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12 11 20031776 1776----1800 20031776

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Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce 1979

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178 177 20031776 20031776

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206 205 20031776 20031776

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216 215 20031776 20031776

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218 217 20031776 20031776

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222 221 20031776 20031776

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244 243 20031776 20031776

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260 259 20031776 20031776

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Anglo-french

Roosevelt

25000

Roosevelt

1910

Theodore Roosevelt

Roosevelt

George Otto

262 261 20031776 20031776

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Raisuli

20 Darna Tripoli 1911 Roosevelt

Mahan

1908

RooseveltTaft 400000

N-E-A 1909

Middle-Eastern

Roosevlt

Tawain

264 263 20031776 20031776

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266 265 20031776 20031776

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Philp Roth

Austria-Hungary Austria

Austro-Hungry

Roth

1908

23 1914

William Bryans

Wilson

Danial Bliss

Jaffa Wilson 12 Tennesse Uss North Carolina

268 267 20031776 20031776

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13 48

1914

250

Anna Birge

800

25

24

Pope Benedict XV

Harpot

Elizibeth Ussher

Henry Morgenthau

270 269 20031776 20031776

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1912 Morgenthau Wilson Morgenthau

Wilson

Morgenthau

Lewis Einstien

Morgenthau

Robert Lansing

Lansing

Morgenthau

Morgenthau

Morgenthau

Morgenthau

Morgenthau James Barton

Isaac David H. Greer Doge Barton

272 271 20031776 20031776

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Charles Crane Rabbi Stephan seligman Andolph New York Times Morgenthau 1915

145 Morgenthau

Walter M Geddes

Leslia Morgenthau

Morgenthau

1.5

West Anatolia

250000 200000

Uss de Moines

argaret McGilvary

Lacomia 1917 25 216

Lacomia 10:30

Floyd Gibbons

22 2

274 273 20031776 20031776

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Willson

Adward Baltic Mandell

Willson

1917

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Van H. Engert William Nestbid

Red-Cross John H. Finely

Red-Cross

Henry

Senate Foreign Relation Commitee Cabot LodgeJames

276 275 20031776 20031776

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Clark Fredrick Gillette New-York Times

Theodore Roosevelt

Dodge

Robert College

Wilson

Dodge

Roosevlt DoDge

Austro-Hungry 1917

Wilson

Wilson

1916 Sykes-picot

1917

Henry Morgan

278 277 20031776 20031776

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Wilson Lansing

Felic Frankfuerter 1917 21 Morganthau

Weizmann Balfour

Morgenthau Wiezmann

Rudolf Grossman

1 8 8 0

Drefus

Oscar Straus

1897

Gotheil Stephen S. Wise

Henriette Szold Golda Meyerson

1914

Theodor Herlz

Gottheil,Wise,Felix Frank

Kentucky Louis Dembitz Brandeis

Wise

280 279 20031776 20031776

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Wilson

1914

Lansing

Reverend O t is Glazebrook

Wilson Morgenthau

Wilson

Brandeis Jaffa

Morgenthau

1815 Uss Tenessee

282 281 20031776 20031776

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" " 1868

1908

100000 19141880

1892

1895

284 283 20031776 20031776

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Howard Bliss

Balfour Declaration

Texas

Brandeis Colonel House

Anglo_French

Charles Crane

1888

Wilson Taft Robert Lansings

Crane 1914

Taft

1918

Wilson

Woodrow Wilson

Anglo-Saxon

286 285 20031776 20031776

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Walter Lippmann Wilson New Republic

James Barton

Westermann

Western Hemisphere 191821 Wilson

George Clemenceau

Westmanns

Wilson

Westermann WIlson 200000

Smuts

Wilson

Frankfurter

288 287 20031776 20031776

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ooks

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290 289 20031776 20031776

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1920

1923

1912

125

1911

1914

292 291 20031776 20031776

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halB

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.org

1923

1776

150

1945 1776

1973

1960 1950

1948

294 293 20031776 20031776

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50

Presbyterian

CIA

1953

CIA Ajax

1967 CIA CIA

1954

1955

1956

296 295 20031776 20031776

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1953

MEDO MEDO

1954

1948

1956

1956 23

Christian Pineau

298 297 20031776 20031776

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25 1956 29

5

400

300 299 20031776 20031776

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1958

8500 Gls

1959

Lew Walbee 80 Judah

Ilderim Ben-Hur

Ilderim

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Puritan

1961

302 301 20031776 20031776

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22

60

1962 Lowell Thomas

1962

50

1939

304 303 20031776 20031776

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1963

1963 22

36

1964

Eugene Rostow

Sonta Ana Alomo

196715

306 305 20031776 20031776

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PLO

2

Regatta

5 286

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US Liberty 171 34

1956

6

308 307 20031776 20031776

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2

Restow

242

242

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6

PLo

150

1967

310 309 20031776 20031776

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Metternich

8%

242

1967

PLO

PLO 1970 TWA

54 34

PLO PLO

Litzhak Robin

1967

PLo

312 311 20031776 20031776

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1971

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314 313 20031776 20031776

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6000 300 22000

28 338

242

25 15

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316 315 20031776 20031776

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1974

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1949

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8 TWA 1974

88

Annapolis

318 317 20031776 20031776

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39 1977

242 PLO

1948

PLO

1977 19

1906

95%

320 319 20031776 20031776

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1978

1978

1970

1970 50

1970

1977 Black Sunday

1978

322 321 20031776 20031776

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1841

1977 31

1978

324 323 20031776 20031776

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1979 4

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200

1805

U.S

1979

326 325 20031776 20031776

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1980 24

C-130 7

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1980

444 100

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1967

1980

300

1979 200

328 327 20031776 20031776

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1981

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1981

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18 80

AWACS 1981

330 329 20031776 20031776

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Osirak

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1973 1950

1982 3 30

6

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80 PLO

332 331 20031776 20031776

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198214

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1983 13

CIA 17 241 23

16 1984

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1984 18

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1984 TWA 6

5 1985

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Brig 201 12 PLO Betsey

PLO 69

334 333 20031776 20031776

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1986

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103 Pan Am 1988 21 259 37

11

Kilburn 80

Daniel B Liss

1981 Kerr

William Buckley CIA

William Higgin 1988 1981-91 9

1985

336 335 20031776 20031776

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600

George Shultz CIA

1986

1988 1987

290

Contra

338 337 20031776 20031776

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1985

PLO

PLO

AIPACShultz PLO 1987

242 PLO

Pax Americana

CIA

PLO

1990

340 339 20031776 20031776

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2

5 48

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1991 15

5 17 Operation Desert Storm

60

342 341 20031776 20031776

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1994

4 1995

Shalom and Chaver

'' '' '' ''

1966

PLO

MIT

1922

344 343 20031776 20031776

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Clas h of 19 9 3

civilizations

Hu n t i ng t on

Twin Tower

1993

1992

1993

346 345 20031776 20031776

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PLO 1993 9

Shalom,Salam,Peace

P.L.O

1996

1998

348 347 20031776 20031776

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1998

1999

2000

90 95 95

1967

350 349 20031776 20031776

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Cole 12 34 17

60

Y2K

1789

2000

19

2001 Zacarias Moussaui 747

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352 351 20031776 20031776

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1970 The Siege 1998 Three Kings

2000 The Arabian Nights

8:46 201111 99

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Twin Towers 10:30

U.SS. Manhattan Essex

3000

The Siege

9/11

9/11

354 353 20031776 20031776

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1840

15

9/11

9/11

2002

356 355 20031776 20031776

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1993

2002

9/11

1991

1991

2001

358 357 20031776 20031776

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2003

18

90

500

1991

Shock and awe

9

M88

360 359 20031776 20031776

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2006

500 80

362 361 20031776 20031776

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225

2003 20 25

26

2003

1944

30

364 363 20031776 20031776

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366 365 20031776 20031776

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1939

1948

1953

30

368 367 20031776 20031776

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1979

18

One Bullet Away

370 369 20031776 20031776

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Passage to Glory

372 371 20031776 20031776

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A note on the notes: Because of the immense number of quotations and

sources in need of citation, I have inserted endnotes at thematic breaks and

transitions in the text.

Prologue: A Passage to Glory

1. Jared Sparks, The Life of John Ledyard, the American Traveller

(Cambridge: Hillard and Brown, 1828), pp. 1-70. Helen Augur, Passage to

Glory: John Ledyard's America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1946), pp.

142, 157-58, 173. Henry Beston, The Book of Gallant Vagabonds (New

York: George H. Doran, 1925), p. 23. Laurie Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage: An

American Adventurer on Captain James Cook's Final Expedition (New York:

Holiday House, 2002), p. 203 ("the greatest traveler"). See also Clanance

Ashton Wood, "Southhold's John Ledyard" and "John Ledyard the Traveler,"

longislandgenealogy.com/Ledyard/one.htm.

2. John Ledyard, A Journal of Captain Cook's Last Voyage to the Pacific

Ocean (Hartford: Nathaniel Patten, 1783), pp. 33 ("dancing through life"), 72,

85, 157. Kenneth Munford, John Ledyard: An American Marco Polo

(Portland: Binfords and Mort, 1939), p. 300. Beston, Book of Gallant

Vagabonds, p. 43. James Zug, American Traveler (New York: Basic, 2005),

p. 152. Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage, pp. 5, 59, 143, 197-98. S. G. Mantel,

Explorer with a Dream, John Ledyard (New York: Julian Messner, 1969), pp.

121-23. Thomas Jefferson, Autobiography (New York: Capricorn, 1959), p.

80. Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage, p. 199 ("my brother"). See also Stephen D.

Watrous, ed., John Ledyard's Journey through Russia and Siberia,

1787-1788: The Journal and Selected Letters (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin

Press, 1966), and the website Mutual Perceptions- Travel Accounts,

memory.loc.gov/intldl/mtfhtml/mfpercep/perceptledyard.html.

3. Henry Beaufoy, "Some Accounts of Mr. Ledyard's Method of Traveling,"

Ladies' Magazine, July 1792 ("manliness of his person"). Zug, American

Traveler, p. 216 ("An American face"). Larzer Ziff, Return Passages: Great

American Travel Writing, 1780-1910 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2000),

p. 36. Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, pp. 290, 293 ("My path will be"), p. 303.

Augur, Passage to Glory, p. 268 ("Behold, I afford a new character"). Zug,

American Traveler, pp. 173 ("I…do not think"), 220.

1. A Mortal and Mortifying Threat

1. Evan Thomas, John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American

Navy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), pp. 30-34. James A. Field Jr.,

America and the Mediterranean World, 1776-1882 (Princeton: Princeton

Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 30-31. A. L. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria,

1800-1901 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), pp. 1-2. Michael L. S. Kitzen,

Tripoli and the United States at War: A History of America's Relations with

the Barbary States, 1785-1805 (Jefferson: McFarland, 1962), p. 10. Thomas

A. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations with the Middle East, 1784-1975

(Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1977), pp. 1-2. David H. Finnie, Pioneers East:

The Early American Experience in the Middle East (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 244-45 ("Go where you will"). A. Uner Turgay,

374 373 20031776 20031776

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"Ottoman-American Trade during the Nineteenth Century," Journal ofOttoman Studies 3, no. 1 (1982): 193-94.2. Richard B. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A Diplomatic History(Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 2004), pp. 5-6, 17-20. Robert Davis,

Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003),

pp. 4-5, 23, 36, 41-42, 74. Sir Godfrey Fisher, Barbary Legend: War, Trade

and Policy in North Africa, 1415-1830 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1957),

pp. 290-91. Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the

Rise of American Power (New York: Basic, 2002), pp. 6-8. Maria Martin,

History of the Captivity and Sufferings of Maria Martin (Philadelphia: Jacob

Meyer, 1811), p. 37. Questions have been raised about the veracity of

Martin's account, though her descriptions of the ordeals of captivity in North

Africa accord with those of many other former prisoners. See James R.

Lewis, "Savages of the Seas: Barbary Captivity Tales and Images of

Muslims in the Early Republic," Journal of American Culture 13, no. 2

(Summer 1990): 68.

3. Joseph Wheelan, Jefferson's War: America's First War on Terror,

1801-1805 (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003), p. 36. Parker, Uncle Sam in

Barbary, pp. 33-34 ("We had already lost five"). Charles A. Goodwin,

Narrative of Joshua Gee of Boston, Mass., While He Was Captive in Algeria

of the Barbary Pirates, 1680-1687 (Hartford: Wadsworth Atheneum, 1943),

pp. 1-29. Simon Smith, "Piracy in Early British America," History Today 46

(May 1996).

4. Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774-1789, ed. Paul Smith

(Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1995): Pierse Long to John

Langdon, Aug. 6, 1786, p. 433. Alexander DeConde, A History of American

Foreign Policy (New York: Scribner, 1971), pp. 21, 41 ("The Americans

cannot protect"). The Revolutionary War Diplomatic Correspondences of the

United States. ed. Francis Wharton (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1889): Salva

to Franklin, April 1, 1783, p. 357. Bradford Perkins, The Cambridge History

of American Foreign Relations, vol. 1, The Creation of a Republican Empire,

1776-1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 33 ("No nation

can be trusted"), 46, 69. Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The

United States and the Muslim World, 1776- 1815 (New York: Oxford Univ.

Press, 1995), p. 3.

5. E. Dupuy, Américains et Barbaresques (Paris: R. Roger et F. Chernoviz,

1910), p. 8 ("to use its best offices"). The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol.

10, ed. Albert Smyth (New York: Haskell House, 1970): Franklin to Robert

Livingston, July 7, 1783, p. 71 ("If there were no Algiers"). See also The

Papers of George Mason, 1725-1792, ed. Robert Rutland (Chapel Hill: Univ.

of North Carolina Press, 1970): George Mason to Hunter, Allison and

Company, Aug. 8, 1783, pp. 788-89. Louis B. Wright and Julia H. Macleod,

The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton's Struggle for a Vigorous

Policy against the Barbary Pirates, 1799-1805 (New York: Greenwood,

1945), p. 15. Seton Dearden, A Nest of Corsairs (London: Butler and

Tanner, 1976), p. 151. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, pp. 218-19 ("there is

no advantage").

6. Paul Baepler, ed., White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of

376 375 20031776 20031776

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American Barbary Captivity Narratives (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,1999), pp. 77-80. Stephen Clissold, The Barbary Slaves (London: Paul Elek,1977), p. 3 ("They made signs"). A. B. C. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli:The Birth of the U.S. Navy and Marines (New York: Morrow, 1991), p. 26. H.

G. Barnby, The Prisoners of Algiers: An Account of the Forgotten

American-Algerian War, 1785-1797 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966),

pp. 2-3. Gardner W. Allen, Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs (Boston:

Houghton Mifflin, 1905), pp. 8-9 ("sabers grasped"). Donald Barr Chidsey,

The Wars in Barbary: Arab Piracy and the Birth of the United States Navy

(New York: Crown, 1971), p. 7.

7. The Letters of Richard Henry Lee, ed. James Ballagh (New York:

Macmillan, 1914), vol. 2: Lee to Thomas Shippen, Oct. 14, 1785, p. 392

("Curse and doubly curse"); Lee to Samuel Adams, Oct. 17, 1785, p. 396.

John Jay Papers: 1968, 13031, Jay to William Bingham, Feb. 12, 1785; Jay

to Bowen, May 24, 1786. Naval Documents Related to the United States

Wars with the Barbary Powers, ed. Dudley Knox, 6 vols. (Washington, D.C.:

GPO, 1939), vol. 1: O'Brien, Coffin, and Stevens to Thomas Jefferson, June

8, 1786, p. 2. David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon &

Schuster, 2001), p. 352. Barnby , Prisoners of Algiers, pp. 3-9, 25-26.

Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. xiv-xv. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 13, 25, 21-22

("perfectly dark"). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 25-26, 69. A Journal

of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss (Newburyport: Angier March,

1798), pp. 17 ("Now I have got you"), 20, 24, 33. DeConde, History of

American Foreign Policy, p. 41 ("It will not be"). Lawrence A. Peskin, "The

Lessons of Independence: How the Algerian Crisis Shaped Early American

Identity," Diplomatic History 28, no. 3 (June 2004): 299-300 ("The Algerians

are cruising"). Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The

American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Mariner Books,

1997), p. 37.

8. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Ford (New York: Putnam,

1970): Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10-11 ("We ought to

begin"). Allen, Our Navy, p. 37 ("It will procure us"). See also Thomas

Jefferson Papers: Gerard W. Gawalt, "America and the Barbary Pirates: An

International Battle Against an Unconventional Foe," on

memory.loc.gov/ammem/mtjhtml/mtjprece.html ("temper of my

countrymen"). DeConde, History of American Foreign Policy, p. 83 ("sink us

under them" and "erect and independent attitude"). Joseph J. Ellis, American

Sphinx. The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Vintage, 1998), p.

26 ("combined great depth"), and Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary

Generation (New York: Vintage, 2002), pp. 233-42. William M. Fowler, Jack

Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783-1815 (Boston: Houghton

Mifflin, 1984), p. 5. I am aware of the controversy surrounding Jefferson's

relationship with Sally Hemmings; geneticists have determined that Thomas

Jefferson was almost certainly the father of Hemming's son, Eston.

9. The Emerging Nation: A Documentary History of the Foreign Relations of

the United States under the Articles of Confederation, 1780-1789, vol. 2, ed.

Mary Giunta (Washington, D.C.: National Historical Publications and

Records Commission, 1996): Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, Feb. 6,

378 377 20031776 20031776

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1785, p. 543. The Papers of George Washington, ed. W. W. Abbit(Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1995): Lafayette to Washington,Jan. 13, 1787, p. 514. Lafayette in the Age of the American Revolution, vol.5, ed. Stanley Idzerda and Robert Crout (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1983):

Lafayette to Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin, April 8, 1785, p. 315.

10.Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Ford: Jefferson to James Monroe,

Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10-11 ("The states must see"). The Writings of Thomas

Jefferson, ed. Andrew A. Lipscomb (Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson

Memorial Association, 1905): Jefferson to John Page, Aug. 20, 1785, p. 91

("Honour as well as"). John Jay Papers: Jay to Jefferson, Adams, and

Franklin, March 11, 1785 ("the Influence of…Courts"). Whipple, To the

Shores of Tripoli, p. 23.

11. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to William

Carmichael, Nov. 4, 1785, p. 194 ("His manners and appearance"). Barnby ,

Prisoners of Algiers, p. 75 ("I hope never to see"). Parker, Uncle Sam in

Barbary, pp. 37-38, 217-19. Ray Irwin, The Diplomatic Relations of the

United States with the Barbary Powers, 1776-1816 (New York: Russell &

Russell, 1970), pp. 49-50.

12. Emerging Nation, vol. 1: John Adams to John Jay, Feb. 17, 1786, p. 96.

The John Jay Papers: 4605, Jay to Congress, Aug. 2, 1787. Walter

Livingston Wright, "American Relations with Turkey to 1831" (Ph.D. diss.,

Princeton Univ., 1928), pp. 1-2 ("pestilence and war"). Allison, Crescent

Obscured, pp. 8, 14-16. McCullough, John Adams, pp. 352-53. Allen, Our

Navy, pp. 36- 37.

13. Wright, "American Relations with Turkey," pp. 4-5 ("the Dignity of

Congress"). The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence

between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams, ed. Lester J.

Cappon (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1959): Adams to

Jefferson, July 13, 1786, p. 139. Emerging Nation, vol. 1: Letter from John

Adams to John Jay, June 27, 1786, p. 207; vol. 2: John Adams to John Jay,

Dec. 15, 1784, p. 513 ("unfeeling tyrants"). McCullough, John Adams, p. 366

("We ought not to fight").

14. Emerging Nation, vol. 3: Jefferson and Adams to John Jay, March 28,

1786, pp. 135-36 ("It was…written") . Adams-Jefferson Letters: Adams to

Jefferson, June 6, 1786, p. 133. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Ford:

Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, Aug. 11, 1786, pp. 264-65 ("an angel

sent on this business"). Writings of Benjamin Franklin: Franklin to William

Carmichael, March 22, 1785, pp. 301-2. McCullough, John Adams, p. 354.

Wright, "American Relations with Turkey," pp. 7-10. Allen, Our Navy, pp.

30-31. Allison, Crescent Obscured, p. 12 ("a universal and horrible War").

15. Revolutionary War Diplomatic Correspondences of the United States:

Franklin to Congress, May 26, 1779, pp. 192-93. Diary and Autobiography of

John Adams, vol. 3, Diary 1782- 1804 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press,

Belknap Press, 1961), entries for March 19 and March 20, 1785, pp. 174-75.

John Jay Papers: 3891, Jay to Congress, March 22, 1786. Emerging Nation,

vol. 1: John Adams to John Jay, Feb. 16, 1786 ("Innocence and the Olive

Branch"), p. 95. Jerome B. Weiner, "Foundations of U.S. Relations with

Morocco and the Barbary States," Hespris-Tamuda [Morocco] 20-21

380 379 20031776 20031776

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(1982-83), pp. 165-82. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp.Allen, Our Navy, pp. 27-30. Wright, "American Relations with 32-33, 40.Turkey," pp. 8-9. The text of the treaty is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, ed.,The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record,

vol. 1, European Expansion, 1535-1914, 2d ed. (New Haven: Yale Univ.

Press, 1975), pp. 103-5.

16. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Jefferson to Humphreys, Aug. 14,

1786, p. 400 ("public treasury"). The Writings of George Washington from

the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799, vol. 38, ed. John Fitzpatrick

(Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1938): Washington to Lafayette, March 25, 1787,

p. 185 ("the highest disgrace"); Washington to Lafayette, Aug. 15, 1786, p.

521 ("Would to Heaven"). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 21. Boot,

The Reestablishment Savage Wars of Peace, p. 10. U.S. Naval History:

of the Navy, 1787-1801, on

http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/bibli04/bibli04a.htm. The Documentary

History of the Ratification of the Constitution, ed. John Kaminksi and

Gaspare Saladino (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 2001):

Russell to Adams, p. 47 ("Without a national system"). Parker, Uncle Sam in

Barbary, p. 44 ("Our sufferings"). Field, America and the Mediterranean

World, p. 33 ("See what dark prospect").

17. Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution: Speech by

James Madison before the Virginia Constitutional Convention, June 12,

1788, p. 1206. Writings of George Washington: Washington to Lafayette,

Aug. 15, 1787, p. 260. Letters of Delegates to Congress: Virginia Delegates

to Edmund Randolph, Nov. 3, 1787, p. 539. James Madison, Notes of

Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 (Athens: Ohio Univ. Press,

1966), p. 549. Perkins, Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, p.

69. See also Julia H. Macleod, "Jefferson and the Navy: A Defense,"

Huntington Library Quarterly 8 (Feb. 1945): 154.

18. Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, pp. 47, 160,

567 ("preposterous"), 1126 ("May not the Algerines"), 1417 ("our sailors…in

Algiers"). The Debate on the Constitution, ed. Bernard Bailyn (Washington,

D.C.: Library of America, 1993): Hugh Williamson's Speech, Nov. 8, 1787, p.

233. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas

Jefferson and James Madison, 1776-1826, ed. James Morton Smith (New

York: Norton, 1995): Jefferson to Madison, May 8, 1784, p. 314; Madison to

Jefferson, Oct. 8, 1788, p. 555; Jefferson to Madison, Jan. 12, 1789, p. 583.

19. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, The Federalist

Papers (Cutchogue, N.Y.: Buccaneer Books, 1992), pp. 49-50 ("federal

navy…of respectable"), 207-8 ("maritime strength" and "the rapacious

demands"). John Jay Papers: 4572, Jay to Congress, May 29, 1786; 10876,

Jay to Lafayette, Oct. 28, 1786; 4605, Jay to Congress, Aug. 2, 1787.

Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. 65 ("The more we are ill-treated"). See

also George Pellew, American Statesmen: John Jay (Cambridge, Mass.:

Riverside Press, 1890), p. 239.

20. Mary Chrysostom Diebels, Peter Markoe (1752-1792): A Philadelphia

Writer (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1944), pp. 1-3,

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16, 50-61. Peter Markoe, The Algerine Spy in Pennsylvania; or, LettersWritten by a Native of Algiers on the Affairs of the United States in America,from the Close of the Year 1783 to the Meeting of the Convention(Philadelphia: Prichard and Hall, 1787), pp. 25-30, 78-79, 104-5 ("totally

ruined" and "plundered without"), 113-14. Bailey, Diplomatic History of the

American People, p. 65. See also Lotfi Ben Rejeb, "Observing the Birth of a

Nation: The Oriental Spy/Observer Genre and Nation Making in Early

American Literature," in Abbas Amanat and Magnus T. Bernhardsson, eds.,

The United States and the Middle East: Cultural Encounters (New Haven:

Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 2002), pp. 253-89.

21. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Jefferson to

the Senate and the House of Representatives, Dec. 30, 1790, p. 22; Edward

Church to Thomas Jefferson, Oct. 12, 1793, p. 45. Writings of Thomas

Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to the Board of Treasury, May 16, 1788,

p. 11 ("sea-dogs"); Jefferson to John Jay, Aug. 11, 1788, p. 121 ("that

pettifogging nest"). Ellis, American Sphinx, p. 162 ("Algerine"). Allison,

Crescent Obscured, pp. 9-10 ("suspended between indignation").

22. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to John Paul

Jones, June 1, 1792, p. 355; Jefferson to Thomas Barclay, June 11, 1792, p.

367. Charles Stuart Kennedy, The American Consul: A History of the United

States Consular Service, 1776-1914 (New York: Greenwood, 1990), p. 29

("as a great People"). Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Ford:

Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10-11 ("John Paul Jones").

23. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to Thomas

Barclay, June 11, 1792, p. 367. John Jay Papers: 5052, Temple to Jay, June

7, 1786. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, ed. Harold Syrett, 27 vols. (New

York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1961-87): Hamilton to William Seton, April 22,

1794, vol. 16, p. 312. The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, ed.

Charles King (New York: Putnam, 1894): John Alsop to Rufus King, Dec. 15,

1793, p. 505. Irwin, Diplomatic Relations of the United States, p. 80.

24. Writings of George Washington, vol. 33: Washington to Jonathan

Trumbull, Aug. 20, 1793, p. 125; President's Sixth Annual Address to

Congress, Dec. 13, 1793, p. 166 ("If we desire").

25. Annals of the Congress of the United States: Third Congress

(Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1849), pp. 433, 434 ("Bribery alone,"

"a Secretary of [the] Navy," and "we are no match"), 436 ("Our commerce

is"), 439 ("at war with"), 447-48 ("pusillanimous measures"). Craig L.

Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the

United States, 1785-1827 (Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1980), pp.

27-37. See also The Papers of Josiah Bartlett, ed. Frank Mevers (Hanover:

Univ. Press of New England, 1979): Paine Wingate to Josiah Bartlett, Feb.

24, 1794, p. 403.

26. Papers of Alexander Hamilton: John Quincy Adams to Hamilton, Dec. 5,

1795, vol. 17, pp. 420-21; Edmund Randolph to Hamilton, William Bradford,

and Henry Knox, vol. 16, pp. 498-99. Naval Documents Related to the

United States Wars, vol. 1: Samuel Calder to David Pearce, Dec. 4, 1793,

p. 57; George Washington to Congress, Feb. 8, 1795, p. 93; Joel Barlow to

Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140-41. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 31,

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141 ("stigma on the American"). Frances Diane Robotti and James Vescovi,The USS Essex and the Birth of the American Navy (Holbrook, Mass.:Adams Media Corp., 1999), p. 12. Field, America and the MediterraneanWorld, p. 7. Allen, Our Navy, p. 51 ("If I were to make peace").

27. Among the gifts given Tunis by the United States were "1 Fusee, 6 feet

long, mounted with gold set with diamonds; 4 set with gold mounting,

ordinary length; 1 pr. of pistols mounted with gold, set with diamonds; 1

poniard, enameled, set with diamonds; 1diamond ring; 1 gold repeating

watch, with diamonds, chain the same, 6 pieces of brocade of gold; 30

pieces superfine cloth of different colors; 6 pieces Satin, different colors."

See Irwin, Diplomatic Relations of the United States, pp. 100-1. Republic of

Letters: Madison to Jefferson, Feb. 21, 1796, pp. 921-22; Jefferson to

Madison, April 17, 1796, pp. 931-32. Naval Documents Related to the United

States Wars, vol. 1: Barlow to Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140-41;

O'Brien to Jefferson, Jan. 12, 1797, pp. 192-93 ("25 chests of tea"); Barlow

to Jefferson, Aug. 18, 1797, p. 208 ("To what height"); Barlow to Jefferson,

Aug. 24, 1797, p. 209 ("You are a liar"). Kennedy, American Consul, pp.

30-32. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 23-24, 53-54 ("Our people have conducted"),

56-57. Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers, pp. 304, 318. Foss, Journal of the

Captivity, p. 123 ("No nation of Christendom"). Milton Cantor, "Joel Barlow's

Mission to Algiers," Historian 25 (1963). See also Library of Congress

States," United the with Country Studies, "Algeria, Relations

memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+dz0025).

28. Royall Tyler, The Algerine Captive; or, The Life and Adventures of

Doctor Updike Underhill, Six Years a Prisoner among the Algerines

(Hartford: Peter B. Gleason, 1816), pp. 196, 239. Anonymous, The American

in Algiers; or, The Patriot of Seventy-six in Captivity (New York: J. Buel,

1797), p. 16 ("Does Columbia"). Susanna Rowson, Slaves in Algiers; or, The

Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia: Wrigley and Berriman, 1794), p. 48

("What, give it up").

29. James Leander Cathcart, Tripoli (LaPorte, Ind.: Herald Print, 1901):

Cathcart to Pickering, Aug. 16, 1799, p. 67. Naval Documents Related to the

United States Wars, vol. 1: Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 24, 1797, p. 209.

Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 2-3.

2. The Hostile and Ethereal Orient

1. Abbas, Hamdani, "Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem," Journal of

the American Oriental Society 99, no. 1 (1979) pp. 43 ("As…enemies), 44

("all the gain"). Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their

Enemies (London: Penguin, 2007), pp. 60-62, 87-88, 100. George Sandys,

Description of the Ottoman Empire (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,

1973), p. 36. Philip L. Barbour, The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith

(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), pp. 45-49. Timothy Worthington Marr,

"Imagining Ishmael: Studies of Islamic Orientalism from the Puritans to

Melville" (Ph.D. diss., Yale Univ., 1997), pp. 1-2, 30-33, 70 ("an emissary of

Satan"), 87-89. Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and

the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press,

2002), pp. 12-13, 73-74. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. xiv-xviii, 45-46,

61-64. Josiah Strong, "Anglo-Saxon Predominance (1891),"

386 385 20031776 20031776

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http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/strong.html ("The Eastern nations sink").Translating the Untranslatable: A Survey of English Translations of theQuran, http://www.quranicstudies.com/article32.html. A. J. Arberry, TheKoran Interpreted (New York: Macmillan, 1955), pp. 7 ("so viewing thine

enemies"), 8 ("contradictions, blasphemies"), 10 ("attack the Koran").

Humphrey Prideaux, The True Nature of Imposture Fully Displayed in the

Life of Mahomet (Fairhaven, Vt.: James Lyon, 1798), p. 108.

2. Henry Hugh Brackenridge and Philip Freneau, Father Bombo's Pilgrimage

to Mecca, 1770, ed. Michael Davitt Bell (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Library,

1975), pp. 7 ("to change thy religion"), 92 ("I prostrated myself"). Ros

Ballaster, Fabulous Orients: Fictions of the East in England, 1662- 1785

(Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005), pp. 8, 33, 54-56, 72, 77. Alain

Grosrichard, The Sultan's Court: European Fantasies of the East (London:

Verso, 1998), p. 79. Mohammed Sharafuddin, Islam and Romantic

Orientalism: Literary Encounters with the Orient (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994),

pp. xxv-xxvi, 64, 107. Ben Rejeb, "Observing the Birth of a Nation," pp.

256-57. Claude Étienne Savary, Letters on Egypt, Containing a Parallel

between the Manners of Its Ancient and Modern Inhabitants (London: G. G.

J. and J. Robinson, 1787). Irwin, For Lust of Knowing, p. 109 ("the present

terror"). Constantin-François Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, pendant

les années 1783, 1784, et 1785 (Paris: Desenne et Volland, 1787).

3. Daniel Beaumont, Slave of Desire: Sex, Love, and Death in 1,001 Nights

(Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 2002), p. 42. Husain

Haddawy, trans., The Arabian Nights (New York: Norton, 1990), pp. xv-xvii.

Novelists Magazine 18 (Containing The Arabian Nights Entertainment)

(London: Harrison, 1785). Adele L. Younis, "The Arabs Who Followed

Columbus,"Arab World 12, no. 3 (March 1966). Excerpt from The Arabian

Night Entertainment: Consisting of One Thousand and One Stories, the First

American Edition, Freely Transcribed from the Original Translation by

Galland (Baltimore: H. & P. Rice and J. Rice, 1794). Susan Nance,

"Crossing Over: A Cultural History of American Engagement with the Muslim

World, 1830-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of California, Berkeley, 2003), p. 25.

See also the Arabian Nights Resource Center,

http://www.crock11.freeserve.co.uk/arabian.htm.

4. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. J. P. Mayer, trans.

George Lawrence (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 536. Edward McNall

Burns, The American Idea of Mission: Concepts of National Purpose and

Destiny (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1957), p. 125. Daniel

Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience (New York: Random

House, 1965), pp. 219, 264. William H. Goetzmann, New Lands, New Men:

America and the Second Great Age of Discovery (New York: Viking, 1986),

pp. 1, 5, 14. Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History

(1920; reprint, New York: Henry Holt, 1947), pp. 2, 30, 37, 38.

5. Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, p. 305 ("Alexandria at large"). P. J.

Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Sadat (Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 30-38. Samir Khalaf, Persistence and

Change in 19th Century Lebanon (Beirut: American Univ. of Beirut, 1979),

pp. 16-31. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London:

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Oxford Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 21-39, and The Crisis of Islam: Holy War andUnholy Terror (New York: Modern Library, 2003), pp. 64-65.6. Augur, Passage to Glory, pp. 265, 276 ("The Mahometans [are] asuperstitious"), 277-80. Zug, American Traveler, p. 222 ("infinitely below").

Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, pp. 306, 307 ("This was about" and "nothing

merits more"), 309, 310 ("very, very humiliating"), 314-15. Finnie, Pioneers

East, pp. 139-40 ("dust, hot"). See also Robert D. Kaplan, The Arabists: The

Romance of an American Elite (New York: Free Press, 1993), pp. 16-17.

7. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 140 ("a bilious complaint"). Wood, "John Ledyard

the Traveler," ("full and perfect health"). Significant disagreement surrounds

the date of Ledyard's death. Augur places it on March 4, 1789, and Dr.

Wood on Jan. 17. Sparks, the official biographer, speculates that the time

was late Nov. 1788 On the basis of Ledyard's last letter to Jefferson, I have

remained with Sparks's date, albeit without certainty.

8. "An Egyptian Anecdote," Ladies' Magazine, April 1793 ("although

generally tender"); "An Account of Egypt and Alexandria," Feb. 1793

("absorbed in surprise"). Augur, Passage to Glory, p. 282 ("That Man"). J.

Fred Rippy, Joel R. Poinsett: Versatile American (Durham: Duke Univ.

Press, 1935), pp. 27-29. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 14 ("long red pantaloons").

George Barrell, Letters from Asia: Written by a Gentleman of Boston, to His

Friend in That Place (New York: A. T. Goodrich, 1819), p. 35 ("having

perused"). Bruce G. Tigger, "Egyptology, Ancient Egypt, and the American

Imagination," in Nancy Thomas, ed., The American Discovery of Ancient

Egypt (New York: Abrams, 1995), pp. 21-22. Thomas Jefferson, The

Writings of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 7 (Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson

Memorial Association of the United States, 1903), p. 78. Ziff, Return

Passages, p. 53 ("Ledyard was a great favourite").

3. A Crucible of American Identity

1. Thomas Harris, The Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge,

United States Navy (Philadelphia: Carey Lea and Blanchard, 1837), pp. 37,

45 ("You pay me tribute"). Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 70-72.

Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 48-50. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 56.

Allen, Our Navy, pp. 75, 80-81. Wright, "American Relations with Turkey,"

pp. 31 ("To save the peace), 32-33 ("mortifying degradations"), 35-36.

Richard Zacks, The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and

the Secret Mission of 1805 (New York: Hyperion, 2005), pp. 13-15, 24.

2. Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish

Empire (New York: Morrow Quill, 1977), pp. 429-36. Stanford Shaw, History

of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The

Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280-1808 (Cambridge:

Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 260-74. Henry A. S. Dearborn, The Life

of William Bainbridge, Esq., of the United States Navy (Princeton: Princeton

Univ. Press, 1931), p. 20. Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers, pp. 37, 84. Henry S.

Osborn, Palestine, Past and Present (Philadelphia: James Challen and Son,

1859), p. 505. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 114-15.

Lewis, Crisis of Islam, p. 66 ("heavenly bodies"). Turgay,

"Ottoman-American Trade," p. 205.

3. Glenn Tucker, Dawn like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth of the

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U.S. Navy (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), pp. 15-18. Wright, "AmericanRelations with Turkey," pp. 31-32 ("Had we 10 or 12"), 34 ("Did the UnitedStates know"), 37-41, 42 ("Capitaines Vilon"). Allen, Our Navy, pp. 85-86.Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 115-16. Bainbridge letter to

Stodder, in Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 76. Harris, Life and

Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, p. 60.

4. Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 28, 1801, pp. 1193-94

("enemy to all these" and "send the powder"). Thomas Jefferson Papers:

Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, June 11, 1801 ("There is no end"). The

Writings of Albert Gallatin, ed. Henry Adams, vol. 1 (New York: Antiquarian

Press, 1960): Gallatin to Jefferson, Dec. 1802, pp. 104-5. Kenneth J. Hagan,

This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York: Free

Press, 1991), p. 55 ("deeply affected"). Naval Documents Related to the

United States Wars, vol. 1: Cathcart to Dale, Sept. 17, 1801, Cathcart to

Madison, April 18, 1802, p. 127 ("to buy peace").

5. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 49 ("sinking, burning").

Herbert E. Klingelhofer, "Abolish the Navy!" Manuscripts 33, no. 4 (Fall

1981): 279-83. Macleod, "Jefferson and the Navy," p. 170. Allen, Our Navy,

pp. 89-90 ("a delay on your part"), 94, 112-13. Wright, "American Relations

with Turkey," pp. 31-36. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term,

1801-1805 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), p. 98.

6. The Enterprise was commanded by Lt. Andrew Sterrett. See Naval

Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: National Intelligencer,

Nov. 18, 1801, p. 539. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 89-91 92-93, 97-101. Robotti

and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 78-79, 91-93. Naval Documents Related to the

United States Wars, vol. 1: Dale to Cathcart, Aug. 25, 1801, p. 560

("amuse"). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 79. Field, America and the

Mediterranean World, p. 49. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, pp. 13-14.

7. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Dale to the

Acting Secretary of the Navy, July 30, 1801, p. 535 ("the whole tribe").

Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents, 1789-1829, ed.

Noble Cunningham (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1978), vol.

1: Letter from John Stratton, April 22, 1802, p. 281. Whipple, To the Shores

of Tripoli, p. 96 ("Shall we buy"). For a fuller discussion of the constitutional

aspects of Jefferson's policy toward North Africa, see Robert F. Turner, "The

War on Terrorism and the Modern Relevance of the Congressional Power to

'Declare War,'" Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 25 (2002). See also

Gordon Silverstein, Imbalance of Powers: Constitutional Interpretation and

the Making of American Foreign Policy (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997),

and David N. Mayer, "By the Chains of the Constitution: Separation of

Powers Theory and Jefferson's Conception of the Presidency," Pe