Middle East Background

– location in area of great physical and human interaction with diffusion of ideas and peoples

– importance of outside influences impinging of established cultures

– dominance of Islam and Arabic language except for Turkey, Iran, and Israel

– presence of 2/3’s of world’s oil resources– rapid economic and geographical changes after

WWI

– impact of the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948

– existence of strategic“choke points” like Strait of Gibraltar, Dardanelles and Bosporous, Suez Canal, and Strait of Hormuz

– revival of Islamic fundamentalism– cohesion of a distinctive physical environment

dominated by arid conditions– most people live on desert margins where water is

available, ie. Mediterranean coast, Nile/Tigris-Ephrates, or highlands of Turkey/Iran

– North African and Southwest Asian countries occupy 11% of world’s land but only 7% of the world’s people.

– one of world’s most strategic areas, cockpit of international conflict and political instability

– five sub-regions: (1) North Africa, west of Egypt; (2) Nile Valley; (3) Heartland of Arab world from Syria to Oman; (4) Israel, Gaza, and West Bank; (5) Iran and Turkey

Islamic Religion and Arabic Language– Islam is most basic and influential element of the

region– Islam established by Mohammed in Arabian

peninsula, spread from Arabia to North Africa and Spain in west and Central Asia in east

– Five pillars of Islam (1) profession of faith, shahada (2) daily prayer (3) giving alms, zakat (4) fasting in the month of Ramadan (5) making the pilgrimage to Mecca, hajj

– divisions within Islam between Sunni and Shia (90% of Iranian population are Shiites)

– gender inequalities in Muslim countries– importance of Arabic language as unifying cultural

force with regional variations– language of Holy Koran– Muslim mosques distinctive feature of cities/towns– Berber language in North Africa; Persian (Farsi)

in Iran; Turkish language in Turkey; Kurdish language in parts of Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria; and Hebrew in Israel

– Islamic art, architecture, and calligraphy

Sacred Mosque at Mecca, Saudi Arabia

Mosque of the Prophet at Medina, Saudi Arabia

Natural Environment– dry climate and desert vegetation

whole region dominated by arid conditions, high evaporation, high temperatures

some marginal areas receive more rain like coasts of western North Africa, eastern Mediterranean, mountains of Turkey and Iran

coastal locations and guaranteed sunshine attract tourists advantage of growing citrus fruits, olives, grapes and

early vegetables for domestic and foreign markets

– scarcity of water water available from melting snows in mountains of

Maghrib, Turkey, Iran, from underground stores (oases), from external sources like equatorial rains that feed the Nile

growth of oil industry, urbanization, and industrialization have major impacts on limited water resources

desalination plants desertifiction began thousands of years ago- North

Africa was breadbasket of Roman empire, cave paintings reveal a more moist environment

Middle East Climates

– oil resources discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia and Gulf fundamental

altered region Saudi Arabia and Gulf contain 2/3’s of world’s proven

reserves of oil rest of region either has no oil or relatively little oil.

Libya has significant oil resources; Tunisia, Egypt, and Syria produce limited quantities of oil

tremendous impact of oil on domestic economies and the world economy

period of 1973-80 one of high oil prices and accumulation of large capital reserves

establishment of OPEC in 1960, oil cartel of major producers to keep supply and demand favorable

use of the oil weapon in 1973 punish West for support of Israel in Yom Kipper War

fourfold increase in price of oil leading to massive oil revenues for OPEC countries

major investments in new roads, hospitals, government buildings, airports, and military hardware

influx of immigrant labor in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Gulf States

impact of falling oil prices in 80’s and 90’s on domestic economies

Gulf War 1991 fought to prevent Saddam Hussein from controlling vast petroleum reserves of region

ecological consequences of the war, retreating Iraqi soldiers set 700 oil wells on fire, impact of fires on air pollution, and pollution of Persian Gulf

threat of continuing instability in the region American intervention and occupation of Iraq Rise of militant Islam Prospects for stability very uncertain

North Africa; Physical Map

North AfricaPhysical Map

NORTH AFRICA– Background

composed of Algeria, Libya, Morocco (Western Sahara), and Tunisia

region also known as the Maghrib westernmost sector of the Arab world diverse historical influences- Phoenicians, Romans,

Vandals, Ottomans, and French Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia retain close ties with

France strong link to markets in Europe for selling products,

buying goods,

share an adherence to Islam as the dominant religion and Arabic as the official language (educated classes still speak French)

link with other Muslim Arab countries strengthened when Arab League headquarters from Cairo (Egypt) to Tunis.

countries exist in a harsh, largely arid environment that restricts agriculture

most human settlement confined to a small percentage of their territory,

increasing problems of water supply as the population continues to increase rapidly

Algeria, Libya, and, to a smaller extent, Tunisia are now oil producers with income from this source has been invested in broadening the economic base into manufacturing.

the four countries of North Africa have population around 28 million

Libya and Tunisia have natural environments that include cultivated coastal areas in the north, desert interiors, and the high Atlas Mountain ranges with their interior plateaus

Algeria and Libya have 80% of territory in the desert northern parts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia

dominated by Atlas Mountains

Algeria and Libya are major oil and gas producers Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia mine and export

phosphate for fertilizer Algeria is one of the most prosperous countries in the

African continent, but has a tumultuous recent history bloody war of independence with France until 1962 experienced democratic and military rule curtailment of elections by the army in 1992 led to a

civil war with the dispossessed Islamic militants

terrorist activity is now devastating Algeria's economy and people.

Morocco has political stability under its moderate king, King Hassan II who gained international Muslim credibility following his mediating role in Arab issues and the construction of a massive new mosque in Casablanca.

Tunisia is modernizing under democratic rule. President Bourguiba replaced by Ben Ali in 1987

Libya remains under the strong direction of Colonel al Gadhafi who seized power in 1969 and runs the country as a military republic.

The former Spanish Sahara was annexed by Morocco in 1976, leading to an internal war with the Polasario Front

– Population and Culture populations of all the North African countries continue

to grow rapidly, lower population growth in Tunisia because of several

governmental policies, i.e. forbidding of polygamy, minimum age for marriage, and instituting a successful family planning program.

Morocco has set up a program to empower women, including family planning, maternal, and child services.

despite the reduction of fertility in the most populous countries, the total population of these five countries rose from just under 50 million in 1980 to almost 70 million in 1993, and could be over 110 million by A.D. 2025.

growth of population in North African countries occurs in urban areas, which now contain over half the total population

largest cities include Algiers (Algeria, nearly 4 million), Casablanca (Morocco, 3.5 million), Tripoli (Libya, around 3 million), and Tunis (Tunisia, just over 2 million)

rapid population growth creates problems for the education systems and employment prospects

shortages of skilled labor continue despite the effect of intensive education programs

growing university educated group in each country, but they find few employment opportunities in their home country.

problems of employment led many North Africans to migrate to France and other European countries

remittances of money sent home are important additions to local income.

– Economic Development problems facing North African countries stem from the

type of economy established in colonial times with its built-in dependence on Europe.

land appropriation for settlers who farmed commercially and used irrigation water for intensive farming that was tied to markets in Europe.

Manufacturing and oil exploration were not encouraged

export crops, such as citrus and olive oil, continue to be produced on large holdings of over 124 acres

North African countries still need to import up to half their food needs

only Morocco has as much as half of its population still dependent on agriculture

Morocco is contesting the management of fishing grounds off Western Africa with the European Union and, particularly, Spain. The main fish caught are squid (for export to Japan), tuna, and hake.

Morocco continues to export cork from the bark of oak trees in the northern area of the country.

Oil and natural gas dominate the economies and exports of Algeria and Libya.

Libya, with its small population, suddenly gained great riches that were nationalized after an initial phase of development by multinational oil companies Algeria and Libya are major world producers with refining and petrochemical industries

Pipelines bring the oil and natural gas from interior locations to coastal ports and refineries (Figure 3.15).

Manufacturing is growing in all countries and now contributes 20% (Morocco) to 30% (Algeria) of GDP.

In Morocco and Tunisia, tourism is a major source of income, based on their sunshine, coastal locations, historic and cultural features, shopping opportunities and stable political environments

Tunisia has a thriving film industry due to good location and spectacular scenery (Star Wars/English Patient)

In the 1990s, North African countries are attempting to privatize large sections of their economies

Tunisia is farther ahead and even has its own sock exchange; Morocco is following with unparalleled sales of state holdings

populations of all the North African countries continue to grow rapidly,

despite the reduction of fertility in the most populous countries, the total population of these five countries rose from just under 50 million in 1980 to almost 70 million in 1993, and could be over 110 million by AD. 2025.

growth of population in North African countries occurs in urban areas, which now contain over half the total population

Map of Fez, Morocco

Fez, Morocco

Nile Valley-Egypt and Sudan– flow of water from Nile crucial to Egypt and Sudan– 1959 Nile Waters Agreement shared water between

Egypt and Sudan with Sudan getting 30% of total– Egypt largest population of any Arab country with 65

million people– Egypt has great power and influence in the Arab world,

strategic location with Suez canal– Sudan the largest country in area but only has half the

population of Egypt and is the poorest country of the region

– Gamal Abdul Nasser’s coup in 1952, establishment of socialism and non-alignment in world affairs

– nationalization of Suez canal in 1956, Suez Crisis 1956, Six-Day War with Israel in 1967 and turn toward Russia

– Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser stored three times amount of annual water for agriculture and hydroelectric power

– Egypt’s shift to more pro-West , pro-US and accommodationist policy vis-à-vis Israel in 1970’s and its consequences in the Arab World

– Sudan plagued by problems of drought, political instability, and refugees problems from Ethiopia

– Population both Egypt and Sudan have rapidly expanding

populations Egypt making some progress to reduce growth rates

with help of US and UN aid progress to reduce fertility may depend on raising the

status of women and some progress being made here Cairo’s population expanded to 13 million with huge

transportation, sanitation and housing problems Alexandria’s population at 4 million Khartoum, capital of Sudan has 2.5 million and

population is growing faster than the government can provide services

– Economic Development Egypt has moved from economy dominated by cotton

production for export to one emphasizing food production, i.e.. sugar, rice, vegetables, and fruit

still not self sufficient in food production, but investment has boosted production

Agricultural Reform Act of 1952 designed to limit landholding; redistribution to peasants

industrialization potential based on power generated by the Aswan dam has not fully materialized

some industrialization based on iron and steel industries, chemicals, assembly of cars, food processing, tire manufacturing, etc.

ecological problems caused by Aswan Dam- silting, salinization, schistosomiasis

double/triple cropping in most areas with irrigation cotton, alfalfa, wheat, maize, rice are main crops nationalized industries overregulated remittances from Egyptian workers in Saudi Arabia and

Gulf benefited the economy in 80’s Gulf War in 1991 led to many workers returning home end of Cold War may lead to less US aid ($10 billion) tourism capable of generating large foreign exchange

earning ($2 billion in 92), but Islamic terrorism since the 1990 has hurt this sector; beach resorts at Sharm el-Sheikh at southern tip of Sinai popular

Suez canal revenues static but not growing much incomes from Upper Egypt south of Cairo are about half

the incomes from the Delta to Cairo Sudan’s economy very poor with little prospect of

outside help from US or other Western countries cotton provided 50% of Sudan’s exports in good times civil war, drought, pressures from refugees from

Ethiopia produced difficult conditions in Sudan decreasing world prices for cotton and sugar have hurt

both Egyptian and Sudanese economies restiveness of Egyptians

Arab Southwest Background

– heart of Arab world consists of Arabian Peninsula and fertile crescent from Tigris-Euphrates to the Lebanese coast

– includes countries of Iraq with 23 million people; Saudi Arabia with 21 million; Syria with 17 million, Yemen with 18 million, and Gulf states with a total of 6 million

– center of the Islamic religion and focus of Muslim pilgrimage at Mecca (Mekkah)

– focus of oil industry on eastern shore of Persian Gulf

– oil-rich countries have built internal infrastructure, built up military strength, and provided full welfare services for the population

– cost of Gulf War in 1991 and drop in world oil prices have had an adverse effect on the economies of the region

– presence of Israel in midst of Arab heartland has been thorny political issue

– US foreign policy of unconditional support for Israel has created problems for the US in the region

Countries of Arab Southwest– Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon,

Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates and Yemen

– Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman produce oil but have little water

– Lebanon and Jordan have some water but no oil– Syria and Iraq have both oil and water– Yemen has no oil and little water

– some efforts to share oil wealth before Gulf War in 1991 with poorer states but falling prices and political conflicts between Arab states has lessened contributions

– tensions between donor countries (Gulf states) and debtor nations (Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen)

– lack of skilled labor has led to massive importation of foreign workers from Arab world, Indian subcontinent, Korea, and Philippines

– tension over Tigris-Euphrates between Turkey and Syria/Iraq

– Sunni majorities in most Gulf countries, but tensions between Sunnis and Shiites have complicated relations in the region

– border disputes between Saudi Arabia and Yemen and between Iraq and Kuwait which led to Gulf War

Population– rapid population growth in region– large population of youths– life expectancies vary from 65+ years of age in Gulf

to 46 years in Yemen– migrations still way of life for Bedouins

– high urbanized population in most states– largest cities include Bagdad, Iraq (4 million);

Amman, Jordan (1.5 million); Beirut, Lebanon (1.5 million); Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (2 million); Damascus, Syria (5 million); Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, (1.5 million) Aleppo, Syria (1.5 million)

Economic Development– great contrast between countries with high oil

revenue and countries with no oil– Persian Gulf countries sitting on huge oil reserves

with relatively small populations

– Iraqi economy virtually destroyed as consequence of the Gulf War, sanctions prevent exports and imports though a limited amount of medicine and food are permitted

– before oil discovery, Gulf states engaged in low intensity farming where water was available or nomadic herding where water was scarce

– crops like dates and citrus exported– crude oil make up 85-90% of exports– challenge to move to a more diversified

manufacturing base

– Kuwait attempting to restore production of oil wells, wiped out in Iraqi invasion and setting of fires by retreating Iraqi soldiers

– Kuwait overseas assets fell from $100 billion to $35 billion

– new industrial cities of Jubail on Gulf and Yanbu on Red sea in Saudi Arabia major centers of new petrochemical plants and manufacturing industries

– gasoline, electricity, water and telephone highly subsidized

– creation of a new university system in Saudi Arabia and Gulf states to turn out skilled labor

– Iraq could have been a major leader in the region but instead chose to make war on Iran and Kuwait, neglected agricultural resources, and spent huge sums on military equipment

– economic progress in non-oil producing countries like Jordan and Yemen very slow

– loss of West Bank to Israel in 1967 hurt Jordanian economy and led to significant problems with Palestinian refugees

– Beirut, the Paris of the Middle East, virtually destroyed in 1975 civil war, now experiencing a commercial building explosion, money returning

Saudi Arabia– Background

kingdom divided among various clans in 19th C crucial role of Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, founder of modern

Saudi Arabian state consolidated tribal and regional units into Saudi

kingdom before discovery of oil very poor desert kingdom prior to WW II discovery of oil near Dammam in 1938, no large scale

production until after WW II oil production developed by ARAMCO (Arabian

American Oil Co) owned by 4 large multinational oil companies

– Physical Character and Climate Saudi Arabia occupies greater part of Arabian peninsula interior is an arid plateau formed on west by steep

mountains that rise from Red Sea plateau 2,000-4,000 feet in elevation Rub al Khali (Empty Quarter) in southeast part of

country Syrian desert extends into northern part of area coastal plain along Red Sea low-lying area known as Al A’sa along Persian Gulf

where most of the oil can be found

Saudi Arabia: Physical Map

– Climate extreme heat and aridity throughout the country winter temperatures between 45 to 70 degrees F summer temperatures between 80 to 107 degrees F temperatures in desert often reach over 120 degrees F precipitation sparse Riyadh averages 3.2 inches per year Jiddah receives only 2.4 inches per year no permanent rivers or lakes wadis (watercourses) punctuate the interior

– Population population of Saudi Arabia estimated to be 21 million 82% of the population composed of Arabs whose

ancestors lived in region for centuries 13% Yemenis and other Arabs who migrated to Saudi

Arabia in the 50’s in search of jobs Nomads are declining percentage of population 80% of the people live in cities today largest cities are Riyadh (2.5 million);

Jeddah (1.6 million; Mecca (1.5 million) Medina (.5 million) and Dammam (.2 million)

Industrial centers of Jubail on Persian Gulf and Yanbu on the Red Sea

– Petroleum founded in 1938 by the Arabian-American Oil Company

(ARAMCO) Saudi government acquired controlling interest in

ARAMCO in 1974 Saudis have 1/4 of known world oil reserves; largest

producer of oil with 3 billion barrels produced each year sizable quantities of natural gas Trans-Arabian pipeline carries oil from eastern fields

to Sidon in Lebanon; oil facilities at Yanbu on Red Sea; and from Ras Tanura in Persian Gulf

considerable influence in OPEC decisions future of Iraqi reserves and US policy

– Economic Development ambitious five year development plans calling for $150

billion in investment priority to industrial sector, particularly petrochemical

industry, liquefied natural gas, steel and cement plants, light industry

build up of defense, social services, education and training

agriculture promoted with dairy projects, poultry raising, irrigated lands from deep wells

now grow wheat, tomatoes, melons, onions, citrus, grapes, and other crops

– Political stability Saudi Arabian monarchy and US concerns ability the

stability of ruling family security concerns focus on Iraq, Iran, and Israel AWAC’s radar planes sold to Saudi Arabia in 1981

over objections of Israelis consultative councils to advise King on political reform concern about human rights of prisoners cruel and unusual punishments (chopping block square) terrorist incidents troubling for Saudis and US US housing center bombed in 1996, heavy damage Saudi concern about American presence

extremists incidents during pilgrimage, 270 deaths near Mecca

demands for social change slow in coming Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) established among

Gulf States to discuss security and economic relations good cooperation among sheikdoms of Persian Gulf Saudi monarchy guardians of two most Holy Places in

Islam -Mecca and Medina strong concern about status of Jerusalem special interest in Islamic concerns around the world,

Bosnia, former Soviet Socialist Republics King Abdullah, the new Saudi monarch who succeeded

to the throne in 2005

King Abdul Aziz ibn Saud King Abdullah

Israel, Gaza, and West Bank– Israel is a major political, economic, religious, and

cultural anomaly in the region– Jewish desire to establish a homeland in Palestine

prior to WWI culminates in a state by 1948– desire to escape persecutions, pogroms, and poverty

led to creation of the State of Israel; strong US support in the UN crucial in establishing Israel

– hostility of Palestinian community and surrounding Arab states leads to 1948 war; 800,000 Palestinian refugees created by Israeli's refusal to allow refugees to return to their homes

Growth of Israel

1917-2001

West Bank Settlements

– Arab refusal to accept existence of the state of Israel and Israel desire to expand borders for more security lead to host of wars from 1948 through 1982

– establishment of the PLO in 1964 to advance Palestinian interests

– crucial issue of Israeli settlements around Jerusalem and all over West Bank complicate the search for peace

– significance of water politics (extension of Israeli power in Lebanon, Golan Height, and West Bank) designed to obtain scarce supplies of water

– injustice of Israeli policies on West Bank

– concern in Israel about population growth rates falling except for additions from external immigration

– today 90% of Israeli population lives in cities with Tel Aviv/Jaffa the largest concentration of people

– future of Israel dependent upon relations with Palestinians and relations with Arab neighbors

– heavy defense expenditures, high expectations for social services, and high levels of US foreign aid (12 billion in recent times) cannot continue indefinitely

– Israel needs to trade land for peace, but the present government appears to want both

– economic development Israel economy similar to those of Mediterranean

Europe high ownership of consumer goods and high standard of

living government running large budget deficits and depleting

currency reserves government needs to speed privatization, streamline

bureaucracy, and lessen controls over the economy economic advantage of a very highly trained and skilled

work force government attempting to diversify economy with a

thriving agricultural sector and manufacturing sector

agriculture on kibbutzim declining, only 5% of work force in agriculture in Israel

manufacture of industrial machinery, military equipment, chemicals, and high tech industries like telecommunications, electronic printing, diagnostic imaging systems in medicine and date communications

service sector also strong with tourism as a major industry government desires to break into EU markets and markets

in Arab world Palestinians highly educated with good prospects of

development if peace can be established huge infrastructure problems in Gaza, most people still

live in refugees camps, unemployment over 50%, promised aid not delivered

Palestinian land being taken for settlements in West Bank which leads to further hostility

tensions high on the West Bank extremists among Israeli settlers and radical Islamic

militants like Hamas complicated search for peace issue of Jerusalem Oslo Accords 1992 and their consequences for the

Palestinians. cycle of Palestinian terrorism and gross Israeli human

rights violations Prime Minister Sharon hard line policies toward PLO,

building wall around occupied territories Transfer of Gaza to Palestinian Authority Prospects for peace uncertain

Jerusalem

Israel: Physical Map

Turkey and Iran– Similarities

Turkey and Iran different from other Arab-language states of the Middle East

Arabic replaced by Turkish and Persian languages both overwhelming Islamic in religion that Turkey is a

more secular state both have large populations over 65 million each both powerful forces in the region and have a strategic

locations- Bosporus and Dardanelles in Turkey and Strait of Hormuz at entrance to the Persian Gulf

both share largely mountainous countries along the plate collision between Arabia and Asia

both receive precipitation in mountains, much of which falls as winter snow. Meltwater feeds rivers

both subject to earthquakes both have Kurdish minorities inside country borders

– Differences both are long-time rivals for power and influence in the

region Iran’s Muslims belong to Shia group while Turkey’s

Muslims are Sunni

Iran ruled by leading family under military control (Shah of Iran until revolution in 1979 which ushered in rule by Shiite religious mullahs led by Ayatollah Khomeini

Turkey became a nationalist secular state under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk after WW I and later a democratic state and NATO member

Turkey has been closely involved with European interest and support from the US

major US bases in Turkey, monitoring Soviet ships through Bosporous

Iran very hostile to US interest after the 1979 Iranian revolution

– Population Population of Turkey around 65.9 million (2002) vs.

Iran’s population of 66.2 million (2002) Iranian population growing much faster so by year 2025

projections are for 150 million in Iran vs. 100 million in Turkey

varied composition of the Iranian population with 50% Persian in Iran, 25% Azeris (Azerbaijan), 10% Kurds, and others 15%

Turkish population is 80% Turks and 20% Kurds expanding urban populations in Turkey and Iran as

people move from the rural areas to cities

Tehran, capital and largest city in Iran with 6 million people; Meshed (1.5 million); and Isfahan and Tabriz (1 million each)

Istanbul, largest city in Turkey with 10 million; Ankara, the capital of Turkey build in the empty interior of country now has 3 million people; Izmir (2 million)

– Economic Development Iran and Turkey experienced different types of economic

development based on oil for Iran and water resources for Turkey

Iranian oil income used to build urban-industrial state with a strong military

Iranian revolution in 1979 led to isolation in region, devastating war with Iraq in 80’s, squandering of oil wealth, and less emphasis on modernization

Turkey invested heavily in developing water resources for agriculture and some industrial development

major advances in mechanization of agriculture in Turkey with use of fertilizers to increase yields

increase production of cotton, soybeans, grains, fruits, vegetables

20% of exports by value are from agriculture mining of chromite, copper and gold add to mineral

exports steel made on Black Sea coast near coal and steel deposits international tourism brings in $1 billion per year

Iranian agriculture less sophisticated and less productive

lack of sufficient investment in agriculture, need for more irrigation

Iran imports much of its food arid land in south and east of Iran limits agriculture oil revenue used to create oil refineries, petrochemical

plants on Gulf coast, iron and steel works at Isfahan pipelines distribute oil and gas small private sector assembles cars, produces textiles,

leather goods and other light industries

Contemporary Issues– Turkey’s desire to become part of EU– Conflict between Islam and secularism– EU concern about militant Islam, democracy

and human rights– Iranian drive for big power status and

development of a nuclear capability– Conflict between reformers and traditionalists

Turkey: Physical Map

Anatolian Plateau

Iran: Physical Map

Zagros Mts

Elburz Mts

Iranian Plateau