (ISO) and is referred to as the ISO 14 000 series. The ISO systems are generic because they do not set environmental performance standards; rather, they measure progress towards targets. Central to EMS is the concept of continuous improvement. ISO 14 000 requires participants to demonstrate not only an understanding of the process, but also to provide evidence of implementation on the property. This is done via monitoring impacts, record keeping, internal audits and external audits.

In 2000, Meat and Livestock Australia funded a project to pilot test the use of EMS in the meat industry. Four groups of producers (from Victoria to Qld) were involved and the goal was to have at least five beef properties in each group achieving ISO 14 000 certification. The producers were all environmentally conscious and most were used to rigorous quality assurance systems, but despite this, only one entity progressed to final ISO 14 000 certification. Obstacles to the uptake of EMS were the financial burden and time required to implement and maintain the system, with little or nil financial benefits in return.

Although there are myriad reasons for measuring, monitoring and benchmarking on farms, few farmers do it. Three-quarters of mixed crop and livestock farmers are working more than 50-hour weeks, so farmers are time-poor. Although farms are complex entities and every farm is unique, experienced farmers intuitively understand how to manage their farms and until they are challenged by something beyond their experience or mental model, they don’t feel a need to record and benchmark everything.

Despite not recording things, farmers will still want to plan any significant changes on their farms. The Sustainable Grazing systems (SGS) program developed a 1-page planning tool with two stages: (1) deciding the options and priorities, and (2) planning any changes. No additional measurement may be required to develop a plan, but some measurement or monitoring might be needed during plan implementation as that is a time of uncertainty and key decision making.

A set of on-farm production and financial measurements could be suggested at a range of scales (e.g. individual animal, paddock, whole farm). Unfortunately, it is not possible to suggest a comparable list of environmental and social measures that combine with the financial to make up the triple bottom line, because the environmental problems and social goals of farms and farmers vary so widely. Farmers will measure or monitor when they think the information needed is critical for decision making, and they’ll stop when it’s not.

24.16 Triple bottom line analyses of grazing systemsThis topic was introduced by stating the case for a triple bottom line (TBL) approach to evaluating farm performance in sustaining the profits, planet and people associated with the farm business. It reviewed the TBL concept and some accounting concepts in the context of commercial livestock grazing. It concluded with the SGS approach to evaluating the various grazing treatments employed in the SGS research using a TBL approach, as well as the TBL evaluation of the whole SGS program.

RSNR403/503 24 - 19

In agriculture there is a clear need to sustain the natural resources upon which the production of food, fibre, fuel and medicines depend and to sustain the people and communities who depend closely on the productivity of a farm. These components have been captured in the sustainability concept and in reporting in a TBL framework.

The concept of a TBL evolved from the concepts of sustainability developed over the last half of the 20th century. The TBL approach identifies all those economic, social and biophysical components that are needed to sustain livestock grazing systems, and draws up balance sheets of cash flow and natural, social and economic capital. Because a TBL approach goes beyond simple economics where a price can be attributed to all inputs and outputs, difficulties often arise in trying to judge what to include, what to measure and how to evaluate some components.

Grazing systems have a range of outputs. Food and fibre are obvious, but less obvious outputs include aesthetic appeal, clean water and air, and landscape health. The TBL approach provides a convenient way of assessing the various outputs from grazing systems. Economic outputs are generally saleable items and simple to accommodate. Environmental and ecological outputs can be more difficult to measure, but are still tangible. Social outputs are often the least tangible and most difficult to quantify (e.g. wellbeing or happiness).

To produce the outputs identified from grazing systems requires a range of resources. The TBL approach identifies that grazing systems depend upon considerably more resources (e.g. ecosystem services, human capital) than the traditional inputs directly linked to production. In addition a grazing system can have social and environmental impacts beyond the paddock or farm that society may or may not desire.

The TBL approach is based upon the basic accountancy concepts used to evaluate the performance of an enterprise. The concepts evident in any balance sheet include the need to account for all costs, returns, assets and liabilities, and the balance between profit and capital gain.

The first large-scale application of TBL concepts was to the SGS program. The SGS definition of a sustainable grazing system was:

a process of continuous improvement that balances the following six general requirements and prioritises them for an individual paddock or farm situation:(i) increasing grazing system productivity and profitability(ii) increasing water use in the grazing system(iii) protecting the on-farm resources(iv) creating more opportunities for biodiversity(v) reducing off-site impacts(vi) improving producer satisfaction, motivation and capacity to implement change.

Note that in the six items of this definition, only the first one includes economic analysis. This suggests that normal accounting falls far short of the aspirations of many producers and, second, that we often fail to properly evaluate farm systems within the broad framework needed to properly judge if an enterprise is meeting expectations.

This definition was used to provide a TBL analysis of the impact of SGS at the end of the program. While this analysis did not relate to any specific farm, it did provide a methodology that can be used on farms. Two TBL evaluations were undertaken: (1) an evaluation of the sustainability of treatments researched within the SGS program, and (2) a larger program wide evaluation. The treatment evaluation only evaluated production and natural resource impacts. Whereas the production impacts could be quantified and projected as gross margins over a 10-year timeframe, the natural resource impacts were qualitative (rated on a scale of -5 to +5) and judged relative to current district practice and management skill. No evaluation of social impacts was attempted. The evaluation of the whole SGS program used a qualitative approach to appraise natural, social and economic capital appreciation in relation to the six criteria in the definition.

24 - 20 RSNR403//503

24.17 Managing grazing systems sustainablyThis topic integrated some of the biophysical and economic considerations in earlier topics to derive rules of thumb for the sustainable biophysical and economic management of grazing systems. Grazing system components were briefly reviewed, and given the tremendous and largely unknown diversity in grazing systems, a management focus of ecosystem functionality was preferred. Rules of thumb were proposed for the functional management of biodiversity, grassland biomass levels, energy cycling, water management and nutrient management. Principles for managing animal production in extensive and intensive grazing systems were explained, and the importance of adaptive management emphasised.

A grazing system is an ecosystem with many components organised in trophic layers. Soils and their components comprise the more complex layers upon which higher plants and livestock depend. The incredible diversity in grazed ecosystems makes it impossible to monitor all components in any realistic way. An alternative model is to focus upon how the ecosystem functions. The main functions are related to fluxes of energy, nutrients, and water. Biodiversity sustains these cycles, but it is easier to consider the functional role of organisms rather than single species.

Various studies have concluded that between six and 20 species may be needed to maximise herbage production, with a decline in production associated with more diverse paddocks. SGS research has reinforced the view that plant biodiversity needs to be predominantly ‘palatable persistent perennial’ (3P) grasses plus legumes that add adequate nitrogen to the grassland. As these functional types do not capture all the available resources, additional ‘gap fillers’ can fulfil a useful role (i.e. annual grasses and edible forbs). The optimal content of 3P grasses needs to be around 60% or more to provide near optimal levels of production and stability. Annual grasses and forbs help fill gaps, suppress weeds and are palatable for livestock.

Unfortunately many cropping areas have few if any 3P grasses and many ‘pastures’ rely on volunteer species. Such pastures often have poor animal performance, many weeds and do not enhance the sustainability of the farm system.

In temperate pastures, the optimal level of herbage mass to sustain high average growth rates and hence high levels of production throughout the growing season is in the range of 1-2t dry matter (DM)/ha. When 95% of the available incident light is being intercepted, pasture growth rates are near maximum. Maintaining a higher herbage mass over time is important to control weed invasion.

In grasslands the management of energy is undertaken by managing the pasture biomass such that gross over or under-utilisation is avoided. Over-grazing is a well acknowledged problem and the key is to retain sufficient herbage and litter. With 3P grasslands, a minimum herbage mass of 1.5-2 t DM/ha generally satisfies this criterion. The factors that maximise nutrient cycling also help to minimise water leakage from grazing systems. In practice, this comes down to having an adequate 3P grass content and 1.5-2t DM/ha of herbage mass.

In considering animal production goals, a comparison of pasture management options suggests a focus on net profit is advisable rather than maximising production. Farmers along the NSW Tablelands are currently resowing less than 1% of the landscape to pastures each year, preferring to manage their existing pastures.

In the arid rangelands of Australia, many of the management options that apply in the higher rainfall zones are impossible on extensive grazing properties with large paddocks. Producers have to husband available resources if they wish to sustain production over the long-term. Stocking rates need to be set at a level whereby the desirable species can persist at optimal levels, without weed invasion by unpalatable species (as now seen in areas of western NSW and northern Queensland) or soil erosion. Utilisation rates are used to determine appropriate stocking rates. In Queensland where there is a defined wet season, suitable stocking rates can be estimated from the amount of forage available at the end of the wet season. Stocking rates that only utilise 20% of the available forage from the end of one wet season till the start of the next result in grassy ecosystems surviving in good condition.

RSNR403/503 24 - 21

Intensive grazing systems are where livestock are able to utilise all the available forage (i.e. the livestock normally roam over the whole paddock/farm). In intensive systems, more options apply than under extensive grazing. A synthesis of many grazing experiments shows that animal production per head is linearly related to stocking rate and the relationship between stocking rate and animal production per hectare is quadratic (Figure 24.3). At optimum stocking rate, animal production per head is half that of the theoretical maximum production per head. Animal production per head and per hectare reaches zero at only twice the optimum stocking rate.

Figure 24.3 Relationship between stocking rate and animal production per head and per hectare derived from many sheep and cattle experiments. Data are normalised relative to

the optimum stocking rate in each experiment. Source: Jones and Sandland (1974).

It isn’t possible, particularly at a farm scale, to always adjust stocking rates to achieve the optimum. A more realistic scenario is to achieve 80% of the optimum across the farm. The more conservative strategy implicit in opting for a below optimum stocking rate brings with it a more manageable and, most of the time, a more profitable livestock enterprise. This management approach is designed to not only result in profitable outcomes but a reduced impact on natural resources and a reduced demand upon management and labour. This combination provides a means of dealing with the declining terms-of-trade that agriculture faces. High cost systems are unlikely to survive against such pressures.

Sustainable grazing systems need constant attention and that means management needs to continually adapt to changing circumstances. The keys to operating a sustainable system are to monitor, measure and then manage. Monitoring herbage mass on a regular basis provides a front-line tool to adjust stocking rates and move animals. Secondly the key plant functional types need to be monitored, especially 3P grasses and N-fixing legumes, to assess if management practices need to be varied to enhance the proportion of such species.

24 - 22 RSNR403//503

24.18 Case study A: Northern tablelands of New South Wales

This case study focused on the grazing industries of the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. It described the biophysical environment of the Northern Tablelands and the structure of the main farming enterprises. The biophysical controls and the potential influence of management on pasture production were outlined. A diverse range of socio-economic and biophysical sustainability issues confronting New England graziers were described and some of the opportunities and hazards that the future holds for the region’s primary producers were discussed.

The Northern Tablelands of NSW covers about 3.3. million ha of the high rainfall zone of Australia. Rainfall is summer-dominant and the soils and landform conspire to produce native vegetation dominated by grassy woodlands and open-forests, which were readily settled by squatters for pasturage in the 1830s. About 69% of the region is farmland, principally livestock grazing enterprises. The region’s 2300 farms average 800-1100 ha in size, 75% running beef cattle and 57% sheep. Returns to equity are low and farm profit is sensitive to small price fluctuations. One in six farms in the southern part of the region is smaller ‘lifestyle’ farms in which most income is generated off-farm. Since the 1950s, 23% of the region has been sown to introduced pastures, and a further 6% top-dressed with fertiliser and seed. Otherwise, native and natural pastures dominate the resource base, although these generally carry less livestock. Drier seasons since the 1980s and declining terms of trade have seen many producers look to lower-input native pastures and grazing management alternatives to the reliance on continuously grazed sown pastures from the 1950s to the 1970s.

Socio-economic sustainability issues in the region are many and include low commodity prices and declining terms of trade, increasing demand for certified products to meet quality and environmentally and ethically responsible production standards, rural adjustment and farm aggregation by younger, more successful producers, dwindling rural populations and small communities in decline, the withdrawal of rural and regional services such as banking, schooling and extension services, and increasing interest in farming as a lifestyle for urban dwellers.

Biophysical sustainability issues include agricultural impacts on catchment water quality, weeds, lack of sown pasture persistence and drought, soil acidification, alkali scalds, soil erosion, livestock parasites, wild dogs, kangaroos, overclearing and dieback, and the loss of regional biodiversity.

The future presents opportunities as well as challenges for Northern Tablelands graziers, including climate change, expanding markets for meat and fashion products generated by a burgeoning middle class in India and China, and fundamental changes in the role of government and the agricultural industries in policy and management of natural resources and the environment.

24.19 Case study B: Southern Western AustraliaThis topic examined the issues associated with farming sustainability in the south-west of Western Australia, using as an example a typical farming business in the South Central Zone. Variations to farming enterprise mix and intensity exist due to climate and soil characteristics across the South-West. The history of agriculture in the region is outlined, with the fundamental altering of the natural forest vegetation being ultimately responsible for current issues in sustainability. The factors which have become apparent over recent decades as compromising agricultural system stability are:

waterlogging in low-lying areas rising groundwater tables in much of the landscape damaging salinity levels in soils within plant root zones slow but progressive rise in topsoil acidity soil erosion linked to extreme weather events (rain, wind) changing economic relativities, such that scale of enterprise may need to increase development of a range of plant and animal diseases, and pathogen resistance to

chemicals, making farm biosecurity of increased significance.

RSNR403/503 24 - 23

Treatment and prevention of the issues is by a range of measures. In the case of groundwater table management, all the answers are not currently apparent, but best practice would include a combination of the following:

fencing to a plan accommodating land management units surface drainage promoting optimum plant growth – pastures and crops sowing perennial pastures strategic tree planting to limit recharge of deep groundwater.

Soil acidity is managed by strategic application of agricultural lime of adequate neutralising value, readily available locally. Best farming and business practice is outlined to address the remaining issues likely to impact upon physical and financial sustainability of the enterprise.

24.20 Case study C: Northern wheat/sheep beltThis topic described the major climatic, soil and vegetation characteristics that distinguish the northern wheat/sheep belt from other agricultural zones, and contrasted the agricultural activities of the zone with those of other Australian agricultural regions. The land degradation issues facing farmers and the solutions to these problems were described. Finally, the agricultural practices and sustainability issues on two case study farms in the region were documented.

The northern wheat/sheep belt comprises that part of the wheat/sheep belt that lies north of Coonabarabran, stretching north to the Roma region. The major distinguishing factor is the dominance of summer rainfall associated with tropical monsoon activity, compared to the gentler winter rainfall of the southern wheat/sheep belt. The region's more fertile soils with a ready supply of water support irrigated crops, and dryland summer and winter cropping is widespread. Cotton, sorghum and maize are the most common summer crops, with most cotton being irrigated. Wheat and barley are the most commonly grown winter crops. The most extensive land use is grazing, predominantly of cattle on either native or improved pastures. Major sustainability issues in the region include declining soil fertility in continuously cropped areas, chemical resistant weeds and pests, dryland and irrigation salinity and biodiversity and habitat loss. Soil erosion by both wind and water is also a major problem and rotational grazing systems and no-till farming are increasingly used to conserve soil. No-till practices also result in improved soil water conservation. Dense regrowth of native vegetation following bulldozing or ploughing is an issue particularly in pastoral areas.

The history, current management and sustainability issues of two case study farms were described. ‘Manus’ at Goondiwindi (600 mm annual rainfall) is a 2525 ha farm owned by the McMicking family. Dryland cropping on about 1550 ha and 200 beef cattle are the main enterprises. Sheep were common in the region until the late 1960s and a few persisted at ‘Manus’ until the late 1990s. Dryland summer and winter crops are grown under a no-till regime to conserve soil moisture, except in wet years when the cost of herbicide would be prohibitive. Remnant vegetation mainly consists of linear windbreaks along paddock margins and water courses. The main sustainability issues on ‘Manus’ are woody regrowth, crops diseases, herbicide resistance, soil nutrient decline, water erosion, and pasture weeds. These are controlled with cultivation, crop rotations, fertiliser application, crop stubble retention, and herbicides, respectively.

‘Mulgowan’ at Stanthorpe (750 mm annual rainfall) is a 2225 ha property owned by Clive Smith in the Traprock region of southern Queensland. Clive specialised in superfine Merino wool production (6500 wethers and dry ewes). All sheep are coated year-round to enhance wool quality. About 10% of the property is remnant vegetation, although most of the property is native pasture dominated by Aristida and blue grass (Dichanthium) species. No fertiliser is applied as the low protein content of the feed is part of the key to producing superfine wool. Bypass protein is fed to improve feed digestibility, and the spring shearing avoids tender wool. Young sheep are purchased from the New England Tablelands. Grazing management is currently changing from set stocking to a limited rotational grazing system with which local graziers have had some success in encouraging a greater amount of blue grass in pastures. The main sustainability issues are water erosion on hillsides, woody weeds and drought. These are being counteracted by the change to rotational grazing, herbicides and a well-planned destocking policy with progressive sell-off of older, coarser-wool sheep, respectively.

24 - 24 RSNR403//503

RSNR403/503 24 - 25

24.21 Case study D: Southern sheep/wheat beltThis topic focused on the Murrumbidgee Catchment portion of the southern wheat/sheep belt, and the management of the main sustainability issues in the area. Two case studies were profiled: a catchment case study (the Kyeamba Valley National Action Plan) and a farm case study (sheep lot feeding in drought).

The main natural resource management issues in the catchment are soil erosion, salinity, loss of biodiversity, soil acidity and river water quality and flow. The Murrumbidgee Catchment Blueprint (Anon. 2002), contains specific and measurable targets to reverse land and water degradation. Since participation is voluntary, individual farmers vary in their interest in the plan and sustainability issues. Some are very proactive, involved in their local Landcare group and implement sustainable practices. Others are not interested, making little or no attempt to manage for environmental sustainability.

Kyeamba Valley national action plan The 72 000 ha Kyeamba Valley is 20 km upstream of Wagga Wagga and is the highest priority sub-catchment in the upper and mid-Murrumbidgee requiring salt reduction programs. The Kyeamba Valley National Action Plan aims to reduce salt loads entering the Murrumbidgee River from the Kyeamba Creek by 2600 t/year, as well as to reduce sediment and nutrient loads. The funding of $511 900 was allocated over 2 years through the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality. The program is unique for two reasons: (1) it targets works where they will maximise positive environmental impact, and (2) innovative incentives are used to encourage targeted landholders to undertake works on their property. Participating landholders are required to sign contracts to undertake best-practice management practices for 10 years.

Fourteen properties were targeted in the catchment. In the first year, over half of the principal targets were achieved including:

83 ha of recharge site fencing and revegetation 23 ha of discharge site fencing and revegetation 73 ha of creek fencing and gully stabilisation 60 000 trees and shrubs planted.

Matching in-kind agreements and contributions by the participating landholders, so far, include: 1304 ha of existing perennial pasture to be managed to set benchmarks 461 ha of new perennial pasture to be established 583 ha of existing native vegetation to be retained without clearing 66 ha of creeks and gullies to be managed to set benchmarks.

The project is important because targeted works get people involved who may not have normally participated in Landcare activities. It also allows leverage to put works where they are needed. Through a sub-catchment (as opposed to an individual) approach, the positive environmental effect is greater due to the higher number of participants. Stabilisation of creeks and gullies and the regeneration of riparian areas will increase biodiversity in the area and promote river health.

Sheep lot feeding in drought Sheep lot feeding or drought lotting involves confining sheep in small areas at high stocking rates in order to minimise the degradation of soil and pasture. The sheep are fed a controlled ration on a regular basis and a constant water supply is available. This case study is an example of how one farmer managed to protect pastures and waterways on his property during a drought, whilst retaining core breeding stock.

The 2400 ha property in the eastern Riverina (450 mm annual rainfall) runs a Merino stud. About 1000 ha are cropped primarily to lucerne pastures. Total rainfall in 2002 was 220 mm of which 75 mm fell in February. The flock consisted of 1300 ewes that had lambed in June and July, giving 1530 lambs, and 550 ewe hoggets (2001 drop). Over the previous 10 years, 1700 t (wet) of silage

24 - 26 RSNR403//503

had been stored in pits. By September, there was only a slim chance of an average or better spring due to the dry conditions, and pasture dry matter was around 500 kg/ha in most paddocks. The objectives for managing the sheep through the drought, assuming a high probability of a break in the autumn/early winter of 2003, were to: preserve the lucerne-based pastures and groundcover keep lambs growing slowly over summer ensure ewes were in at least condition score 3 at joining protect creeks and river banks from overgrazing, for biodiversity.

The lambs and ewes were lotted for varying periods from September until May in two preferred paddocks. Soil type and protection from erosion were important in terms of paddock selection. The ewe hoggets had access to stubbles throughout the drought in addition to a feed ration.

For this producer, sheep lotting worked well in terms of saving his investment in lucerne pastures and soil health. Establishing a drought lot meant that perennial pastures were not overgrazed and some ground cover was maintained throughout the drought. The creeks and waterways were protected from overgrazing.

24.22 Case study E: Rangelands This topic discussed the definition of rangelands in Australia and outlined their characteristics including their propensity for degradation due to over-use. The concept of land condition and the importance of grazing management to range productivity was detailed, and the Queensland system of condition assessment described. The concept of healthy country at paddock, property and catchment scale was introduced.

The rangelands cover over 75% of Australia, comprising a variety of land types and climatic zones. The rangelands are inherently infertile, of low productive potential and pastoral production is based on complex native or naturalised pastures. Rangelands are also characterised by degradation generally driven by overgrazing during periods of drought leading to a loss in desirable perennial grasses and shrubs. The loss of the desirable perennial grasses and shrubs leads to a loss in landscape function, demonstrated through increased runoff and soil loss, detrimental changes in soil structure, and a decline in pastoral production and carrying capacity.

Land condition is the capacity of land to respond to rain and produce useful forage. It is a measure of how well the grazing land ecosystem is functioning, and has the three components, pastures, soil and woodlands. The system uses four categories of land condition: A – excellent carrying capacity for the land type B – good but reduced by 25% C – poor with carrying capacity reduced by 45% D – severely degraded relative to the potential of the land type (carrying capacity reduced

by 80%).

Managing grazing pressure is critical in maintaining land condition, and this can be achieved by setting stocking rates at levels that utilise less than 30% of the pasture grown, although this varies with land type and climatic conditions. Managing rangelands is about managing ecosystems, with the aim of optimising energy flow, nutrient cycling and water cycling by using the tools of grazing, fire, woodland management, sown pastures and weed control. Land condition assessment is based on forage production, and is essentially concerned with paddock and property level livestock production.

To assess the health of a catchment or region, we also need to look at what is happening beyond individual property boundaries and at the status of ecosystems from the perspective of other land uses. Healthy country may be defined as capable of:

Maintaining basic ecological functions (including but not confined to nutrient cycling, water capture, provision of food)

Maintaining viable populations of all native species of plants and animals at appropriate spatial and temporal scales

Reliably meeting the long-term needs (spiritual, aesthetic and material) of people with an interest in the rangelands.

RSNR403/503 24 - 27

Table 24.5 suggests attributes to consider at different spatial scales (i.e. from paddock to catchment) when assessing rangeland health. This framework helps select appropriate attributes for use in different situations. For example, it is appropriate to expect a healthy paddock to have stable soil producing to its potential, but it is inappropriate to expect a healthy paddock to have viable remnants of all ecosystems. Rather, this is an appropriate goal at the bioregional scale.

Table 24.5 Attributes of healthy country for a paddock, a property and a catchment or region. Source: Quirk and McIvor (2003).

Paddock Property Catchment or Region Key ecological processes (energy flow, nutrient cycling, water cycling) are maintained Stable soil producing to its potential Perennial grasses dominant (except if systems are naturally dominated by annuals) Balance of woody plants and pasture

Viable remnants of all ecosystem types originally present Minimal leakage of nutrients, sediment, weed seeds Viable rural enterprise

Network of ecosystems managed to conserve native plants and animals Viable rural community (people able to live and access services sufficiently)

24.23 Contemporary global issues and future directions for Australian agriculture

This topic outlined a broad range of opportunities and challenges that Australian agriculture is facing in the foreseeable future. There are many changes occurring both nationally and globally including climate change, global population increase and its attendant poverty, competition for markets, profitability, our problem of distance from international markets and the need to stabilise or even to enhance our national environmental resources.

Levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have risen steeply since the industrial revolution due to use of fossil fuels and deforestation among other activities. Mean temperature will rise by 6.4°C over most of NSW by 2070, with rainfall dropping by as much as 40%. A rise of 2.0°C between now and 2020 will have reached a ‘tipping‘ point, beyond which the process of change will be beyond control. A key issue is to put changes in place by 2020 that will reduce the magnitude of the increase by the end of this century. Developing countries will suffer more because of a lack of resources to cope with change, although they will probably have contributed very little to emissions. Australia’s agricultural sector is vulnerable to several effects of climate change, although some enterprises and producers will be advantaged. With regards to irrigated agriculture, more efficient water use, with drip technology replacing flood application, and higher value enterprises such as horticulture, are desirable.

The future Australian farm will have to live with native vegetation controls and perhaps new controls over water use and inputs to stream flow. Farming enterprises will need to conserve the soil, be non-polluting and efficient in their use of water, while remaining profitable. The changing climate will require re-assessment of regions suitable for and the risks associated with different cropping and horticultural enterprises across the continent. Better risk assessment and climate prediction tools may be useful. Considerable increase in water use efficiency on existing farms is possible through better farm planning and greater attention to land capability and infrastructure placement, once the correct financial decisions are made about production targets.

Biotechnology has already seen an improvement in pesticide levels in rivers in cotton catchments as a result of the widespread use of genetically modified (GM) cotton in eastern Australia. However, the use of GM products in the human food chain is controversial and may take decades to gain wide acceptance outside the USA, assuming the technology can be proven safe. Improved livestock genetics using traditional animal breeding technology offers the potential for further increases in animal productivity.

24 - 28 RSNR403//503

Innovation must play a key role in meeting the challenges confronting world agriculture. Precision agriculture promises improved technology from remote sensing to monitor soil health and fertility and crop health, yield and input requirements. The future of biotechnology in agriculture rests on whether the public is convinced that the environmental and production benefits outweigh human safety and biosecurity problems.

National and international markets for Australian farming enterprises are changing. In some areas traditional open markets are disappearing and farm goods are being integrated into a supply chain, which is focused on and substantially controlled by the end market. Global markets offer greater opportunities to participate in both more numerous and larger markets, access to capital movement and cheaper imports. In the 20th century there was remarkable growth in mean income per capita associated with trade globalisation. However, the gaps between rich and poor nations have also grown. How can the poorest countries catch up? The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has proposed the following ‘catch up’ criteria:

macro-economic stability to foster investment and saving strong institutions and effective national governance structural reform to encourage domestic competition education, training, research and development to promote production external debt management and relief where and when appropriate strong social safety net.

The World Trade Organisation has a membership of 147 countries and provides an international forum, wherein governments negotiate multi-lateral agreements among themselves. WTO negotiations are putting pressure on the US and Europe to cut millions of dollars of farm export subsidies. These have locked Australian farmers out of lucrative markets and hurt developing countries as progress is painfully slow.

In order to remain profitable and sustainable, Australian agriculture must adapt rapidly in order to meet all the above challenges.

24.24 OverviewBy the end of RSNR 421/521, you should have a greater appreciation of the principles and issues associated with sustainable agriculture and catchment management, particularly in relation to livestock grazing systems, with an appreciation of sustainability issues more generally from the paddock to global scale.

ReferencesAnderson, J.E., Brady, D.W., and Bullock, C. 1978, Public Policy and Politics in the United States,

Duxbury.Anon 1980, World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable

Development, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources, United Nations Environment Program and World Wildlife Fund, Gland.

Anon 1992, Agenda 21, retrieved 30th May 2006 from http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/index.htm.Anon 1997, Quality Products from a Quality Environment: Some Practical and Policy Issues,

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, New Zealand, retrieved 1st July 2006 from: http://www.maf.govt.nz/mafnet/rural-nz/sustainable-resource-use/best-management-practices/quality-products/httoc.htm

Anon 2002, ‘Murrumbidgee Catchment Blueprint’, NSW Department Land and Water Conservation. AWI/Sheep CRC 2005, WormBoss Website, available at: http://www.wormboss.com.au/LivePage.

aspx?pageId=371.Bureau of Animal Welfare 2001, Code of accepted farming practice for the welfare of sheep

(Victoria), Victorian DPI Agriculture Notes AG0003, August 2001.

RSNR403/503 24 - 29

Commonwealth of Australia 1992, National Strategy for Ecological Sustainable Development, AGPS, Canberra.

Department of Primary Industries and Environment (DPIE) 1987, 1985 Review of Australia’s Water Resources and Water Use. Vol. 1, Department of Primary Industries and Energy, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra.

Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) 2004, Vegetation Quality Assessment Manual – Guidelines for Applying the Habitat Hectares Scoring Method, Version 1.3. Victorian Government, DSE, Melbourne. Available at: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/dse/nrence.nsf/fid/-EBF7B20C008E24F5CA25 6F1600167177/$file/VQAM1.pdf.

Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) Steering Committee 1992, National Strategy for ESD, Department of Environment and Heritage, retrieved 30th May 2006 from http://www.deh.gov.au/esd/national/nsesd/strategy/intro.html#GoalsEtc.

Gardiner, B. and Browne, W. 2004, Farm Management Planning, Border Rivers – Gwydir Catchment Management Authority.

Grime, J.P. 1979, Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes, John Wiley and Sons, New York.Howard, C. 1978, Australia's Constitution, Penguin Books.Jones, R.J. and Sandland. R.L. 1974, ‘The relation between animal gain and stocking rate.

Derivation of the relation from the results of grazing trials’, Journal of Agricultural Science. Cambridge, vol. 83, pp. 336-342.

Mason, W., Warn, L. and Cahill, G. (eds.) 2003, Towards Sustainable Grazing – The Professional Producers Guide, Meat and Livestock Australia, Sydney.

Pepperdine, S. 2000, ‘Social Indicators of Rural Community Sustainability: An Example from the Woady Yaloak Catchment’, 1st National Conference on the Future of Australia’s Country Towns, Bendigo 29-30 June 2000, retrieved 30 May 2006 from http://www.regional.org.au/au/countrytowns/strategies/pepperdine.htm

Quirk, M. and McIvor J.G. 2003, Grazing Land Management – Technical Manual, Meat and Livestock Australia Limited, Sydney.

Standing Committee on Agriculture (SCA) 1990, Feeding Standards for Australian Livestock – Ruminants, CSIRO Publishing, Australia, 266 pp.

Thomas, J.F., Adams, P., Dixon, P., Hall, N. and Watson, W. 1999, Water and the Australian Economy, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Parkville, Vic.

World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) 1987, (Brundtland Report) Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

24 - 30 RSNR403//503

RSNR403/503 24 - 31