microstratigraphy of the magdalenian sequence at cendres cave (teulada-moraira, alicante, spain):...

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Quaternary International 315 (2013) 56e75

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Microstratigraphy of the Magdalenian sequence at Cendres Cave(Teulada-Moraira, Alicante, Spain): Formation and diagenesis

M. Mercè Bergadà a, *, Valentín Villaverde b, Dídac Román b, c

a SERP, Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Montalegre 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, Spainb Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia, Spainc The Generalitat Valenciana’s VALIþD Programme, TRACES UMR-5608/University of Toulouse-Le Mirail, France

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 11 October 2013

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Bergadà).

1040-6182/$ e see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.09.017

a b s t r a c t

This microstratigraphic study of the Magdalenian sequence in the Cendres Cave (Teulada-Moraira, Ali-cante, Spain) shows the detailed evolutionary history of the deposit, revealing a wide variety of pedo-sedimentary (formation and diagenesis), biogenic and anthropic processes.

The sequence begins with Cendres XII, culturally attributed to the Early and Middle Magdalenian, withhigh probability (95%) dating placing it between 19,270 and 16,530 cal BP with some chronological hi-atus. It was formed from biogenic sedimentation associated with bat guano mainly of an insectivoroustype, and from anthropic sedimentation related to occupation floors made up of highly complex plantbeds with traces of combustion. One of the predominant plant tissue residues is woody angiospermleaves or stalks. Detrital deposition formed by diffuse runoff increases towards the top of the level. Itbelongs palaeoclimatically to the Greenland Stadial-2b (GS-2b) and to the first temperate pulsations ofGS-2a. Between this horizon and the Upper Magdalenian there is an erosive contact. There follow variouslevels attributed to the Upper Magdalenian, Cendres XI, dated to between 16,690 and 15,640 cal BP. Thisshows an abrupt change with respect to the previous level and results from the cryoclastic processes ofthe walls and solifluction processes, it would coincide with the upper part of GS-2a. With Cendres X, thedetrital sedimentation is not very representative and organophosphatic crusts of cryptocrystallineapatite appear, corresponding to accumulations of bird guano at a time when there was little presence ofanthropic occupation. The Upper Magdalenian sequence ends with Cendres IX, which in some sectors ofthe site presents an erosive contact with the previous level. Anthropic activity reappears and is dated tothe interval between 15,210 and 14,240 cal BP. Its deposition is due to gelifluction processes in a coldmedium with an increase in humidity. It can be allocated to final episodes of GS-2a in transition toGreenland Interstadial-1 (GI-1). At the end of this episode there is a phase of stabilization that can beseen from the biological activity connecting with the horizons of the Early Neolithic.

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1. Introduction

The aim of this paper is to analyse the formative and post-depositional processes of the Magdalenian sequence of the Cen-dres Cave. Along with Matutano, Blaus, Senda Vedada, Volcán delFaro, Tossal de la Roca, Mejillones and Caballo, this site marks thelimit of our current knowledge of this cultural horizon in the centralMediterranean sector of the Iberian Peninsula between 16,500 and12,000 BP.

Few studies have been developed from a geoarchaeologicaland sedimentary point of view. Until now the only ones were

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those involving the deposits at Tossal de la Roca (Fumanal, 1995;Jordá and Cacho, 2008) and Matutano (Fumanal, 1995, 1999), andit is only in Cendres where there has been a sequence ofmicromorphological analyses. These records are part of the Up-per Magdalenian, characterized by gelifraction episodes that,after a hiatus, continue in both sequences with the final Upperphase of the Magdalenian, with runoff episodes and calciticpavements prevalent in Matutano. In contrast, the CendresMagdalenian is an unbroken sequence (Villaverde et al., 2010,2012).

Archaeologists have known about the site since the early 20thcentury, but no excavations were carried out until those led by E.Llobregat of the Provincial Archaeological Museum in Alicante in1974 and 1975. In 1981, an emergency excavation uncovered detailsof the Holocene sequence, which would stretch from the Bronze

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M.M. Bergadà et al. / Quaternary International 315 (2013) 56e75 57

Age to the Early Neolithic and the Upper Pleistocene, specificallythe Magdalenian (Bernabeu and Molina, 2009). Excavations havebeen carried out continuously since then under the direction of oneof the authors of this paper (V.V.) from the University of Valencia,later joined by another of the authors (D.R) from the same uni-versity. As far as the Palaeolithic sequence is concerned, the Solu-trean and the Gravettian have also been documented at present,making this record a benchmark for the Upper Palaeolithic on theMediterranean side of the peninsula.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Geological and stratigraphic background

The Cendres site is located in a spacious cavity on the Morairaheadland (Teulada-Moraira, Alicante) (Fig. 1). It belongs to an oldnetwork of karst conduits formed in the cliffs between Cape of laNau and the Moraira headland at about 50 m ASL (Bernabeu et al.,2001).

Its genesis is linked to a vertical fracture affecting the marlylimestone levels of the Late Cretaceous. The roomy interiormeasuring around 30 � 50 m is accessed through a south-east-facing opening with a chaotic accumulation of limestone blocksat the entrance. The surface topography dips inward.

The cave opening and the existence of a transverse fault resultedin the development of a ledge carved into the cliff at the foot of the

Fig. 1. Geographical location. a. Map showing the geographical loca

cave. This narrow pathway underwent a number of transformationsin the course of the Quaternary as a result of fluctuations in thecoastline in this area (Bernabeu and Molina, 2009).

From a geological point of view, this area is situated at the fareastern end of the Baetic Cordillera, specifically in the Outer Pre-baetic. The area is characterized by simple structures with folds andfaults. The rocks that outcrop in the area are juxtaposed in narrowparallel bands that range from Cretaceous limestones (Cenomanianand Senonian) to flysch facies from the Oligocene. The Miocene TapMarls fill the interior syncline depressions and also cover the highplateau of La Nau, reaching the coast again between Moraira andIfac (IGME, 1975).

The geomorphology of the cave environment is centered on theslopes that have a convex-straight-convex profile, with activebaseline removal due to the erosive action of waves. Talus slopesare present at the base of the high vertical wall that forms the cliff(Fumanal and Badal, 2009).

The initial stratigraphic and sedimentary studies date back tothose carried out in 1986 by María Pilar Fumanal of the Universityof Valencia. These involved the survey grid square A-17, in which afirst approximation of the Pleistocene sequence was established, atthat time consisting only of the Magdalenian section (Badal et al.,1991; Fumanal, 1995). Four levels were identified, from whichprimarily sedimentary and climatic aspects were defined in anepisode of worsening environmental conditions interspersed withwarm events.

tion of the Cendres Cave. b. Localization of the Cendres Cave.

M.M. Bergadà et al. / Quaternary International 315 (2013) 56e7558

The stratigraphic and sedimentary record for the Magdalenianreaches a thickness of approximately one metre and is based on thethirteen radiocarbon dates obtained from levels XII to IX, whichrange culturally from the Early and Middle Magdalenian to theUpper Magdalenian (Villaverde et al., 2010, 2012) (Table 1).

Table 1Cendres Cave. Magdalenian radiocarbon dates (Villaverde et al., 2010, 2012).

Level Sample Laboratory BP dating Cal BP p(95%) Perioda

IX Charcoal Beta-142284 12.470 � 100 15,250e14,410 UMXI Charcoal Beta-189079 13.120 � 60 16,490e15,410 UMXI Charcoal Beta-287551 13.220 � 50 16,680e15,560 UMXI Charcoal Beta-287550 13.280 � 50 16,830e15,750 UMXI Charcoal Beta-287538 13.350 � 50 16,810e16,290 UMXII Charcoal Beta-287552 13.400 � 50 16,840e16,480 MMXII Charcoal Beta-118022 13.690 � 120 17,090e16,730 MMXII Charcoal Ly-5834 13.840 � 85 17,140e16,900 MMXII Charcoal Beta-287539 14.510 � 50 17,830e17,670 MMXII Charcoal Beta-118023 14.850 � 100 18,650e17,610 EM?XII Charcoal Beta-287540 15.630 � 60 18,830e18,670 EM?XII Charcoal Ly-5586 15.820 � 150 19,270e18,630 EM?XII Charcoal Beta-287541 16.030 � 60 19,340e18,900 EM?

a UM ¼ Upper Magdalenian, MM ¼ Middle Magdalenian, EM? ¼ EarlyMagdalenian?

Fig. 2. Plan of the Cendres Cave. View from cave interior.

The sequence description is centredmainly on grid squares E-13and D-15/16 (Figs. 2 and 3a, b and c). The record consists of thefollowing levels from bottom to top:

Cendres XII. At present this comprises two sublevels:

a. Average thickness 10 cm. Grey-brown silty clayey sands (7.5YR3/4) with limestone cobbles. Erosive contact with respect tosublevel b.

b. Average visible thickness 24 cm. Light and dark clayey siltylaminations. Limestone blocks can be seen at the base.

Sublevel a corresponds to theMiddle Magdalenian, and sublevelb very probably to the Early Magdalenian, radiocarbon dated tobetween 16,030 � 60 and 13,400 � 50 BP. The Early Magdalenian isin the process of being studied, while the Middle Magdalenian ischaracterized by a predominance of the microlaminar group,mostly bladelets with fine direct or inverse retouches and trun-cated bladelets. The bone industry is characterized by single-bevelassegai and shafts.

As only a small area has been excavated and the correlationbetween the sector now being described and the excavations ingrid squares A/B-17 is still pending, the industrial attribution of thetwo levels is provisional, taking into account the results obtainedfrom the dating and the absence of industrial data to contradict thisfirst attribution. It is important to point out the microlaminar na-ture of Early Magdalenian industry and the fact that it is clearlydifferent from the archaic Magdalenian as defined in the Parpallósequence (Villaverde et al. 2012).

Cendres XI. Average thickness 15 cm. Mainly limestone cobblesand gravels of subangular-to-angular morphology which increasein size towards the wall, with clayey silts and dark brown sands(5YR 4/2). A great many charcoal particles and bone remains withdistinct traces of combustion also appear. There is an erosive con-tact with respect to Cendres XII. It corresponds to the UpperMagdalenian and is radiocarbon dated to between 13,350 � 50 and13,120 � 60 BP.

During the 2007 excavation campaign a hearth was discoveredin the sector of grid-quares C-D/15 of the cave, almost circular inshape, around 100 cm in diameter (Fig. 3d) and with a thickness ofbetween 22 and 23 cm. The sequence from bottom to top is asfollows:

4. Thickness 13 cm. Composed of clayey silts and sands (5YR 6/6)with angulate cobbles and bone remains.

3. Thickness 2.5 cm. Composed of charcoals and clayey silts (5YR 3/1), in some of which the woody structure can easily bedistinguished.

2. Thickness 3 cm. Distinguished by awhitish calcitic accumulation(5YR 8/1) next to charcoals.

1. Thickness 3 cm. Predominant matrix of clayey silts next to sands(5YR 4/1) with some charcoals.

Cendres X. Average thickness 33 cm. Silty clayey laminationswith sands, some of which are greyish (10YR 5/2), and others arereddish-orange (7.5YR 6/6) with some cobbles and organo-phosphatic inclusions. Bone remains, plant residues and excre-mental aggregates appear. Archaeologically, it is difficult to proveoccupation. The strata pattern tends to be tabular and contact withrespect to Cendres XI is diffuse.

Fig. 3. Profiles and micromorphological sampling of the Cendres Cave. a. Stratigraphic profile E-13. Distinction of the levels identified in the field. b. Profile E-13. Detail Cendres XIIfrom sublevels a and b. c. Detail of profile D-15/16. The same sequence as profile E-13, Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian), sublevel b. It is formed by light and darklaminations. The micromorphological sampling CC5 corresponds mostly to Cendres IX and a little Cendres X. d. Cendres XI. General view of the hearth location. Sector of gridsquares C-D/15. e. Micromorphological sampling. Profile D-16. The attribution of the samples is as follows: CC1. Cendres XII b; CC2. Cendres XII a e XI; CC3. Cendres XIeX. f.Micromorphological sampling. Profile E-13. The attribution of the samples is as follows: CC6. Cendres XII beXII a; CC7. Cendres XII aeCendres XIeCendres X; CC8. Cendres XeCendres IX; CC9. Cendres IX.


Cendres IX. Average thickness 12 cm. Formed of a grey-brownsilty sand matrix (10YR 4/4) with some limestone cobbles. Thestrata pattern tends to be tabular. Contact with respect to the pre-vious level is undulating and erosive. In sector D-15/16 this level to a

great extent erodes the Cendres X level. It is dated to12,470�100BPand also attributed to the end of Upper Magdalenian.

Industrially speaking, levels IX and XI are characterized by astrong predominance of the microlaminar group and a balance


between burins and end scrapers, or a slight predominance of theformer over the latter. However, it is in the bone industry that theselevels stand out, most especially due to the large presence of har-poons but also because of a good number of shafts, needles, doubleand single-bevel assegai and points with cut-down bases. The boneindustry is less diverse and abundant in the IX level.

2.2. Sampling methods

The methodology consisted of stratigraphic-sedimentary fielddescription and the application of micromorphology from levels XIIto IX. The study focused on profiles E-13 and D-15/16 (Figs.3 c, e andf). Also included is an analysis of a combustion structure in gridsquare C-D/15 corresponding to the Upper Magdalenian, specif-ically from level XI and dated to 13,350 � 50 BP.

The protocol followed for extracting samples, a total of 9, con-sisted of placing the sediment into boxes lined with plaster, therebyenabling us to obtain blocks without altering the structure andposition of the sedimentary filling (see Bergadà, 1998 for details).Samples collected by M. Mercè Bergadà were processed at theMicromorphology and Image Analysis Service in the Department ofEnvironmental and Soil Sciences at the University of Lleida. Theblocks were air dried and then oven dried at 40 �C for 48 h to avoidrecrystallization. They were then impregnated with an unsaturatedcolourless orthophthalic polyester resin, and diluted with styreneat a ratio of three parts resin to one parts styrene with a MEKcatalyst and activator (cobalt octoate).

The blocks were cut into strips a few centimeters thick and thinsections were made, a total of 2 for each blocks, a size of13.5� 5.5 cm and 25 mm thick. Thin sections were observed under a

Table 2Cendres XII. Description of the micromorphological analysis.

Stratigraphic levels Profiles (samplenumber)

Micromorphology microfacies

Cendres XII a E-13 (CC. 6-CC. 7) andD-16 (CC.2)

Mf.1. Clayey silty sands with limestThickness 10 cm. Structure: massivechannels). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 2/with traces of dissolution. Among thpattern: open porphyric. Brown fineplant structure, some calcitic plant ccombustion traces and flints (4 mm

Cendres XII b E-13 (CC.6) andD-16 (CC.1)

Mf.2. Micritic calcitic accumulationThickness 2.5 cm. Structure: massivepattern: close porphyric. Micritic calccharcoals and calcitic plant cell tissueappears with iron oxide and hydroxi

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.3. Silty clays with articulated silThickness 5 mm. Structure: massive.organophosphatic accumulations andPedofeatures: excremental aggregate

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.4. Clayey silty sands with charcoThickness 2.5 cm. Structure: massivef50 mm 2/1. Sands (63e125 mm) althporphyric. The lithology and mineralfragments. From the anthropogenic ppartially charred plant cell tissues. Yedissolution. On the top of the microf

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.5. Phosphatic micritic calcitic acThickness 5 mm. Structure: massive/calcitic accumulation and silty clays aAppearance of calcitic plant tissues a

E-13 (CC.6) andD-16 (CC.1)

Mf.6. Chitin fragments and silty claThickness 1.5e2.5 cm. Formed by chclays with sand (250e500 mm) which(chambers, channels and vughs). C/f-woody structure (2 mme1 cm) and sare also aggregates (1.5e2 mm) of thdark fine material and undifferentiat

polarizing microscope at magnifications between 25� and 400�,using plane-polarized light (PPL), crossed-polarized light (XPL) andincident light. Thin section description follows the guidelines pro-posed by Bullock et al. (1985); Courty et al., 1989; Stoops, 2003. Themicromorphological analysis was completed with scanning elec-tron microscopy (ESEM-EDX) in back-scattered electron (BSE)mode and microprobe analyses on thin sections, carried out by theScientific and Technological Centre at the University of Barcelona(CCiT-UB).

3. Results

3.1. Microstratigraphic analysis of the Magdalenian sedimentarysequence

At the time of performing the microstratigraphic sequence ofthe levels identified, we found it convenient to use the term“microfacies” as conceived originally to designate localized litho-logical changes in thin section (Dabrio and Hernando, 2003). Ac-cording to Goldberg et al. (2009), it is essential to establish asystematic relationship between the aspects or characters docu-mented in thin section and those established in the field as well asthe regional level, although karst records are sometimes moredifficult to establish.

Presented here are the microfacies that have distinguishedthemselves through each level, together with a brief description ofthe distinctive aspects of each. More detailed micromorphologicaldescriptions appear in Tables 2e6. The lithological and mineral-ogical fraction consists mainly of biomicritic limestone, calcarenite,quartz, feldspar, plagioclase, and calcite.

one cobbles/granular in some sectors. Porosity: 15e20% (compound packing voids and1. Clayey silt sands (250e500 mm), some subrounded micritic limestones cobblese mineral fraction are quartz, feldspar and calcite. c/f-related distributionmaterial and crystallitic b-fabric. Charcoals appear (250 mme2 mm) withoutell tissue and elongated silica phytoliths. Bones (250 mme4 mm) with differente1 cm) with iron oxides and hydroxides hypocoatings in some of them.with calcitic plant cell tissues/intergrain channel. Porosity 5e10% (channels and vughs). c/f-related distributionitic accumulation phosphatic with silty clays. Crystallitic b-fabric. There ares remains (250e625 mm). Bones with dissolution traces. The limestone materialde hypocoatings.ica phytolithsPorosity: 2e5% (channels and vughs). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/4. Silty clays witharticulated silica phytoliths. c/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric.s and iron oxides and hydroxides nodules 50e75 mm.als, bones and calcitic ashes/granular. Porosity: 5% (compound packing voids and channels). Groundmass: c/ough there are fractions of 125e250 mm. C/f-related distribution pattern: openogy is the same as in the mf.1. Brown fine material and crystallitic b-fabric. Chitinoint of view there are numerous charcoals (125e500 mm), micritic calcitic waste,llow bones (500 mme1 cm) in PPL, slightly birefringent in XPL and slight traces ofacies excremental aggregates (2 mm) appear.cumulation with calcitic plant cell tissuesvesicular in some sectors. Porosity: 5% (channels and vesicles). Phosphatic micriticnd sands. Crystallitic b-fabric and c/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric.nd some calcium oxalate residues.ys with sandsitin fragments (250e500 mm; dark brown to black, tabular/platy shape) and siltyaccount for 20% in both profiles. Profile D-16. Structure: spongy. Porosity: 25e30%related distribution pattern: single spaced fine enaulic. Charcoal remains withome black/red bones in PPL and some flint fragment of 625 mm. In the same profilee fine material with tabular morphology and fissures caused by trampling. Brown/ed/crystallitic b-fabric. Profile E-13. Structure: bridge grain/single grain. Porosity:

Table 2 (continued )



30e40%. C/f-related distribution pattern: chitonic/coarse monic. Excrements remains (750 mme1.5 mm; dark brown toblack, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with convolute fabric; the composition is chitin fragments; they are ratherporous, and that the finer material is situated at the border). Dark fine material and undifferentiated b-fabric.

E-13 (CC.6) andD-16 (CC.1)

Mf.7. Silty clays with sands and chitin remainsThickness from 2 to 4 mm for profile E-13 and 3.5 cm for profile D-16. Structure: massive/vesicular. Porosity: 5e10%(vesicles, channels and vughs). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/3. Silty clays with sands from 125 to 500 mm subroundedmorphology. C/f-related distribution pattern: single spaced porphiric. There is a mix of chitin fragments; charcoals withwoody structure and tabular morphology (75e250 mm); yellow-oranges bones (250 mme1 mm) in PPL and slightlybirefringent in XPL; and, some flint of 1.5 mm and the trampling aggregates in D-16. Brown fine material and crystalliticb-fabric. Pedofeatures (D-16): sedimentary crust (125 mm thick) appears on the top.

E-13 (CC.6) andD-16 (CC.1)

Mf.8. Micritic calcitic accumulation with calcitic plant cell tissuesProfile E-13: thickness 7e9 mm. Structure: massive/single grain in some sectors. Porosity: 10e20% (vughs andchannels). Micritic calcitic accumulation with sandy fractions 250e500 mm. C/f-related distribution pattern: closeporphyric/monic. Crystallitic b-fabric. There are calcitic plant cell tissues. Appearance of coprolites (2e4 mm; sphericalform; brown to yellow; crystallized phosphatic material with fine material) at the top of the microfacies. Profile D-16:thickness 8 cm. Structure: granular/massive and platy structure. Porosity: 15% (compound packing voids and planes).Micritic calcitic accumulation with sand and some micritic limestone cobbles with iron oxides and hydroxides traces(combustion). c/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric. B-fabric as E-13 profile. Apparition of plant cell tissuesalso calcitic and white bones of 1e2 mm in PPL and crystallitic in XPL.

Cendres XII b E-13 (CC.6) andD-16 (CC.1)

Mf.9. Chitin fragments and clayey silts with sandProfile E-13: thickness 6 mm. Structure: massive/single grain. Porosity: 20% (vughs and channels). Groundmass: c/f50 mm2/1. Clayey silts with sands from 250 to 500 mm. c/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric/monic. There arechitin fragments (250 mme1 mm) and excrements (1e3 mm) as Mf.6. Brown/dark fine material and undifferentiated b-fabric. Profile D-16: thickness 2.5 cm. Structure: massive/granular. Porosity: 15% (channels and compound packingvoids). There is a slight increase in the sand fraction with some rounded limestone cobbles. Charcoals appear, somecalcite ash, elongated silica phytoliths, calcium oxalate waste associated with phosphate mass, yellow bone of 325 mm to1 cm in PPL and chitin fragments. Brown/dark finematerial and undifferentiated/crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: thereare fine material coatings and iron oxides and hydroxides impregnations in the detrital material.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.10. Micritic calcitic accumulationsThickness from 2 to 5 mm. Structure: massive. Porosity: 10% (channels). Micritic calcitic phosphated accumulation withsome inclusion of sands from 125 to 500 mm. c/f-related distribution pattern: open porphyric. Crystallitic b-fabric.Pedofeatures: the limestone material with traces of iron oxides and hydroxides. It is eroded by Mf.9.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.11. Silty clays with sands and iron oxides and hydroxides nodulesThickness 2 cm. Structure: massive. Porosity: 10e15% (channels and vughs). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/3. Silty clay withsands (63e125 mm). C/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric. Brown/orange reticulate striated b-fabric.Excrement fragments appear (1e3 mm; pale to yellow, 1e2 mm, subrounded, amorphous organic matter withspherulites). Pedofeatures: organophosphate nodules and an excremental fabric is located in some sectors. Iron oxidesand hydroxides nodules are spread in the groundmass and responsible for the orange color.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.12. Excrements remainsThickness between 1 and 1.5 cm. Structure: single grain. Porosity: 25%. Excrements (dark brown to black, 500 mme2 mm,ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with a convolute fabric, composed of chitin fragments; rather porous, and the finermaterial is situated at the border) starting to disgregate and less humified remains appear on the top of themicrofacieswithclay fraction. Sandy particles (125e500 mm) appear very discreetly in the bottom. Brown/dark fine material andundifferentiated/crystallitic b-fabric. C/f-related distribution pattern: coarse monic to chitonic.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.13. Silty clays with sandsThickness between 4 and 7 mm. Structure: massive/channel. Porosity: 2e5% (channels and compound packing voids).Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/2. Silty clays with sands (63 mme1 mm). C/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric.Crystallitic b-fabric. Excrements (250 mme1 mm) appear with the same characteristics as Mf.12, at a beginning ofdisgregation and some calcitic crystallitic plant aggregates (750 mme1 mm). Pedofeatures: iron oxides and hydroxidesnodules of highly dispersed form among the groundmass.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.14. Crystallitic calcitic accumulation with sandy laminationsThickness between 1 and 2 cm. Structure: massive/chamber. Porosity: 5e10% (chambers). A matrix formed bycrystallitic phosphatic calcitic with sands (250 mme1 mm) as laminations. C/f-related distribution pattern: closeporphyric/chitonic. Crystallitic b-fabric. Excrements fragments with combustion traces some 500e700 mm and calciticpseudomorphs of cubic morphology. Pedofeatures: iron oxides and hydroxides nodules distributed among groundmass.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.15. Clayey silts with sandy laminationsThickness 1 cm. Structure: massive/intergrain channel. Porosity: 10e15% (channels and vughs). Groundmass: c/f50 mm1/3. Sandy clayey silts with laminations of 250e500 mm. C/f-related distribution pattern: close porphyric. Brown/yellowfine material and crystallitic b-fabric. There are two excrements with different constituents: a) dark brown to black, 1e2 mm, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with laminated fabric, the composition is chitin fragments; b) pale toyellow, 1e2 mm, subrounded, amorphous organic matter with spherulites and chitin). There are also crystallitic calciticplant accumulations and calcium oxalates residue of prismatic type. There are some bones (750 mme3 mm) andmalacological remains (2 mm). Pedofeatures: organophosphate aggregates between 1 and 2 mm.

E-13 (CC.6) Mf.16. Excrements and silty claysThickness 3 cm. Structure: intergrain microaggregate/granular. Porosity: 60% (compound packing voids and channels).Composed of excrements 2e7 mm (dark brown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with convolute fabric;composed of chitin fragments; they are rather porous, and the finer material is situated at the border) with silty clays.There are also sand inclusions (250e500 mm) from 2 to 5% and some fractions of 500 mm to 2 mm, representing 1%. C/f-related distribution pattern: close monic/gefuric. Dark/brown fine material and undifferentiated b-fabric. Calcitic plantresidues and rhomboidal prism of calcium oxalate and spherulites are present. There are organophosphate aggregates 1e2 mm.


Table 3Cendres XI. Description of the micromorphological analysis.

Stratigraphiclevels

Profiles (samplenumber)


Cendres XI D-16 (CC. 2and CC. 3)

Mf.1. Tabular morphology gravels and cobblesProfile D/16: thickness 5 cm. Structure: bridged grain/single grain. Porosity: 50%. Groundmass: c/f50 mm3/1. Gravels and cobblesmicritic limestone of tabular morphology with some fissures; C/f-related distribution pattern: gefuric/monic. Brown finematerial and crystallitic b-fabric. There are charcoals scattered among the groundmass 50 mm to 2 mm; also, yellow and orangecentimeter-sized bones in PPL which are in process of disgregation, flints and silica phytoliths at the contact the mf.2.Pedofeatures: highlighting eluviation processes.

D-16 (CC. 2)and E-13 (CC. 7)

Mf.2. Subangular cobbles and gravels with clayey siltsProfile D/16: thickness 7 cm. Structure: Granular/platy. Porosity: 40% (simple packing voids; compound packing voids andplanar). Groundmass: c/f50 mm2/1. Subangular-tabular cobbles and gravels with fissures, inclined and vertical arrangement; c/f-related distribution pattern: double spaced coarse enaulic to open porphyric. Brown fine material with crystallitic b-fabric.Charcoals (10%) withwoody structure (50e625 mm), abundant yellow-orange bones (1mme1 cm) in PPL and birefringent in XPLand flints of 2 mm. Pedofeatures: fine material coatings as silt capping (from 50 to 75 mm, without birefringence) and detritus inthe eluviation traits. Profile E-13: thickness 8.5 cm. Structure: granular. Porosity 50% (compound packing voids). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 2/1; c/f-related distribution pattern: porphyric. Both the c/f as the anthropogenic components have the same features aspreviously described in the profile; but, in this sector elongated silica phytoliths appear scattered in the groundmass. It is alsodistinguished by the presence of calcitic ashes (250e500 mm). Pedofeatures: detrital material with dissolution traces appear andsometimes phosphatic traces.

Table 4Combustion structure (Cendres XI). Description of the micromorphological analysis.


Micromorphology (microfacies)

Cendres XI Combustionstructure

C/D-15 Mf.1. Clayey silts with charcoalsThickness 3 cm. Structure: granular. Porosity: 25% (compound packing voids). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/2. Clayey siltswith sands; c/f related distribution pattern: chitonic. The limestone material appears with dissolution traces. There arecharcoals (175 mme1 cm) and partially charred residues. Yellow-orange bones (750 mme1 cm) in PPL and birefringent inXPL. Brown fine material and crystallitic b-fabric.Mf.2. Sparitic crystallitic calcitic crustThickness 3 cm. Structure: massive. Porosity: 2e5% (vughs and chambers). Sparitic crystallitic calcitic crust. c/f-relateddistribution pattern: close porphyric. Some particles sandy, charcoals (125e625 mm), calcitic residues (ash) and lightgray bones (250e500 mm) appear in PPL and crystallitic in XPL. Pedofeatures: iron oxides and hydroxides nodules.Mf.3. Charcoals with woody structureThickness 2.5 cm. Structure: single grain. Porosity: 25%. c/f-related distribution pattern: coarse monic. Charcoals withwoody structure (500 mme8 mm). Clayey silts some inclusions. Yellow-red bones (500 mm - 6 mm) with fissures in PPLand birefringent in XPL.Mf.4. Clayey silts with angular cobblesThickness 13 cm. Structure: granular/intergrain microaggregate. Porosity: 30% (compound packing voids). Groundmass:c/f50 mm 2/1. Clayey silts with sands, gravels and cobbles. Micritic limestone cobbles with inclined and verticalarrengement. C/f-related distribution pattern: porphyric/enaulic. There are charcoals 50 mme1 cm at the beginning offragmentation, with phosphate humified plant remains, articulated silica phytoliths and bones. Brown fine material andcrystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: cobbles with iron oxids and hydroxide coatings.

Table 5Cendres X. Description of the micromorphological analysis. The following features are common to all microfacies: spongy/intergrain microaggregate structure; 20e30%porosity (vughs, chambers and complex packing voids); Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/4.

Stratigraphiclevels



Cendres X E-13 (CC. 8)D-15 (CC. 5)

Mf.1. Organophosphate silty claysThickness 3.5 cm. Organophosphatic silty clays with very fine sands. c/f-related distribution pattern: open porphyric/enaulic.There are excremental aggregates (1e2 mm; brown/orange; convolute form, a phosphate rich micromass, bones, fewpunctuation of organic matter and few needle shape voids), bones (750 mm) with dissolution traces. Yellow/orange finematerial and undifferentiated/crystallitic b-fabric.

E-13 (CC. 8) Mf.2. Gray organophosphate silty claysThickness 2.7 cm. Organophosphatic silty clays with sands (63e500 mm). C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic. There arethe same excrements as mf.1 Dark gray fine material and undifferentiated b-fabric.

E-13 (CC. 8) Mf.3. Organophosphate silty clays and fine sandThickness 2.5 cm. Organophosphatic silty clays and very fine sands. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic/open porphyric.There are excremental aggregates from 1 to 2 mm as in mf.1, white bones 250e500 mm and silica phytoliths. Yellow/orangefinematerial and undifferentiated/crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: cryptocrystalline apatite hypocoating (2.5 mm thick) inlimestone fragments.

E-13 (CC. 8) Mf.4. Organophosphate silty claysThickness 3.2 cm. Organophosphatic silty clays with very fine sands. C/f related distribution pattern: enaulic/chitonic.Excremental aggregates as mf.1. Bones (5 mme1 cm) show very marked irregular contours with small reddish stains.Yellow/orange fine material and undifferentiated/crystallitic b-fabric.

E-13 (CC. 8) Mf.5. Organophosphate silty clays


Table 5 (continued )

Stratigraphiclevels



Thickness 2.2 cm. Organophosphatic silty clays with sands. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic/chitonic and openporphyric. Excrements (3 mm; yellow; convolute form; amorphous to crystallized phosphatic material with phytoliths andmineral inclusions). The porous flints (1e3 mm) have iron oxide and hydroxide hypocoatings. Dark gray groundmass andundifferentiated b-fabric.

E-13 (CC. 7)D-16 (CC.3)

Mf.6. Organophosphate silty clays and yellow cryptocrystalline apatite nodulesThickness 2 cm. Organophosphate silty clays with sands (63e500 mm). C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic and openporphyric. There are excrements (1,5e2 mm; orange/brown; convolute form; amorphous to crystallized phosphaticmaterial with chitin fragments and mineral inclusions); pale yellow bones (250e750 mm) with irregular contours and chitinfragments (150e300 mm). Yellow/orange fine material and crystallitic b-fabric. Apatite nodules. Pedofeatures: yellowcryptocrystalline apatite nodules appear scattered among the groundmass 250e750 mm and there are iron oxides andhydroxides hypocoatings in porous flint fragments (500e750 mm).

E-13 (CC. 7)D-16 (CC.3)

Mf.7. Organophosphate silty clays with excrementsThickness 1.5e2 cm. Organophosphate silty clays. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic/chitonica and open porphyric.Excrements (2e4 mm; brown/orange; 1e2 mm, convolute form, a phosphate rich micromass, bones, few punctuation oforganic matter and few needle shape voids). Chitin residues and some bones. Yellow/orange fine material andundifferentiated b-fabric.

E-13 (CC. 7)D-16 (CC.3)

Mf.8. Excrements, chitin fragments with organophosphate silty claysThickness 3 mm. Porosity: 50%. Organophosphatic silty clays. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic/chitonic and openporphyric. Excrements fragments (3 mm; dark brown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with convolute fabric;the composition is chitin fragments; they are rather porous, and the finer material is situated at the border) and chitinfragments (250e500 mm). Dark/brown undifferentiated b-fabric. Pedofeatures. We highlight the yellow cryptocrystallineapatite nodules (250 mm) and mamillated boundaries.

E-13 (CC. 7)D-16 (CC.3)

Mf.9. Organophosphate silty clays with cobblesThickness 7 mm. Structure: Spongy/intergrain microaggregate. Porosity 50% Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/4.. Organophosphatesilty clays with micritic limestone cobbles. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic and open porphyric. There are twoexcremental aggregates: a) brown/orange; 1e2 mm, convolute form, a phosphate rich micromass, bones, few punctuationsof organic matter and few needle shape voids; and, b) 1,5e2mm; yellow/orange; convolute form; amorphous to crystallizedphosphatic material with phytoliths and mineral inclusions. Yellow/orange fine material and undifferentiated b-fabric.Pedofeatures: cryptocrystalline apatite hypocoating in limestone fragments.

E-13 (CC. 7)D-16 (CC.3)

Mf.10. Silty clays with chitin remainsThickness 7 mm. Silty clays and sands from 63 to 250 mm with chitin fragments (125e250 mm). C/f-related distributionpattern: enaulic. Bones with very marked traces of dissolution especially at the margins with small reddish stains andexcremental aggregates (2e5 mm; dark brown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with convolute fabric; thecomposition is chitin fragments; they are rather porous, and the finer material is situated at the border). Dark groundmassand undifferentiated b-fabric. Pedofeatures: cryptocrystalline apatite hypocoating (150 mm) in limestone fragments andphosphatic nodules (250e400 mm).

Table 6Cendres IX. Description of the micromorphological analysis.

Stratigraphiclevels


Micromorphology (microfacies)

Cendres IX E-13 (CC. 9) andD-15 (CC. 5)

Mf.1. Sandy siltsThickness 4.5 cm. Structure: spongy/granular. Porosity: 25% (vughs and compound packing voids). Groundmass: c/f50 mm2/1. Sandy silts. C/f-related distribution pattern: single spaced fine enaulic/double spaced equal enaulic. Brown fine materialwith crystallitic b-fabric. There are charcoals with woody structure (75e625 mm) and crystallitic calcitic mass from plants;bones 125e250 mm and organophosphate of 500 mme1 mm aggregates. Excrement fragments of 3e5 mm also appear (darkbrown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with convolute fabric; the composition is chitin fragments; they arerather porous, and the finer material is situated at the border); another type of excrements fragments ranges from 750 mm to3 mm (yellow; amorphous crystallized phosphatic material with phytoliths) and there are also yellow cryptocrystallineapatite nodules (125e250 mm).Mf.2. Sandy silts with gravels and cobblesThickness 11 cm. Structure: granular (granules and porous crumbs; 250e625 mm). Porosity: 25e30% (compound packingvoids). Groundmass: c/f50 mm 1/1. Sandy silts with gravels and some micritic limestone cobbles. C/f-related distributionpattern: enaulic/chitonic. Brown fine material with crystallitic b-fabric. There are charcoals (250 mme4 mm), pseudocalciticplant remains and bones (250 mme3 mm) scattered in several combustion traces. Pedofeatures: primarily fine materialcoatings 125e500 mm on all faces, gravel and also silt capping (75e250 mm). Excremental aggregates (500 mme1 mm).Mf.3. Sandy siltsThickness 6 cm. Structure: spongy/granular. Porosity: 25% (vughs and compound packing voids). Groundmass: c/f50 mm2/1.Sandy silts. C/f-related distribution pattern: enaulic/chitonic. Brown fine material with crystallitic b-fabric. Apparition ofcharcoals (75 mme2 mm) and pseudocalcitic plant remains (500e750 mm) and bones (1e3 mm). Pedofeatures: yellowcryptocrystalline apatite nodules, organophosphatic crystallitic aggregates (1e2 mm); dark brown to black excrementsfragments (3e4 mm) as Mf.1 and cryptocrystalline hypocoatings on limestone fragments.



3.1.1. Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian)Sixteen microfacies (mf) have been distinguished (Table 2 and

Fig. 4 a):Microfacies 16, excrements and silty clays. Distinguished by

excrement remains with virtually no traces of disintegration(2 mme7 mm, dark brown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded ag-gregates with convolute fabric, composed of chitin fragments; theyare rather porous, and the finer material is situated at the border)(Fig. 4b and c) and silty clays.

Microfacies 15, clayey silts with sandy laminations. Consists of asilty clay matrix with fine sand laminations. Scattered droppings ofthe same type as those in mf.16 are present, although some of themappear with spherulites. Calcitic plant remains and prismaticcrystallizations of calcium oxalate are scattered throughout thegroundmass. There are also bone and malacological remains.

Microfacies 14, crystallitic calcitic accumulation with sandy lami-nations. Characterized by an amorphous phosphate crystalliticcarbonated accumulation, with some sandy laminations and ironoxides and hydroxides nodules scattered in the groundmass. Anotable feature is the crystallitic pseudomorphs of cubicmorphology (Fig. 4d).

Microfacies 13, silty clays with sands. Formed by silty clays andsands with dispersed remains of excrement of the same type asthose located in the microfacies 16 and 15 and some dispersed ironoxides and hydroxides nodules (Fig. 4e).

Microfacies 12, excrement remains. Composed of a mainly dis-aggregated excrement layer (Fig. 4f) with humification andbrowning towards the top; and a clay fractionwith increasing sand.

Microfacies 11, silty clays with sands and iron oxides and hydrox-ides nodules. Consists of a silty clay fraction with sand inclusionsand excrement traces scattered in the groundmass. Iron oxides andhydroxides impregnations are present in the top level, responsiblefor the orange color. Very scattered organophosphate nodules withan excremental type fabric occur in some sectors (Fig. 4g).

Microfacies 10, micritic calcitic accumulations. Composed of car-bonate crystallitic accumulations of the micritic type, very bire-fringent (ash).

Microfacies 9, chitin fragments and clayey silts with sand. Differentaspects are observed according to the profile analysis. In E-13 it iscomprised mostly of chitin fragments (dark brown to black,tabular/platy shape, 250 mme1 mm), droppings most likely from aweak detrital fraction consisting of clayey silt. However, in D-16bones also appear, as well as woody structure charcoals andphytoliths.

Microfacies 8, micritic calcitic accumulation with calcitic plant celltissues. Formed by micritic carbonate, crystallitic birefringent ac-cumulations with calcitic plant cell tissues (Fig. 5a, b and c). At thetop of this microfacies there are coprolites (2e4 mm; spherical;brown to yellow; crystallized phosphatic materials with fine ma-terials) with combustion traces (Fig. 5d and e). In profile D-16, thismicrofacies is thicker and the detrital sediment increases (sand andtabular morphology edges), with a granular structure with a ten-dency to platy. It is also distinguished by the appearance of whitebones in PPL and crystalline in XPL.

Microfacies 7, silty clays with sands and chitin remains. Formed bysilty clays with some vesicular voids (Fig. 5f) with chitin remains. Inprofile D-16 they are mixed with woody structure charcoals andbones. On top of this profile there is a sedimentary crust (Fig. 5g).

Microfacies 6, chitin fragments and silty clays with sands. Mainlycomposed of chitin and excrement remains (Fig. 6a) with the samecharacteristics as those observed in mf.16. As in mf.9 of profile D-16there are remains of human activity (bones, charcoals and flints)(Fig. 6b) and aggregates of fine material caused by trampling. Inprofile E-13, between mf.6 and mf.5 are silty laminations 250 mmthick.

Microfacies 5, phosphatic micritic calcitic accumulation withcalcite plant cell tissues. Phosphated and carbonated crystalliticaccumulation of the micritic type, with calcitic plant cell tissues(Fig. 6c) and comparable to the remains of mf.8.

Microfacies 4, clayey silty sands with charcoals, bones, and calciticashes. Clayey silty sand matrix (Fig. 6d) with anthropogenic com-ponents (bones, ashes and charcoals) and chitin fragments. Excre-mental aggregates appear.

Microfacies 3, silty clays with articulated silica phytoliths.Composed of organophosphate silty clays with silica phytolithsarticulated with iron oxide and hydroxide nodules, and biologicalactivity that occurs primarily as aggregates of excremental origin.

Microfacies 2, micritic calcitic accumulation with calcitic plant celltissues.Consists of a carbonated crystallitic accumulationnext to clayswith calcite plant cell tissue of the same type as inmf 8 and 5 (Fig. 6e).

Microfacies 1, clayey silty sands with limestone cobbles. Composedof detrital sedimentationwith traces of anthropogenic components(charcoals, bones remains, phytoliths and flints (Fig. 6f and g).

3.1.2. Cendres XI (Upper Magdalenian)This level is composedmainly of detrital sedimentation inwhich

there are abundant limestone cobbles of subangular and angularmorphology. Two microfacies have been distinguished (Table 3),particularly in profile D-16 (Fig. 7 a), in which the differencesmainly involve the size of the coarse material and themicrostructure.

Mf.2 has an erosive contact with respect to Cendres XII andthere is a predominance of limestone cobbles and gravels of sub-angular morphology which present fissures (Fig. 7b) and slighttraces of dissolution. The matrix is composed of clayey silts andsands with 40% porosity and a slightly granular/platy structure.From the anthropic point of view there are charcoals and to a lesserextent calcitic residues as well as elongated silica phytoliths that insome sectors are articulated (Fig. 7c). There is also an abundance ofbones with different traces of combustion that in XPL are highlybirefringent. Flint fragments are also present. Both the detrital andthe anthropic materials tend to be sloping or vertical. As pedofea-tures, traces of eluviation appear in some sectors and fine materialcoatings appear in the upper part of the detrital material in theform of silt cappings (Fig.7d); these becomemore intense especiallyin sector D-16.

In mf.1, however, there is a predominance of gravels and cobblesof tabular morphology and of smaller size than in mf.2, althoughtheir vertical position is more marked. Porosity increases notice-ably to 50% and the structure is single grain. Anthropic components(Fig. 7e) are represented by the same features as the microfaciesdescribed earlier.

Four microfacies have been documented in the microstrati-graphic sequence of the combustion structure (Table 4) at this level.In order of deposition they are as follows (Fig. 8a):

Mf.4 is formed from a matrix of clayey silts and sands withcobbles (Fig.8b) that present traces of iron oxides and hydroxides,although not to a marked extent. Some of these very angular cob-bles appear in a sloping or almost vertical position. Charcoals andbones appear, along with silica phytoliths that tend to be articu-lated. Phosphatised humified plant remains are also present. Mf.3 isformed of an accumulation of charcoals, some of which have awoody structure (Fig.8c) with yellow bone remains and the edges ofwhich appear reddish or reddish-black with many fissures. Mf.2 isrepresented by a sparitic-type crystallite calcitic accumulation thatforms a crust (Fig. 8d) next to calcitic residues (ashes) and somecharcoals with calcined bones of a light greyish colour. Iron oxideand hydroxides nodules also appear. Finally, mf.1 is composed of adetrital accumulation next to a plentiful accumulation of humifiedremains and charcoals (Fig. 8e).

Fig. 4. Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Detail of the microfacies. Darker parts are of biogenic origin (bat guano). In mf.16 the excrements can be clearlyobserved. Lighter parts correspond to anthropic activity and brown parts to detrital sedimentation. b. Mf.16. Bat excrement with porous (p) and chitin fragments (ch). PPL. c. Mf.16.Bat excrement. The finer material (fm) is situated at the border. ESEM. d. Mf.14. Detail of calcite pseudomorphs of cubic morphology. XPL. e. Mf.13. Clayey silt with sands and batexcrement (be). PPL. f. Mf.12. General aspect of the microfacies. It is composed principally of chitin fragments (ch). PPL. g. Mf.11. Sands with silty clays with organophosphate nodule.PPL. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


Fig. 5. Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Mf.8. Crystallitic calcitic accumulation with ashed plant tissues from angiosperm leaves, bark or stalks. PPL. b.Mf.8. Detail in XPL. c. Mf.8. Detail of ashed plant tissues, ESEM. d. Mf.8. Burnt excrement localized in the upper part of the unit. PPL. e. Mf.8. Same as (d) but XPL. f. Mf.7. Profile E-13.Silty clays with sands with vesicular voids. ESEM. g. Mf.7. Profile D-16. Silty clays with sands with sedimentary crust (sc). PPL.


3.1.3. Cendres X (Upper Magdalenian)This is formed of organophosphatic clayey silty laminations with

a spongy structure with a number of cobbles. It appears in certainsectors of the cave, especially sector E-13, and presents very littleanthropic evidence.

10 microfacies have been distinguished (Table 5 and Fig.9a):

Microfacies 10, silty clays with chitin remains. This has a dark-reddish silty clay matrix with chitin remains (Fig.9b). Thereare also excremental aggregates (2e5 mm; dark brown to black,

Fig. 6. Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Mf.6. Profile E-13. There are bat excrement (be), chitin fragments (ch), fine material (fm) and quartz particles(q). PPL. b. Mf.6. Profile D-16. Detail: bat excrement (be), chitin fragments (ch), and charcoals (chco). PPL. c. Mf.5 Crystallitic calcitic accumulation with ashed plant tissues fromangiosperm leaves, bark or stalks. XPL. d. Mf.4. Silty clayey sands. PPL. e. Mf.2. Phosphatic crystallitic carbonate mass with ashed plant remains as mf.5 and mf.8. PPL. f. Mf.1. Siltyclayey sands. PPL. g. Mf1. Same as (f) but XPL.


ellipsoids to subrounded aggregates with a convolute fabric;composed of chitin fragments; rather porous; finer material issituated at the border). Bone remains with irregular contoursand small reddish stains (Fig. 9c) and limestone material withyellow cryptocrystalline hypocoatings (Fig.9d) also appear.

Microfacies 9, organophosphate silty clays with cobbles. This isalso composed of clayey silty phosphatic excremental aggre-gates distributed through the groundmass (brown/orange; 1e2 mm; convolute; phosphate rich micromass; bones; fewpunctuations of organic matter and few needle shape voids)

Fig. 7. Cendres XI (Upper Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Detail of the microfacies distinguished in the profile D-16. The mf.1. is characterized by tabular morphology gravels andcobbles and mf.2 by subangular cobbles and gravels with clayey silts. b. Mf.2. Detail of fissuring in the cobble with slight traces of dissolution indicating freeze-thaw processrepeated in the red box in Fig. 7a c. Mf.2. Detail of articulated silica phytoliths (ph). PPL. They appear especially in contact with mf.1, in various sectors. The data suggests that itcorresponded to a bedding layer utilizing plants. d. Mf.2. Plaque-shaped detrital material with silt capping (sc). PPL. e. Mf.1. Sloping and vertical arrangement of detrital material elimestone (lm) and bone (b). PPL. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


(Fig. 9e). Yellow cryptocrystalline hypocoatings appear on thecobbles.Microfacies 8, excrements, chitin remains with organophosphateclays. This presents very similar features to those of mf.10, butwe would highlight the many droppings similar to mf.10 andchitin remains; as well as the yellow cryptocrystalline apatitenodule and mamillated boundaries.

Microfacies 7, Organophosphate silty clays with excrements. Thesame features as in mf.9 also appear in mf.7, along with excre-mental aggregates as Fig.9e.Microfacies 6, Organophosphate silty clays and yellow crypto-crystalline apatite nodules. This is made of organophosphaticclays with spongy structure and cryptocrystalline apatite nod-ules dispersed through the groundmass (Fig. 10a).

Fig. 8. Cendres XI (Upper Magdalenian). Combustion structure: micrographs. a. Stratigraphic sequence and sampling area. Right: in the thin section, and left: in the profile. Thefollowing microfacies can be distinguished: mf.1. Clayey silts with charcoals; mf.2. Sparitic crystallitic calcitic crust; mf.3. Charcoals with woody structure and mf.4. clayey silts withangular cobbles. b. Mf.4. Detail of groundmass. It shows a bone (B) in a vertical arrangement. PPL. c. Mf.3. Charcoals with woody structure. PPL. d. Mf.2. Sparitic-to-microspariticcrust next to charcoal. XPL. In this case is most likely originated at the dissolution and reprecipitation of the ashes. e. Mf.1. Accumulation of charcoal and remains of burned organicmaterial. PPL.


Microfacies 5 to microfacies 1, Organophosphate silty with alter-nating gray and orange colors. The thickness of the microfaciesincreases considerably, as can be seen in Table 5. In general theyare composed of organophosphatic material with silty sandyclays and excremental aggregates (brown/orange, convoluteform, a phosphate rich micromass, bones, few punctuation oforganic matter and few needle shape voids). Some microfaciessuch as mf.5 and mf.2 are greyish to black (Fig. 10b and c) andothers are reddish/orange, especially mf.3 and mf.1 (Fig. 10d ande). They are also distinguished by having bones with verymarked irregular contours and small reddish stains and cryp-tocrystalline apatite hypocoatings in limestone fragments.

3.1.4. Cendres IX (end of Upper Magdalenian)Three microfacies have been distinguished in Cendres IX,

described here from bottom to top (Table 6 and Fig. 11a):

Mf.3, which is in contact with Cendres X, is composed of detritalmaterial primarily made up of sandy silts with an erosive contact tolevel X. There are excrement remains and yellow cryptocrystallineapatite nodules. In mf.2, which is the best represented and has thegreatest sedimentary thickness, there is an increase in gravels andsome limestone cobbles also with a sandy silt matrix and with awell-developed granular structure. The most characteristic features(Fig. 11aec) are aggregates or grains covered in coatings of very finematerials and also silt cappings. There is an erosive contact withrespect to mf.3. There is an increase in material of anthropic originsuch as charcoal and pseudocalcitic remains in the form of aggre-gates along with bones having the same features as those describedabove. Finally, mf.1 also has a groundmass of sandy silts with areduction in the cobble fraction and also a reduction in componentsof anthropic origin. The coatings of fine materials tend to besmaller. Organophosphatic inclusions and aggregates of excre-mental origin are considerable.

Fig. 9. Cendres X (Upper Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Detail of the microfacies and their limits. b. Mf.10. Silty clayey matrix with chitin remains. PPL. c. Mf.10. Bone remains withirregular contours and small reddish stains (rs) on the surface PPL. d. Mf.10. Yellow cryptocrystalline hypocoatings (hp) in the limestone material. PPL. e. Mf.9. Raptor faecal remains.PPL.


Fig. 10. Cendres X (Upper Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Mf.6. View of guano crust with yellow cryptocrystalline nodules and bone. PPL. 1. Bone; 2 Organic material; 3, 4 and5. Yellow cryptocrystalline nodules. b. Mf.2. Greyish to dark microfacies. They are associated with the presence of manganese iron oxides and amorphous componentsrelated to the decomposition and mineralization of organic material. PPL. c. Mf 2. Same as (b), XPL. d. Mf.1. Reddish microfacies. The conditions of oxidization of the organicmaterial were more significant. PPL. e. Mf.1 Same as (d), XPL. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version ofthis article.)


4. Discussion

4.1. Cendres XII (Early and Middle Magdalenian)

Cendres XII level was subdivided in the field into sublevels a andb. When the microfacies correlations were established and pre-sented in Section 3.1.1 (Results), the sublevel a was matched tomicrofacies 1 and sublevel b to the rest of the microfacies.

The sequence is complex and involves a variety of biogenic,anthropogenic and pedosedimentary processes and componentsthat are sometimes combined ormixed and this makes it difficult tointerpret.

4.1.1. Biogenic registerThis is present in almost all microfacies, although in some its

presence is highly significant or even the major component, suchas: mf.16, mf.15, mf, 13, mf.12, mf.11, mf.9, mf.6 and mf.3.

They are distinguished by fragments of excrement and remainsof chitin. The coprolites in mf.16 are well preserved and theircharacteristics (dark brown to black, ellipsoids to subrounded ag-gregates with convolute fabric, composed of chitin fragments,rather porous, finer material is situated at the border) can beattributed to bats as suggested by J. Serra Cobo (University of Bar-celona, personal communication). The basic constituents of thedroppings correspond mostly to insectivorous species (see Fig. 4b


and c). On the top there is a tendency for the remains to have browncolor due to the accentuated oxidation of organic matter. Microfa-cies 12 (see Fig. 4f), 9 and 6 are in an advanced stage of decom-position and alteration- guano - and fragments of chitin correspondto the remains of the hardest parts of the insect exoskeleton (J.Serra Cobo personal communication), imparting a dark to blackcolor and an aggregated crust (Shahack-Gross et al., 2004; Sridharet al., 2006). The latter microfacies appears next to detrital finematerial from the guano alteration itself.

There are differences between the profiles E-13 and D-16especially in mf.9 and mf.6 (see Fig. 6a). In profile E-13 thesecoprolite residues are more abundant where there is no trace ofhuman intervention, whereas in profile D-16 (see Fig. 6b) they aremixed with remains that are clearly anthropic in origin (charcoalswith woody structure, elongated silica phytoliths, remains of ashesand fragments of flint). In mf.6 trampling traces are apparent. Wededuce that this was initially a colony of bats subsequently settledby anthropic occupations.

According to Shahack-Gross et al. (2004), these mammal col-onies are located in places where the dome of the cave favors betterhabitability. In our case this would be in the corresponding sectorgrid square E-13, whereas in D-16 we observed a reduced presenceof coprolite remains as they are always mixed with components ofanthropic activity.

The mf.11 and mf.3 possibly would correspond to a level ofguano with different characteristics from previous microfacies.

Fig. 11. Cendres IX (end of the Upper Magdalenian): micrographs. a. Level overview. Microfacoarse rock fragments e limestone e (lm) and bones (b). c. Mf.2. Rounded aggregates and

Organophosphatic crust, clays and excremental aggregates appear.Inmf.15 and 13 there is also guano, but it has beenmoved by diffuserunoff.

4.1.2. Anthropic registerThe microfacies that dominate the processes and components

related to human activity are mainly: mf.8, mf.5 and mf.2. It isdifficult to determine the origin of mf.10 and mf.14, because theyare either mixed with other components (mf.14) or have very littleorganization like mf.10, which we will discuss later.

In mf.8 there are abundant calcitic plant cell tissues (see Fig. 5aec). The remains are well preserved and are most likely to be theepidermis of stems, leaves or bark of angiosperms as E. Badal(University of Valencia, oral communication). In profile D-16 thereare bone remains. At the end of the sequence there are excrementalaggregates that confirm an interruption in the occupation of theupper microfacies.

The mf.5 and mf.2 are composed of calcitic ash that coincideswith those located in the mf.8 and also amorphous phosphaticaccumulations.

Although it is difficult only through micromorphological anal-ysis and pending the archaeological excavation, we propose thatanthropogenic sedimentation could account for these features, forexample occupation floors or plants employed for bedding whichhave been documented in some Paleolithic sites with the oldestchronologies discussed here, Ohalo II in Israel (Nadel et al., 2004);

cies observed indicated with erosive contacts. b. Mf.2 noted in silt cappings (arrow) insingle gravel grains covered on all faces by fine material. PPL.


Sibudu Cave in South Africa (Goldberg et al., 2009) and AbricRomaní in Spain (Vallverdú et al., 2010).

There are several interesting aspects to be considered: plantremains are burned and there is excrement with combustion tracesin mf.8, suggested to be postcontemporary to the occupation. Theuse of fire could have been to clean up the site or else have occurredaccidentally (Goldberg et al., 2009). The fact that all microfaciesinterpreted as “bedding” appear burned make us believe that thefire was intentional.

The mf.14 is associated with carbonated crystallitic andphosphated waste. Calcitic pseudomorphs of cubic morphology(see Fig.4d) correspond to deciduous tree species (Wattez andCourty, 1987). It is mixed with dung and detritus in the form oflaminations (sand) from its own diffuse runoff. The mf.10 is acarbonated crystallitic micritic accumulation (ash) with very lowthickness and eroded by mf.9.

4.1.3. Detrital registerThe responsible sedimentary process is diffuse runoff and is

located mainly in the following microfacies: mf.7, mf.4, and mf.1.The differences lie in the water flow intensity observed:

- very diffuse runoff (mf.7) with a sedimentation of silty clayswith sands, which are originated in a very wet context as alsosuggested by the vesicular structure (see Fig. 5f). In profile D-15/16 the runoff process is more active, as the end of the microfa-cies is represented by a sedimentary crust (see Fig. 5g).

- stronger energy runoff (mf 4 and mf.1). The clayey silt sand inthe mf.1 is more competent, and there is erosion of mf.2.

4.2. Cendres XI (Upper Magdalenian)

Level XI shows an abrupt change with respect to the previouslevel and is the result of the cryoclastic processes of the walls andslow solifluction processes. In some sectors it eroded Cendres XII.The detrital material is composed mainly of gravels and subangularcobbles which have fissures and are sometimes vertical or sloping,like other components such as bones and charcoals. The granular-platy type features presented by the matrix microstructure,mainly in mf.2, along with the fissuring of the detrital material andthe change in arrangement, are indicators of repeated freezeethawprocesses (Van Vliet-Lanoë, 2010). Typical characteristics of eluvi-ation also appear, resulting from thawing that would cause accu-mulations of finer material in the upper part of the coarse elementsand bring about translocation of the detrital material.

These characteristics point to a significant change in environ-mental conditions in the cave, which undoubtedly involved theeffects of freezing. It is likely that during dry periglacial periods,cryoclastic sedimentationwas very active on the cavewalls and thisresulted in an accumulation of limestone fragments. At some timefollowing anthropic occupation, these processes were also associ-ated with slow solifluction-type displacements, which would bemarked to a greater or lesser extent depending on the sector.

The presence of silica phytoliths with a certain amount ofarticulation is noteworthy, especially towards the contact betweenmf.2 and mf.1 in different profiles, and suggests a correspondenceto some kind of bedding layer composed of plants.

As far as the combustion structure located on this level is con-cerned, this is hierarchically arranged in fourmicrofacies coincidingwith the distinctions made in the archaeological fieldwork. Thismicrostratigraphy corresponds to two phases of use:

Combustion is established upon the detrital level, mf.4, whosethermal transformations are diffuse and manifest themselves iniron oxide and hydroxide impregnations in the cobbles. Some ofthem appear in a sloping or almost vertical position due to the

freezeethaw processes that have taken place on this level. Remainsof articulated phytoliths with bones with hardly any traces ofthermal alteration appear, and are related to previous anthropicactivity.

The distributions of the plant origin components underscore thetwo phases of use:

First phase� At the base (mf.3), the combustion is of moderate intensity(abundant woody-structured charcoal fragments and numerousbone remains with different traces of combustion).

� In the upper part (mf.2, see Fig. 8d) there are a number of ashresidues, denoting high intensity combustion, next to calcinedbones. Later, when this unit was at the surface, it underwentdissolution and reprecipitation processes, forming a sparitic-to-microsparitic type crust (Wattez, 1992) dense with charcoals. Itsformation is quite likely due to processes of humidity andevaporation in which crystallization was slow, as can be seenfrom the size of its crystals, >50 mm, indicating a cool environ-ment and very stable conditions (Durand et al., 2010).Second phase

This would correspond to mf.1, in which a more moderatecombustion can be seen with charcoals mixed with humified plantresidues, suggesting slower combustion with little oxygenation.

These results confirm the existence of repeated phases ofcombustion in the same area, favoured by the nearby presence oflarge blocks that would have acted as topographical elementsdelimiting the occupied space and which, because of their size,would have contributed to the preservation of the hearths.

4.3. Cendres X (Upper Magdalenian)

In this level, also attributed to the Upper Magdalenian, a seriesof organophosphatic crusts has been distinguished next to siltyclays with a spongy structure, which leads us to believe that theymay correspond to accumulations of bird and bat guano at a timewhen there was little presence of anthropic occupation in theprofiles studied.

Indicative features of this type of accumulation are:

* Slightly oxidized organophosphatic guano crusts with a spongymicrostructure. In general most of the microfacies follow thisdescription; but some microfacies such as mf.5 and mf.2 aregreyish to black which are associated with the presence ofmanganese iron oxides and amorphous components related tothe decomposition and mineralization of organic material ac-cording to Karkanas and Goldberg (2010), in a reducing envi-ronment typical of such sedimentary records (Bird et al., 2007).In other reddish microfacies, however, and especially in mf.1and mf.3, the conditions of oxidization of the organic materialwere more significant.

These layers appear altered and pedofeatures include crypto-crystalline apatite nodules with mammilated edges along withhypocoatings typical of phosphate-rich areas, which result from thedecomposition of organic material and reaction with the limestonematerial, i.e. calcite is replaced by apatite (Karkanas and Goldberg,2010). Finally, there is the presence of iron oxides and amorphouscomponents related to the decomposition and mineralization oforganic material.

* Aggregates of excremental origin:a) Bat faecal remains. These have the same characteristics as

those identified in Cendres XII and probably most of them


correspond to insectivorous bat guano. Mainly located in themicrofacies 10, 8 and 6, giving a dark color to the accumu-lation of guano, as indicated in 4.1.1

b) Raptor faecal remains. These are distinguished by having abrown/orange color; convolute form, a phosphate richmicromass, bones, few punctuations of organic matter andfew needle shape void (see Fig. 9e). The size is between 1 and4mm. It can be distinguishedwell in themicrofacies 9, 7, 4, 3,2 and 1.

For these components, during this level there were differentoccupations: in some episodes bats seem to be the dominant and inothers the raptor. A sitewhere the presence of predatory bird guanois also important is Westbury Cave, UK (Macphail and Goldberg,1999).

The biochemical diagenetic processes that alter bone, which isnot very abundant, are present as irregular contours (Wattez, 1992)and the appearance of fine iron stains on the surface of the bone.They show themselves in isolation or in more or less extensiveaccumulations. Under the polarizing microscope they show a red-dish colour range in PPL, while in XPL they show a blackish colourwith a reddish metallic shine. Microprobe analysis indicates thatthese traits are chemically characterized by a content of iron andmanganese. According to Polo and Fernández (2010), this corre-sponds to microbial activity.

An interesting question about the record provided by Cendres Xis why such a plentiful accumulation appears. A prerequisite for itsformation is the abandonment or scarce use of that sector of thecave as a habitat by the Magdalenian communities, because a lackof disturbance would be necessary for it to form. It is also a goodindicator of the virtually absent detrital sedimentation, which de-notes a stage of biostasy. It would be interesting to study differentsectors of the cavity in greater detail in order to find out more aboutthis aspect and its consequences in the spatial archaeologicalanalysis.

4.4. Cendres IX (end of the Upper Magdalenian)

Generally speaking this corresponds to gelifluction processeswith a reduction in the coarse fraction and a considerable increasein the silty-sandy matrix in relation to level XI. The diagnosticfeature is the abundance of very fine material coatings in thedetrital and archaeological material, typical of cryogenic conditionsand that came about at a time following human occupation, espe-cially located in the mf.2.

The continuous freezeethaw cycles of the layers that are slightlysloping, and the entrance of water due to gelifluction leads torotational displacement to detritus material (Van Vliet-Lanoë,2010). Data are also contrasted by erosive contacts amongdifferent microfacies (see Fig.11a). This indicates a period of coolingassociated with increased humidity. Different intensities of flowcan be observed, the most intense being in mf.2. At the end of theepisode there is a phase of stabilization, as shown by the presenceof excrement and guano from bats and very possibly also birds.

5. Final remarks

This study has shown that the record from the Cendres Caveduring the Magdalenian offers a wide variety of pedosedimentary(formation and diagenesis), biogenic and anthropic processes,which enable us to a great extent to determine the evolutionaryhistory of the deposit. These features should be taken into accountin future research into these horizons.

During the Early and Middle Magdalenian Cendres XII, situatedwith greatest probability (95%) between 19,270 and 16,530 cal BP,

the sedimentation was mainly due to biogenic activity related toguano accumulations mainly from insectivorous bats. This ismanifest in the microfacies 16 to 9. From there, detrital and an-thropic sedimentation increases except for mf.6, dominated byinsectivorous bat guano. From there, potential floors for occupationare located mainly in the profile D-15/16 that are related to highlycomplex bedding layers of angiosperm plants (mf.8, 5 and 2);aspect that should be checked against field interventions.

The detrital record appears very slight (mf 7) and accentuated atthe end of the level as a result of more competent runoff (mf.4 andmf.1). The tank is no longer a place frequented by bats, as reflectedin the profile E-13, as the medium does not offer the stabilityrequired for habitation by such mammals.

From the palaeoenvironmental point of view, we have followedthe chronostratigraphical terminology based on high-resolutionproxies obtained from the study of the Greenland ice core drills,specifically from GRIP and NGRIP (Lowe et al., 2008). The indicatorsof a cold state with mild conditions and a progressive increase inatmospheric humidity would attribute it to Greenland Stadial-2b(GS-2b) and the first warm events of GS-2a (Villaverde et al., 2012).

During the Upper Magdalenian, the best represented period atthe site, a number of different episodes take place:

1) There is an erosive contact with respect to the upper part,sublevel a (mf.1), of Cendres XII of the Middle Magdalenian.

2) The detrital deposit of Cendres XI located in the interval be-tween 16,690 and 15,640 cal BP would coincide with the upperband of GS- 2a in an atmosphere of rigorous cold. The sedi-mentation formed by cryoclastic activity and very slow soli-fluction processes which would occur some time after theanthropic occupation is a feature that would lead to a change inthe arrangement of the detrital matter and archaeologicalmaterials.

3) A period of detrital sedimentary stability and little presence orabsence of anthropic occupation in the interior of the cavecorresponding to Cendres X. This deposit is composed of guano,very probably from bats and raptors.

4) Detrital sedimentation (Cendres IX) is reactivated between15,210 and 14,240 cal BP in some sectors, with a gelifluctionprocess. Anthropic activity reappears. In some areas this levelerodes level X. The palaeoenvironmental conditions would becold but with an increase in humidity, which would attribute itto the final episodes of GS-2a in transition to Greenland Inter-stadial 1 (GI-1).

Acknowledgments

Wewould like to thank Dr. Ernestina Badal of the Department ofPrehistory and Archaeology at the University of Valencia for iden-tifying the Cendres XII plant tissues and for her comments andsuggestions. Thanks are also due to Dr. Jordi Serra Cobo related tothe Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona forhis invaluable help in identifying bat excrements, and to ProfesorGeorges Stoops of the Department of Geology and Soil Science atthe University of Ghent for his comments on bat guano. We are alsograteful to the Scientific and Technological Centres at the Universityof Barcelona (CCiT-UB) for letting us use the scanning electronmicroscope (ESEM-EDX). Thoughtful reviews by the editor espe-cially, and two anonymous referees are gratefully acknowledged.

This research formed part of two projects: El final del Paleolíticomedio y el Paleolítico superior en la región central del Medi-terráneo ibérico (The end of the Middle Paleolithic and UpperPaleolithic in the central Iberian Mediterranean region) (FFI 2008-01200/FISO) and Paleolítico medio final y Paleolítico superior inicialen la región central mediterránea ibérica (Valencia y Murcia) (Late


Middle Paleolithic and Early Upper Paleolithic in the central IberianMediterranean region [Valencia and Murcia]) (HAR 2011-24878).

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