Middle East as “shatterbelt”Middle East as “shatterbelt”

“a large, strategically located region that is occupied by a number of conflicting states and is caught between the conflicting interests of adjoining great powers.”

Saul Cohen, 1964

Modernizing States – Middle East Questions:

Why aren’t more countries in the Middle East democratic?

Can Middle Eastern countries modernize without becoming Western?

Does economic liberalization lead to political liberalization?

What factors encourage change in the Middle East today?

What factors impede change in the Middle East today?

Impact of WWI on the Middle EastImpact of WWI on the Middle East THETHE single most important political event single most important political event

in the history of the Modern Middle Eastin the history of the Modern Middle East per capita losses in Ottoman Empire and per capita losses in Ottoman Empire and

Persia greater than in Europe (25%)Persia greater than in Europe (25%) creation of the modern state systemcreation of the modern state system ideological glue binding these states was ideological glue binding these states was

nationalismnationalism political transformation in Palestine and political transformation in Palestine and

in Persiain Persia

The Middle East and the WestThe Middle East and the West End of the Ottoman Empire Republic of TurkeyEnd of the Ottoman Empire Republic of Turkey

After WWI: mandate system in Gulf States:After WWI: mandate system in Gulf States:• Britain Britain Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan• France France Syria, Lebanon Syria, Lebanon

““Independent” by end of WWII but Western oil Independent” by end of WWII but Western oil interests remainedinterests remained

Cold War and competition for oil meant Middle Cold War and competition for oil meant Middle East remained an area of Western intervention East remained an area of Western intervention and influence and influence

Interwar PeriodInterwar Period

pro-Nazi sympathies – Iranpro-Nazi sympathies – Iran Egypt – “independence by degrees.”Egypt – “independence by degrees.” Muslim Brotherhood founded – 1928Muslim Brotherhood founded – 1928 non-Muslims continued to control many non-Muslims continued to control many

areas in the ME.areas in the ME. oil discoveries lead to ARAMCO and oil discoveries lead to ARAMCO and

other concessions.other concessions. anti-imperialism and tension in Arab-anti-imperialism and tension in Arab-

Israeli dispute and in India/PakistanIsraeli dispute and in India/Pakistan

World War II and its ImpactWorld War II and its Impact

Axis search for oil – Battle of el Axis search for oil – Battle of el Alamein, 1942.Alamein, 1942.

British White Paper – “Palestine off British White Paper – “Palestine off limits to Jews.”limits to Jews.”

Intensification of Arab-Israeli Conflict.Intensification of Arab-Israeli Conflict. Modernizing, “developmental ethos.”Modernizing, “developmental ethos.” Revolts and ReformsRevolts and Reforms IndependenceIndependence

Modernizing IdeologiesModernizing Ideologies“Muslims did not march in single file”“Muslims did not march in single file”

1.1. Bourgeois Liberalism/Capitalism – secular, Bourgeois Liberalism/Capitalism – secular, individualistic, democratic, market forces individualistic, democratic, market forces (Liberal modernization theory).(Liberal modernization theory).

2.2. Marxism – state control, command economy, Marxism – state control, command economy, secular. secular.

3.3. Islamism – traditional religious values, Islamism – traditional religious values, fundamentalism, conservativefundamentalism, conservative

4.4. Arab Socialism-secular, anti-colonial, pan-Arab, Arab Socialism-secular, anti-colonial, pan-Arab, cultural expression of identity?cultural expression of identity?

5.5. Nationalism – secular, ethnicity or loyalty to the Nationalism – secular, ethnicity or loyalty to the statestate

Which has your country attempted?

http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm

“Greater Middle East”

http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm

Egypt-Nasser, Sadat, Mubarak –Arab Socialism and Pan-Arabism

Iraq - Hussein-Baathist Socialism

Syria – Asad – Baathist Socialism

Libya – Qadafi – Green Socialism

Turkey - Secular Republic

Iran – Shah, Khomeini, Ahmadinejad –Islamism

Saudi Arabia – “Family w/ Flags”, Wahabi Islam

Four Critical 20th c. IssuesFour Critical 20th c. Issues“There was no 20th c. in the Middle East”“There was no 20th c. in the Middle East”

DomesticDomestic – social frustration, “defensive – social frustration, “defensive developmentalism,” oil is a cursedevelopmentalism,” oil is a curse

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy – constant intervention, – constant intervention, how to control their own destinyhow to control their own destiny

Political InstabilityPolitical Instability – questions of – questions of legitimacy, “top-down rather than bottom-legitimacy, “top-down rather than bottom-up governments,” patron-client stateup governments,” patron-client state

Ideological confusionIdeological confusion – cultural and moral – cultural and moral debatesdebates

Traditional IdentitiesTraditional Identities

1. Birth Identities: 1. Birth Identities: Blood = family, clan, tribeBlood = family, clan, tribe

Place = neighborhood, village, Place = neighborhood, village, district, district, province, country.province, country.

Religion = may be the only one that Religion = may be the only one that transcends the otherstranscends the others

2.2. Allegiance to a ruler – hereditary Allegiance to a ruler – hereditary monarchmonarch

What is a tribe? What is a tribe? (“horde” in Central Asia)(“horde” in Central Asia)

be aware of Eurocentric bias—more be aware of Eurocentric bias—more “primitive” type of social unit.“primitive” type of social unit.

““family resemblances”—shared family resemblances”—shared customs, cultures, ideas—practical customs, cultures, ideas—practical guide to social actions such as guide to social actions such as marriage, landholding, rights within marriage, landholding, rights within the group.the group.

administrative unitsadministrative units

TribalismTribalism

““is not a single phenomenon rather, is not a single phenomenon rather, it is a persistent social and political it is a persistent social and political force bringing together people for force bringing together people for many different purposes.”many different purposes.”

• from from Peoples and Cultures of the Middle EastPeoples and Cultures of the Middle East

“I against my brother; I and my brother against my cousin; I an my brother and my cousin against the stranger”

from an old Arab proverb

Nationalism and IslamismNationalism and Islamism

Both emerged because of similar Both emerged because of similar historical conditions(imperialism)historical conditions(imperialism)

““While the strengthening of the one has While the strengthening of the one has led to the strengthening of the other, led to the strengthening of the other, the failure of one has led to a surge in the failure of one has led to a surge in popularity of the other.”popularity of the other.”

James GelvinJames Gelvin

The Modern Middle EastThe Modern Middle East

Common ElementsCommon Elements

Both address similar concerns:Both address similar concerns:

WesternizationWesternization

- economic dependency- economic dependency

-political subjugation-political subjugation

-corruption-corruption

-returning to “the -returning to “the essence”essence”

-creating unity, -creating unity, political and culturalpolitical and cultural

Both draw Both draw legitimacy from legitimacy from same assumptions:same assumptions:

-adapted to the -adapted to the state systemstate system

-cultural -cultural authenticityauthenticity

-dignity-dignity

Zones of IslamZones of Islam Arab – Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Libya, Arab – Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Libya,

Kuwait, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Gulf StatesKuwait, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Gulf States Turkish - Turkey Turkish - Turkey Persian - IranPersian - Iran South Asia – Pakistan and IndiaSouth Asia – Pakistan and India Southeast Asian – Indonesia, Malaysia, Southeast Asian – Indonesia, Malaysia,

PhilippinesPhilippines African - Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, Algeria, African - Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, Algeria,

Nigeria Nigeria DisaporaDisapora

Islam in politicsIslam in politics

Relaxed model Relaxed model – use Islam to – use Islam to legitimize the actual lived experiences legitimize the actual lived experiences today, “live and let live.”today, “live and let live.”

Reform modelReform model – use Islam to reform – use Islam to reform society, or co-opt Islam to serve rulers’ society, or co-opt Islam to serve rulers’ purpose.purpose.

Revolutionary modelRevolutionary model – seek mass – seek mass mobilization to bring back the age of mobilization to bring back the age of purity and the creation of a new society.purity and the creation of a new society.

Political Islam-FundamentalismPolitical Islam-Fundamentalism““shadow side of modernity” – develops when modernization is shadow side of modernity” – develops when modernization is well-established, so a reaction against it because:well-established, so a reaction against it because:deep disappointment with modernitydeep disappointment with modernityfear of secularism, liberalism and its valuesfear of secularism, liberalism and its valuespushing religion from the sidelines back to the centerpushing religion from the sidelines back to the centerbegins as an internal dispute within own culture/countrybegins as an internal dispute within own culture/country

Ex. opposing westernizing leaders or policiesEx. opposing westernizing leaders or policies

return to a “golden age” – overstressing traditional valuesreturn to a “golden age” – overstressing traditional values

Ex. putting women back into veils a reactive form of Ex. putting women back into veils a reactive form of modernism, often innovative and radical tactics:modernism, often innovative and radical tactics: withdrawal from societywithdrawal from society forming separate communitiesforming separate communities fighting for survivalfighting for survival revival of faithrevival of faith terrorism (minority)terrorism (minority)

EgyptEgypt

See ME, pp. 281-293See ME, pp. 281-293

EgyptEgypt

overcome tribalism and create a new overcome tribalism and create a new identity – Arab nationalismidentity – Arab nationalism

reverse effects of imperialism – anti-reverse effects of imperialism – anti-imperialismimperialism

Arab socialism – Nasser, Arab LeagueArab socialism – Nasser, Arab League 1950’s Suez Crisis1950’s Suez Crisis Muslim Brotherhood, Said QutbMuslim Brotherhood, Said Qutb Sadat – opening (intifah) to the WestSadat – opening (intifah) to the West Mubarak – “dictatorship w/ a Western face”Mubarak – “dictatorship w/ a Western face”

IraqIraq 1918-32 British rule1918-32 British rule

• Even after Even after independence Britain independence Britain retained oil rights retained oil rights and kept military and kept military bases in Iraqbases in Iraq

MonarchyMonarchy military military rulerule Ba’thists Ba’thists

1979 Saddam Hussein 1979 Saddam Hussein took powertook power

Saddam suppressed Saddam suppressed opposition also Kurdish opposition also Kurdish minorityminority

IraqIraq

IraqIraq Mandate policyMandate policy

• ““on paper, a good idea”on paper, a good idea”• Mosul in the North,oil rich (Sunni Kurds)Mosul in the North,oil rich (Sunni Kurds)• Tigris/Euphrates/Baghdad, farmland (Shi’a Tigris/Euphrates/Baghdad, farmland (Shi’a

and Sunni)and Sunni)• Basra in the South, oil potential, access to Basra in the South, oil potential, access to

Persian GulfPersian Gulf• Sunni Faysal, from Hussein in Mecca, to rule, Sunni Faysal, from Hussein in Mecca, to rule,

with British “support” over Shi’ite majority.with British “support” over Shi’ite majority.• Frequent resistanceFrequent resistance

Iraq Continued:Iraq Continued:

after WWII, conflict and removal of after WWII, conflict and removal of monarch, Faysal.monarch, Faysal.

British pursue “divide and rule” British pursue “divide and rule” policy.policy.

Hussein and Ba’athist SocialismHussein and Ba’athist Socialism• secularsecular• nationalisticnationalistic• Iraq’s Bismarck? (invasion of Kuwait)Iraq’s Bismarck? (invasion of Kuwait)

Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia

conservative Sunni Islam, conservative Sunni Islam, WahhabismWahhabism

““family with flags” Ibn Saud, Ikhwanfamily with flags” Ibn Saud, Ikhwan large royal familylarge royal family rentier state due to oilrentier state due to oil welfare statewelfare state

TurkeyTurkey

See pp. 125-132See pp. 125-132

TurkeyTurkey

Six Arrows Six Arrows • republicanism – Ataturkrepublicanism – Ataturk• nationalism – Turkificationnationalism – Turkification• populism – social and educational changes populism – social and educational changes • statism – strong military, central statism – strong military, central

bureaucracybureaucracy• secularism – no veil, co-opt clericssecularism – no veil, co-opt clerics• reformism – Western alphabet, customsreformism – Western alphabet, customs

““Frontier Islam” – pro-European Frontier Islam” – pro-European

IranIran

IranIran 1940s: Britain and USSR 1940s: Britain and USSR

invaded to protect supply invaded to protect supply routesroutes

1951: Mohammad 1951: Mohammad Mossadeq, proponent of Mossadeq, proponent of nationalizing oil, appointed nationalizing oil, appointed Prime MinisterPrime Minister

1953: Mossadeq 1953: Mossadeq overthrown by US and UK overthrown by US and UK intelligence; installation of intelligence; installation of pro-Western Shahpro-Western Shah

1953-79: Iran closely allied 1953-79: Iran closely allied with the U.S.with the U.S.

Iran was highly secularized Iran was highly secularized and Westernizedand Westernized

Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi

Iranian Revolution 1979Iranian Revolution 1979 Revolution to overthrow Revolution to overthrow

the regime of the Shah the regime of the Shah

Also a cultural revolution Also a cultural revolution for “revolutionary Islam”for “revolutionary Islam”

1979: Ayatollah 1979: Ayatollah Khomeini established Khomeini established Republic of IranRepublic of Iran

2002 labeled by Pres. 2002 labeled by Pres. Bush part of “axis of Bush part of “axis of evil”evil”

1979-81: 55 Americans were held hostage

Iran nowIran now

Final victor in Iran-Final victor in Iran-Iraq war?Iraq war?

Nuclear ambitions?Nuclear ambitions?

Broker of regional Broker of regional peace? peace?

Upset or balance Upset or balance power vis power vis áá vis vis Israel?Israel?

President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

IranIran

Westernization – Pahlavi, Shah of Westernization – Pahlavi, Shah of Iran (White Revolution – 1960’s)Iran (White Revolution – 1960’s)

Nationalism – Mossadiq in 1950’sNationalism – Mossadiq in 1950’s Khomeini – Islamic TheocracyKhomeini – Islamic Theocracy Iran a petrostate?Iran a petrostate? Iran a nuclear state? Regional Iran a nuclear state? Regional

power?power?

Why Turkey “succeeded” and Why Turkey “succeeded” and Iran “failed”. . .Iran “failed”. . .

greater resistance to development in Iran greater resistance to development in Iran than in Turkey b/c Turkey started earlier, than in Turkey b/c Turkey started earlier, so not so strange.so not so strange.

Kemal created government and state at Kemal created government and state at same time; Reza Shah created same time; Reza Shah created government in already self-governing government in already self-governing state.state.

Kemal created state during war of national Kemal created state during war of national liberation; Pahlavi seized power in a coup. liberation; Pahlavi seized power in a coup.

PakistanPakistan

See pp. 135-138,

PakistanPakistan

Western Liberalism – Jinnah, founder Western Liberalism – Jinnah, founder of Pakistan, 1947of Pakistan, 1947

Bhutto – Zia – power of the militaryBhutto – Zia – power of the military Islamic resurgence - madrasasIslamic resurgence - madrasas TribalismTribalism Musharraf/Bhutto – patron-client Musharraf/Bhutto – patron-client

statestate

““What makes 1998 quite different What makes 1998 quite different from 1898, and radically different from 1898, and radically different from 1798, is the sense among from 1798, is the sense among Muslims that people in Malaysia Muslims that people in Malaysia are directly, immediately, and are directly, immediately, and powerfully affected by what is powerfully affected by what is happening in Sudan or Algeria or happening in Sudan or Algeria or Pakistan.” Pakistan.” (Humphreys, 146)(Humphreys, 146)

“For it is often the way we look at other people that imprisons them within their own narrowest allegiances. And it is also the way we look at them that may set them free”

(Malouf, In the Name of Identity)

What determines your identity?

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