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ED 114 229

AUTHORTITLE

PUB DATE N..NOTE

AVAILABLE FROM

DOCUMENT RESUME

RC 008 852

Min.& Hubert J.Hernan Cortes; Conquistador and Colo izerZh-e-TriikerPamphlet Series for the Teaching of exican AmericanHeritage.

57p.; For related document, see RC OC 850-851,853Mr. Al Ramirez, P.O. Box 471, Edinburg Texas 78539($0.25 newsprint)

EDRS PRICE till-SO.76 Plus Podtage. HC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS American Indians; *Biographies; Cultural Background;

*Cultural Interrelationships; Curriculum Enrichment;Curriculum Guides; Elementary Secondary Education;Land Settlement; *Mexican American Histor ;*Mexicans; Resource Materials; Vocabulary, *WesternCivilization

IDENTIFIERS *Cortes (Hernan)

ABSTRACT.3 The conquest and coldnization of Mexico initiatet.by

Hernan Cortes resulted in the fusion of the Indian and Hispaniccultures. This fusion led to the "mestizo" vulture. Cortes was thebearer of the Hispanic heritage just as th? Aztecs and other Indiansin Mexico and the Southwest were the carrikrs of the Indian heritage.In studying the life-of-C-orted, he is seen:_n_ot only is a militaryconqueror but als as a colonizer in which role ft a ..orelasting.fegacy than '4 as the victor over the Azted Em ire. Thisbooklet focuses on Cortes c onizing tforts. In narrating thestory, the teacher can stress the religious motivation of Cortes,building of towns and cities, the introduction \of Spanish polit' aand economic institutions, agricultural products, mining any,

Spanish language. At the same time the conqueror regarded' Indianas a Spanish citizen, whose civilization had much to offe to enrichwhat the Spaniard brought. Intended as a teaching tool, g4 e bookletis intended primarily for elementary teachers. However t can alsobe profitably used by junfor and senior high scho I hers. A briefselect bibliography is included to provide additio Souroes whichgo into greater detail. Added to the bibliography resources geredto the elementary and secondary levels and audio aidmaterials. (Author /NQ),

***************************************** ************ **DocumentS acquired by ERIC includeirany informal n

* materials not available from other sources..ERIC makes* to obtain the best copy available. Nevetthe items* reproducibility are often encountered and t is ects* of the microfiche' end hardcopyt teproductiOns ERIC m* via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service ( RS). EDR* responsible for the quality of the original d cument. Reproductions* supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made\from the original.***,********************************************** *********************

**** *********pu ishedevery effort *f marginal *

he qualityvailable

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I IU S. DEPARTAcENT OPHEALTM

EDUCATION / WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

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THIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRO -QUCED ExCTLy AS RECEIvED FROMTr...E PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATiNG IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY RERRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEOUCAT ION...POSTTTON OR POLICY

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HUBERT J. MIL

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HERNAN CO 110 TESl.(\(11 NTIDOR (111,(1.NIZER

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The Tinker Pamphlet Seriesfor

The Teaching of Mexican American Heritage

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To my mot herand in

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EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

Martha T: Muse, President of the Tinker Foundation

Marietta Daniels Shepherd, Chief, i rlry Development ProgramOrganization of Atherican Sttes .......-

Curtis Wilgus, President of Inter American Bibliographical andLibrary Association

Nettie Lee Benson, Head of Latin American Collection,University of Texas at Austin

Jos' Cirdenas, Superintendent of the Edgewood IndependentSchool District, San Antonio, Texas

Antonio E. Garcia, Southwest Educational DevelopmentLaboratory, Austin, Texas

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Copyright 1912

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A Notetii the: Teacher -

,CONTENTS

Introduction

Eayry Life .. '

Trip to,

!:Iths.Veit . . . 8

.ExptiditiOn to Yudatan

IVIsr\ch-to Tenochtitlan

*Conquest of 'TenoChtitiall .

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GLOSSARY

Aka lde Town mayor or magistrate.

Audiencia Highest court in Mexico; also took oncertain administrative and judicial, functions.

Barrio Ciey slistrict;, ward; guilder; suburb.

Cabi/do--ii(funicipal council. ,

Cimquistador Conqueror..

,

Enconzendero- Holder of an dricangenda;

Encomienda Grant of authority over Indians;carded obligation to Christianize and 'pr

. themtas'well as right to'collect t

Hacendo,do Owner o hacienda. .

Hacienda Plantation or large ranch.

Hi spaniola A West Indies island which todayconsists of the DOminican Republic and Haiti:

Mestizo A mixture of a Spaniard and Indian.

'dor A councilman or member of a catlildo.

Repartimiento A division or allo ent of Indian..._----111To-rers for a particular projeq.

41.

A NOTE- TO THE_TE-AtrIER vJ

The conquest and °Cplonizationexicoinitiated by Hernan Cortes resulted inthe fusion ofthe Indian and Hispanic cultures. This fusionmestizo culture is the projid legac_yof today`,Mexican and Mexican American. Cortks was thebearer of the Hispanic heritage just as the Aztecgand,,other Indians in Mexico and the Southwestwere \the carriers of the Indian heritage. Instudyi e life of Cortes the teacher will seeCortes,not si ly as a military conqueror but also

if as a Colonizer in 'oh role he left a more lastinglegacy than he did the victor over the AztecEmpire. It is the aim the boo let to focus oncolonizing efforts of thp n f Estremadtira,Spain. In narrating the s the students theteacher can stress the religio motivation of

------Sertes, the building of .towns d cities, 'theintrodiittof Spanish pdlitical economic,institutions, cultural products, mi ng and theSpanish language. A the same time the onquerorregarded the Indian as aruh citize whosecivilization had much to offer to enrich wt the

theSpaniard'brought. Cortes brciught cattle bIndian had his corn.

The story 'of the forerunnei of the MexicAiperican heritage can profitably be told inconjunction with other ew World explorers andcolonizers, such as the English, Dutch or French.For instance, the _teacher" a discussion formatcan compare and contrast _Cortes with English

explorers and colonizers-. In the use of audio-visualaids on explorations in the New World, the bookletcan provide informative facts for the teacher todiscuss, which area normally overlooked in theaudio- visual presentations. In short, the story ofCortes forms a very important part of the broaderaccount of the New World opening up to the OldWorld. When it comes to arousing interest and /color, the Spanisp conqu'sichior has few peeramong Europeans who irst on tAmerican scene.

he booklet is intended as a teaching --not atextbook for the students. It can serve as' a '

timesaving device wherein the teacher will quickly7,find essential biographical information. Theeffectiveness of the tool, like ching tools, in

i.final analysis is I.:- en,ts on t teather'a,creative ups-e it in the classroom. Ins tionalcontentgrade level and intellectual ability epilpils are all determining factors in selecting asoin: of the material to be utilized in the -\clas'T 3 om. Although the tool is intended primarily Nfor e i entary teachers, it can also IA profibly

by unior and senior secondary instructors.At

a brief seshould hehas bee wntten omany works are very pa man who was a center o

of the pamphlet the teacher will findt bibliography that can be of h 1p

to go into greater detail. MucCortes and, needless to say,

mical not surprisinCOntroversy thro shout

his life. I have selected secondary sources thatpresent a more balanced account and at the sametime' provide inights that may be of help to theteacher. The bibliography also includes Cortes'

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o writings and the account of Bernal Diaz delCasti. o, who accompanied the conquistador on theexpedi on, and Francisco Lopez de Gomara, whoalthough of an eyewitness to the events wasCortes' sec 'tart'. These first hand accountsprovide the cher with more intimate perceptionsthan the stand d ondary sources. Added tothe bibliograph ar sources geared to theelementary and s- nd levels and audio-visualaid materials.

I am greatly incfeb to tZi Tinker Foundationin New York for makin: thN pr ect possible. Notonly did the Foundation mak it pos ible byproviding time ft do the pamphlet, 'ut it lso hasunderwritten the costs ,of pub . tio anddistribution of the pamphlet., It is m hope at'the publication in some small measure ") fills theaspirations of Dr. Edward Larocque Tink: , whowas ever conscious of the need for'building b 'clgesbetween the peoples of the Latin 'and the A ogloheritage. Further words- of gratitude are in or erfor my student aids, whose typing and researfacilitated the completion of the pamphlet. LasNI not least special appreciation i in order for mywife, Doris, through whose patience, proof readingan ging, many of the burdens of seeing the

.7 to its completion were greatly relieved.

Hubert J. MillerPan American_IniversitxMarch, 1972

INTRODUCTIONThe contradictory behavior of the Spanish

conquistadores may not always make for easypresentation in the classroom. On the one handtheir courage and audacity military conquests.tends to arouse awe if not admiration, but on theother hand, their treatment of Indians evokescondemnation. They end up being both heroes andvillains. The conquistadores have much incommon with the American frontiersmen who'played the roles of hero and villain equally well.The Spanish conquerors, like the frontiersmen,were first and foremost human beings with theirvirtues and vices. Both were convinced beyond adoubt that what they did wa, justified..

sade which brought Christi *ty and a betterThe Spaniard saw the conq t as a religious

wa f life to the Indians. The religious crusadewas st ulated by reports of precious "petals,which frequently may have served as a strongermotivation thanhe religious one. Similarly. theAnglo frontiersmen had'various motivations in-Ei_____/drive westward. In hiq case, it was conquering orpushing the Indians out of the way to make for abetter lifefor the frontiersmen.

By today's standards the rationale of theconquistadores and frontiersmen will receive little,if any, approval: Such was not the case with aCortes or a Daniel Boone. Both harbored fewdoubts about the justice of their works. They sewt emselves as embers of European civilization to a

primitive and inferior people. It was a Christianmission, sanctioned and destined by God.Historians have aptly descrkbed it as ManifestDestiny.

EA'E,LY LIFEHernan Cortes was born in 1485 in Medellin, in

the province of Estremadura(Spain), thebirthplace of many conquistadores. Estremadurawas a sunburned landscape, treeless and sparselypopulated. It possessed qualities of austerity andendurance which challenged its hearty inhabitants.The terrain and climate served the conquistador

well in preparing' him for ordeals of Mexico whose zigeography and climate had much in common witb,the Spanish province. Furthermore, the note:productive soil of Estremadura made the ptici seof wealth in the New- World that much' moreattractive.

His parents, Martin Cortks de Monroy andCatalina Pizarro Altamirano, were of ancient,noble, and honorable stock. Like many noblemenof the late Renaissance period, their heritage wasmore evident in their coat-of-arms than in theirwealth. His father was a military captain, but hisson's frail health was not well suited for such narduous career. This fact may have prompted 'sparents to send him at the age of eurteen toundertake law studies at the Unive:ity ofSalamanca. Wiihout completing his sbYdi tera two year stay, he returned to Mede, n,convinced that his life's work was in the miliprofession.

His military aspirations were -undoubtedlY

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/ influenced by the stories of the knights of chivalry,the best-sellers of his day. Furthermore, his homewas' close to Granada--where in January of 1.492 thelast M stronghold was ':toppled. Medellin

s also close to the port of Palos Where columbusin the same yea, started his epic voyage westward.The reports, of Columba and other explorers tothe Indi must have aroused the fertileimagin ion of a teenager, who was looking for newfields of endeavor.. The reconquest of Spain frthe Moslems was ended but the conquqtAmerica was beginning. As was frequently true inhis subsequent career, he was at .the right place atthe right)inIEF.--7

TRIP TO--T-HE WES INDIEThe -opportune via ent rib to the

New World came ico de Ovando,recently appoin gove or of Hispaniola, wasprepFing to sail for the settlement in SantoDomingo. Since the young adventurer wasacquainted with the Ovando family, he readilysecured passage. Unfortunately, a near fatalaccident which resulted from an amorous affairprevented his departure. After a b 'ef sojourn inValencia and Italy, he returned to tremadurawhere at the age of 19 a second opportu ty arosein 15Q4 to go to the West Indies.

Shortly after his arrival there he displaymilitary ability in aiding the commander, DiegVelasquez, in putting down an Indian uprising inHispaniola. Governor Ovando rewarded th,e young'conquistador with land and E. repartiktiento which ,

entitled him to a certain number of Indian laborerson his estate. The quiet life on an hacienda, raisingcrops, breeding sheep and horses, had little appealfor the young gentleman. More in keeping with hisinterests was the military expedition of DiegoVelasquez in 1511 to subjugate the-kkndians on theisland of Cuba. Again he proved lu'Viself a mostcapable military leader and for his services hereceived new grants of land and Indian laborers.his new hacienda was located near the town ofSantiago, in the extreme southern portion of theisland, and close to the hacienda of Juan Juarez.

It was an amorous affair with one of thedaughters of Juarez that . Est lead to hisundoing. The situation b . , ore complicatedwhen it was discovered t elasquez, therecently appointed governor Ow, a, was in lovewith another daughter of Ju' :nd entertaineddoubts about Cortes' loyalty ki lain. After severalattempts on the part of the Aiture conquistaddr; toescape the romantic, tetjlie governor prevailed tohim to many. tlik. ..girt 'reconciliationreinstated Conks in..g eakor with the goyerporwho appointed aka, Withfurther promotions he bee' secie 'andtreasurer to the governor. s ac the a of 26,besides being an hacendado , he.was e royel officialand the governor's favorite.

Again the sZdentary kikienda life (titling satisfythe restless and ambitious Cortes, whom attentionwas focused on the reports of the rancidcoHernandes de Cordoba expedition in and theone of Juan de Grijalva in 1518 to the coast ofYucatan. The latter never returned. The

opportunities for more slaves and gold spurredGovernor Velasquez to action. It was only naturalthat the governor looked to his young favorite tocarry out a new expedition to Yucatan. Althoughhe had some last minute doubts about sendingsuch an ambitious and highly qualified man on themission, the governor granted the required licensethat permitted Cortes to begin preparation for theexpedition. The governor's suspicions were wellfounded since shortly after landing at Vera Cruz,Cortes refused to recognize the authority ofVelasquez. The soon-to-be governor of Mexico wasthirty-four. His long cherished ambition ofheading an expedition was on the verge ofrealization.

EXPEDITION TO YUCATANThe instructions of the governor dated October

23, 1518 listed the objectives for the trip, whichincluded the search for possible survivors of the ill-fated Grijalva expedition who might still be aliveand held captive by the Indians in Yucatan. Hewas to learn more about the Indians, plant life andmineral wealth of the area, with the usual advice tolook for the legendary Amazon women, and tobarter for gold and silver. The instructions were

i not explicit regarding the possibility of settlement.In this matter they merely stated that Cortesshould= take possession of the land that hediscovered and induce the Indians to acceptChristianity. Such latitude in the hands of theyoung commandet could easily become a licensefor settlement. The vagueness of the instructionsset the Stage for the subsequent controversy

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between Cortes and Governor Velasquez overCortes' exceeding the governor's instructions bystarting an independent settlement.

Expeditions were essentially private enterpriseundertakings, from which the conquistadores,their soldiers and financial supporters expecteddue returns. Cortes ha,d accumulated a substantialfortune during his brief residence in the WestIndies and the major portion of this was investedin the enterprise. The expedition included 508soldiers, thirteen musketeers, thirty-two archers,eleven boats, sixteen horses, ten pieces of bronze'artillery and four small cannons.

Among, the noteworthy soldiers whoaccompanied Cortes there were Pedro de Alvarado,the future conquistador of Guatemala; CristObalde Olid; Alonso de Avila; Francisco de Mthatejo,alter governor of Yucatan; Juan Velasquez deLeon, relative of Governor Velasquez; Gonzalo de'Sandoval; Alonzo Hernandez de Puertocarrero, afavorite of Cortes; and Bernal Diaz del Castillo,the famous chronicler of the conquest of Mexico.Some of the men had been on previous tripsYucatan and could offer invaluable experie e totheir captain.. i

The armada set sail on February 10, 1519, underthe banner carrying the inscription: "Friends, let.As, follow the cross with true faith, with which wewill conquer." It was a fitting motto for aconquistador who believed his cause to be divinelyblessed. Pedro Alvarado, in command of one of theships, was the first to arrive at the island ofCozumel off the eastern coast of Yucatan.. Her,,. .t1 ediately plundered one of the Indian temples.

1

and spread much fear among the Indians. Corteson his arrival ordered an end to the plunderingbecause he desired to gain the good will of theIndians. His policy was to seek conciliation withthe Indians and war was justified only when theIndians remained hostile.

After landing on the coast of Yucatan, Cortesencountered Maya Indians and survivors from theGrijalva expeditionnamely Jeronimo de Aguilarand Gonzalo Guerrero. The former joined Cortesand knowing the Maya tongue he served as avaluable interpreter. The latter who had marriedan Indian and even participated in an Indianattack against the Spaniards refused to rejoin hiscountrymen.

From Cozumel 'the armada sailed around theeastern tip of Yucatan and then westward toTabasco, where Cortes found one of his mostimportant assets for the later conquest. Here theinitial Indian reception was hostile but due toCortes' magnanimous treatment of Indianprisoners and successful efforts to establish goodrelations with the Indians, the Indian chief gavehim and his men twenty Indian women, amongwhom was Marina, more popularly known as"Malinche." Malinche, who spoke the Nahuatl( Aztec) tongue, came from an aristocratic family, inthe province of Coatzacualcos, located southeast ofVera Cruz. She had been sold into slavery by hermother to the Indians in Tabasco where shelearned the Mara tongue.

With her linguistic ability and the ability ofAguilar to speak Maya it became possible forCortes to communicate with the various Indian

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Empiregroups under the domination of the Aztec impirein central Mexico. Her aristocratic backgroundwas immediately recognized by the Spaniards whoaccorded her the noble title of Dona. She alongwith the other Indian women acceptedChristianity a condition Cortes considered indis-pensable for accepting them as gifts from theIndian chief. Malinche became the mistress ofCortes and after the conquest the wife ofPuertocarrero.

The commander undoubtedly found her talentsopportune for his venture as he arso found heropportune to use as a mistress but not as a marriedpartner, for that was a permanent matter. First,he already was married and if he were free to marryagain it hopefully would be a marriage into asocially prominent family in Spain. Barraganawas part of the Spanish tradition which permittedthe sanctity of a monogamous marriage alongsideconcubinage. In fact it was so well recognized thatthe chaplain in Cortes' army, Fr. Bartolome deOlmedo, never raised his voice of protest againstthe praCtice.

Although Malinche and her companions servedas concubines they were still doilas and even thenobility of their offspring was recognized as wasthe case of Martin Cortes, the son of Malinche andthe conquistador. These early Spaniards showedthemselves favorable to the idea of social andracial equality in their relations with the Indians.Of greater and more lasting significance is the factthat out of these racial unions, which at times wereconcubinage and at other times regular religiousmarriages, came the mestizo, the ancestor of the

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Mexican and Mexican erican today.From Tabasco C,ortes and party sailed for

San Juan de Uloa-, a small island in the harbor ofVera Cruz, where on HorSrThursday of 1519 theymet a group of Indians who lived near the coast.Through Malinche the Indians were told that thecaptain's intentions were peaceful. On the next

7 day, Good Friday, he landed on the coast where hemet Totonac Indians who inhabited the nearbycity of_ mpoala. The commander's meeting withthe tonac chieftain provided him with

ormat'on about Moctezuma, whom theTotona feared and hated because of the tribute

zziancli gctims for hu sacrifice they had to givethe Aztec ruler. Cor as immediately realiz in theTotonac chieftain a valuable ally in his, mar h toTenochtitlan, the seat of Aztec power in the eyof Anahuac, the location of present day MeidcoCity. After the destruction of the Totonacreligious idols and the preaching of Fr. Olmedo hesucceeded in converting them to Christianity andwinning their allegiance.

Cortes' initial success with the Indians wasoffset by growing dissension among his followers.The partisans of Governor Velasquez argued infavor of returning to Cuba while the supporters ofCortks were ready to follow him anywhere. Thelatter with the cooperation of their captainpresented a plan calling for settlement and thefounding of a city. The whole affair gave theappearance of the captain bowing to the will of hisfollowers and at the same time severing his bondsof obedience to Governor Velasquez.

The settlement, called Villa Rica de Vera Cruz,

10

/was officially established with the setting up ofcouncil known as a cabildo . The cabildo consistedof regidores (councilors) and two magistrates calledalcaldes. All of these were appointees of Corteswho in turn nominated their leader as governorand commander of the newly claimed territory. Allof these proceedings were duly recorded by anotary and forwarded to the crown, therebylegalizing the conquistador's governorship. Tomake his action even more pleasing to the crown hepersuaded his followers to surrender all their bootygained thus far as gifts to tl- king. The act oferecting a town before the actual process ofcolonization was in keeping with Spanish traditionwinch required the setting.up of a city governmentin laying claim to-a territory. Cortes called his newcity Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, later'shortened toVera Cruz. According to Spanish custom heimmediately ordered the laying out of themunicipality in rectangular form with designatedsites for the central plaza, the church, the cabildoor town-hall, the gallows and prison. Cortessymbolicially carried the first st9ne for thfoundations but the main work was done by Inlaborers in the vicinity. Not only had -tewgovernor regularized his authority oveclaimed possessions for his king, Calso had established a base offorthcoming conquest into t

The election of Cortesdid not completeVelasquez. EveMontejo, aone of

e newlyeS I, but he

ations for thetenor of Mexico.

governor of Vera Cruz-Satisfy the followers of

e appointment of Francisco deber of the Velasquez faction, as

alcaldes did not remove the threat of

rebellion against Cortes. To further minimize thethreat of the Velasquez faction, he ordered all theships with the exception of one to be destroyed.The one remaining was for those desiring to returnto Cuba whom he calledocpwards. The strategyhad its desired effect since no one volunteered toleave and with that hp destroyed the last ship,which was the last means of escape. To Make hisauthority more impressive, he ordered theexecution of two men whom he consideredringleaders in the Velasquez faction. Havingsecured an alliance with the Totonacs, the newgovernor was ready to begin his march to visitMoctezuma, about whom he had heard much in hisconversations with the Indians.

MARCH TO TENOCHTITLANDuring his stay at Vera Cruz, Cortes had

received gifts from the Messengers of Moctezuma.The Aztec emperor hop that the gifts wouldsatisfy the conquistador a d therefore of carryout his intention of marchin to Tenochtit 'n, theAztec capital. Vnfortuntely f r Moctezum , the

N gifts had tyie -apposite effect ince they de

NCortesmore determined to visit N octezuma's ci

In mapping out his itinerary Cortes had twtal atives a southern route through Orizaba ora nor 4 ern one through Jalapa. He selected theshorter rthern route which led through theterritory of axcala. His army consisted of 400infantry, 15 cavalry, 6 cannons, 1,300 TotonacIydians and 200 other Indians to serve as burdenbearers. He was ready to begin one of the mostmemorable marches in history, which began on a

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tropical coast,`crossed a two mile high mountainrange. and terminated in the delightful Valley ofAnahuac, some feet above sea level.

He started his arch on August 16, 1519, and ashe neared the city of Tlaxcala he sought to securean alliance with that tribe and gain permission topass through their country. The Tlaxcalans hadmixed reactions towards the strange invaders andsecretly decided to make war on the Spaniards.The superiority of, military discipline, tactics,firearms, horses and a large number of Indianallies gave Cortes and his men a decidedadvantage.

After their defeat he gained another invaluableIndian ally against the common enemytheAztecs. He achieved another alliance with theneighboring king of Texcoco, which raised hisnumber of Indian allies to 6,000. The Indian allieshad long standing grievances against the Aztecemperor and Cortes' arrival on the scene becamean opportune moment to.vent their revenge. Forthe Spanish leader the Indians proved invaluablein'his conquest plans, but for the Indians it was acivil war ag nst the Aztec emperor and oppressor.

As wds the case with Indians in Cempoala,Cortes di not forget his obligation of king theChristia zation of all of his Inclianeur . 'es For the

conqyis odor the uprooting of Indian idolatrymade he conquest war just. After his peacefuleffortg at converting the Tlaxcalans failed, hedecided to use more drastic measures, such as the'destruction of idols and altars. At the insistence ofFr. Olrhedo he did not invoke these harsh measuressince it could result in an adverse reaction and

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jeopardize the entire expedition. The chaplainadvised patience and peaceful persuasion in theChristianization of the Indians. This was hardadvice for the overly zealous and impatient Cortes,but advice that reaped innumerable benefits forthe captain in the hard days ahead.

Wi his greatly augmented army of Indianallies rtes continued his march on October 13 to

a, next to present day Puebla, a city that---,..---....t. .°was a traditiOnal enemy of the Tlaxcalans. Cliolulawas a famous reli4ous center of the Aztecs' and astrong ally of Mofflezuma. It was here accordingto Indian, tradition( that Quetzalcoatl, the Aztecgod and warrior, had enjoyed his golden rule beforehis departure. The city consisted of many temples,the grandest of 'which honored Qpetzalcoatl. ForCortes, Cholula, with its many temples andirrigation system and Tlaxcala far surpassed many.of the beautiful cities in Spain. As he made clear inhis letter's to the king, Cortes was rapidly filling inloila with the beauties of his newly found country.

The\cholnlans offered signs of hospitality toCortes and his men but refused to welcome theTlaxcalan6, their traditional enemies, inttf theirmidst. The Spanish commander quickly detectedthat the hospitality was not genuine, especiallywhen the promised food supply ended and womenwere removed from the city. His suspicions werefully confirmed when Malinche reported to himthat an ambush was being laid for his army. Thecaptain realized the precariousness of his positionand immediately made preparations for an attackon the Cholulans, which resulted in a massacre ofsome 6,000 Indians.

The governor ordered an end to the carnageespecially when he realized that his allies, theTlaxcalans, were using the assault to reap revengeon their hated enemy. Evidence supports Cortes'contention that a clangerous Cholulan conspirwas in the making but contemporary s andhistorians find if difficult to sti the harsh.'measures used to sup the rebellion. Thepunishment certainly did not. fit the crime.

The Cholulati incident made it clear that his.polic,,r.of Conciliation and peaceful Christianizationwa§-not working out, and as a last resort he wasnot averse to the use of violence to gain his end.He viewed conquest as an imperial missiondivinely sanctioned to unite all men in one familyof one faith. Cortes, like many of hiscontemporaries, subscribed to the idea that withthe atent of Christianity the pagan Indians aswell a the infidel Moslems in Spain no longerenjoyed the natural rights of liberty, property andsovereignty. It was 8t. Peter and his successors inRome who now enjoyed the right of dispositionregarding natural rights in temporal matters.Cortes had his proof in Pope Alexander VI's 1493line of demarcation which gave Spain knd Portugalthe right to Christianize, take possession and rulein the New World-

The ' Spanish a. overnor demonstrated bothmilitary and political lea&rship. Although hisfirst objective was peace, he could and did usereprisals against Indians and Spaniards when hefelt it necessary. He knew how to coax and lull hisenemy but he also knew how to subdue anenemy.Divide and rule was an ever present formula in

16:,tre'9

effecting the conquest. His political conduct ofclothing strong armed rule in democratic dresswould have aroused the envy of many aRenaissance Machiavellian prince.

His desire to revert to a peaceful policy inCholula is very much in evidence in his report tothe crown when he remarked that on the morningafter the massacre the Indians were returning totheir normal every day activities. It was obvious

fill thinking on the part of the conquistador,but he did remain in Cholula until November 1reorganising the city and thereby gaining newloyal subjects and 'Christians for the king.Voluntary or involuntary loyalty of the Cholulanswas essential to Cortes, who was ready to make thefinal leg of the journey to Tenochtitlan. Still notrealizing what was in store for him in the Mexicancapital, he could ill afford a dangerous enemy in hisrear.

CONQUEST OF TENOCHTITLANshortly after his departure from Cholula, the

captain was met by another embassy of Aztecofficials bearing gifts (tom their emperor,Moctezdna. The emperor still sought todiscourage the Spaniards from going toTenochtitlan. Moctezuma since first hearing of thethe arrival of Cortes on Mexican soil was not surewhether he was dealing with a man or a deity.Strange phenomena in 'nature had recently..occurred in the Aztec capitalsigns which theAztec ruler and many of his priests interpreted asthe fulfillment of the prophesy of the return ofQuetzalcoatl.

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Ac to the prophesy ,Qiietzalcoatl, anancient ity of knowledge represented bythe plumed se - had left '', his people.Reportedly after his work of being peaceful anduniting the Mayas in Yucatan he .passed on toGuatemala with the promise to return one day bythe eastern sea, together with white and beardedmen. Apparently convinced that the conquistadormight be the returning Quetzalcoatl , the emperorvacillated in meeting with force the advancingarmy.

The meeting of the two rulers became a realitywhen the army of Cortes arrived at the gates of theAiteC city on November 8, 1519. Moctezumaextended a most cordial reception to e invadingforce since he feared that he might ealing withthe return .. of Quetzalcoatl. e Spanishcommander was quick to see the advantage thatthe prophesy had for his own designs; namely thepeaceful assimilation of the Aztec people into goodChristians and loyal Spanish citizens.Furthermore, Cortes was impressed with thebeautiful city of Tenochtitlan which surpassedanything he had seen in Mexico; in fact, its beautyand greatness caused him to describe it as "themost beautiful city in the world".

According to eye witness accounts the numberof the inhabitantS of Tenochtitlan ranged between300,000 to 400,000 with some 60,000 homes. Itcertainly must have ranked as one of the greatestcities in the world.. at that time. The thought ofdestroying such grandeur horrified the Spanishgovernor sand therefore a peaceful conquest wasmore imaerative than ever. Consequently the

Spanish commander's strategy was to rule Mexicothrough Moctezuma. Unfortunately for Cortesand Moctezuma there was an Aztec faction thatdid not see the Spaniard as the Quetzalcoatl butsaw Mocteiuma as a weakling and traitor.

Cortes spent the first five months in the Azteccapital surveying the city and studying thecustoms and life of its inhabitants. The city wasbuilt on an island in Lake Texcoco. The waterpassages between the houses immediatelyreminded the Spaniards of Venice. The entire citywas protected by drawbridges aver the threecauseways, which led to the island om the shoresof the lake. The military co ander fullyunderstood that the failure to secur ontrol overat leaskome of these causeways could c -telyisolate his forces on the island and lead to defeat.The chronicler Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who was amember of the conquest expedition, providesample testimony of the many things that Cortes-and his men saw shortly after their arrival in thecity

Then Moctezuma took him by the hand and bade him lookat his great city and all the other cities rising from the water.and the many towns around the take, end if he had not seen

the market place well. he said he could see It from here much. betterThere we'stobd looking, for that large and evil temple was

so high that it towered over everything Fiom there we couldsee all three of the causeways that led into Mexico the roadfrom lztapalapa. by which we,had entered four days earlier.the Tacuba road. by wh

roeirYve fled the night of our great rout,

and the road from T ptaquilla IGusdalupeiWe saw the fresh ateZ that tame from Chapultepec which

supplied the city. /rid die bridges on the three causeways,built at certain 1r rvalslo th the water could go from onepart ohthe lake another and multitbdr of canoes tramearrivi with pr visions and Other leaving with merchandiseWe saw that e iry house inrthis great city and in the othersbuilt on the water-reujrf be reached only by woodendrawbridges or by canoe We saw temples built like towersand fortresses in their cities all whitewashed, It was a sightto see We could look down on the flatroofed houses and

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other little towers and temples like fortresses along thecauseways

After taking a good look and considering all that we hadseen we looked again at the great square and the throngs of

/people some but mg and others selling The buzzing of theirvoices could be heard more than a league away There weresoldiers among us w ho had been in many parts of the world inConstantinople and Rome and all over Italy who said thatthey had never before seen a market place so large and so welllaid out, and so filled with people i

t,The grandeur of the Aztec temple made Cortes

more determined than ever to secure thesubmission of the Aztec nation to the Spanishcrown. He demanded that the emperor punish hissubjects who were responsible for the harminflicted on his Indian allies in Cempoala and thekilling of Juan de Escalante, the commander of thegarrison at Vera Cruz. The emperor's willingnessto honor the.demandsade Cortes more insistenton haviW mgrthe Aztec monarch summon hi oblesand publicly acknowledge the submissio of theAztec people,(to the 'King of Spain.

As proof orloyalty the Spanish governor calledfor a tribute of approximately 3,500,000 pesos of0)14. in addition to other objects of value. Thesubmissive attitude of the monarch irritated manyof his subjects who led by Cuauhtemoc, thenephew of Moctezuma, wanted to attack theSpaniards. In light of the increasing unrest, theAztec ruler advised his guests eo leave while it wps

..till safe, but Cortes argued that having no____Ipshe could not return to Cuba. At the same time hereceived word that a Spanish fleet was nearingVera Cruz. The fleet was commanded by Panfilode Narvaez who was under the instructions ofGovernor Velesquez to return the conquistador toCuba. It was a formidable force consisting of 18

lAlbert Idell, Trans. and ed., The Bernal Diaz Chronicles(New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc. 1956), pp. 168-169.

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vessels and 800 soldiers, inceding 80 cavalrybesides 1,000 Cuban Ihdians and 18 cannons.Cortes was left no choice but to leave the capitaland meet the threat of his own countrymen.

Leaving his lieutenant, Pedro, de Alvarado, incharge of the city with 80 Spaniards, Cortesquickly marched to Vera Cruz, where the forces ofNarvaez had gathered. Through a surprise attackhe defeated Narvaez shedding hardly a drop ofblood. With promises of wealth and conquest hesucceeded in gaining the loyalty of Narvaez'followers thus giving him additional soldiers andsupplies. His good fortune here was offset by atragic event that was developing in Tenochtitlan.

Shrttrifter the departure C , Alvaradohad consented to permit the I have areligious festival. He had second thoughts after hesaw the large number of Aztec nobility andspectators gathering in the square before theprincipal temple. Fearing an insurrection, aboutwhich he had reports, he ordered his troops toattack the people in the square. The result as anindiscriminate slaughter similar to the 'on inCholula. His small force was no match for trising indignation of the Aztecs against theirforeign guests. Alvarado's last resource lay inNloctezuma's ability to pacify his vassals. It wasduring this crisis that Cortes returned to thecapital. In his efforts to pacify the people heordered the immediate release Of Cuitlahuac, thebrother of the emperor, with instructions tocontinue the disrupted religious festivity.Cuitlahuac took advantage of his freedom to rallysupport against the Spaniards. On June 25 he

surrounded the city with his army, thereby cuttingCortes off from outside assistance. The Spanishcommander made several unsuccessful efforts tobreak out of the trap, and in the end he was forcedto have Nloctezuma appear before his peopleasking for peace. Cuauhtemoc; the nephew ofNloctezuma, publicly denounced the cowardness ofhis uncle and with his encouragement the Aztecsattacked their ruler. The assault inflicted a fatalwound on the emperor, leaving the Spaniardswithout their invaluable royal hostage. Cortesnow was completely dependent on the resources, ofhis men d Indian allies and there was nothingleft but break out of the trap by force. He madeplans to eave the city secretly on the night 9f June28, btit he tees quickly discovered themovements of Cortes' army and ordered an attack.The Spanish loaded down with armol and goldwere no march for the light armed Indians, whovastly outnumbered the Spanish army. He brokethe siege but not without paying a dear price withthe death of 450 Spaniards, 4,000 Indian allies, 46horses, all his cannon, much of his firearms andpractically all of his treasure. Such was the fatefultoll of Noche Triste. That he escaped at all wasdue to the fighting ability of his Tlaxcalan alliesand the fact that Cuitlahuac did not pursue thebadly mauled army of Cortes. He retreated by wayof Tacuba on the western edge of Lake Texcoeoand'then marched around the northern edge of thelake to the valley Of Otumba where he faced100,000 Otumba warriors. This time good fortunewas on his side when he succeeded in capturing theIndian banner and 'completely demoralized the

. 22

enemy. A reported 20,000 Otumba Indians werekilled wherea the Spanish losses wereinsignificant. A cording to William Prescott thebattle of Otumba was one of the decisive battles ofall history and demonstrated the valor andphysical stamina of the Spaniards who having justescaped the Noche',Triste had lost much of theirsuperior equipment. The Otumba victory made hisreturn to Tlaxcala even more welcome. The tragicNoche Piste whetted the Tlaxciilan's appetite forrevenge upon the Aztecs. More good fortuneawaited Cortks after his arrival in Tlaxcala whenhe received word that more men and supplies werearriving from Vera Cruz. The prospect ofregonquering l'nochtitlan,apieared brighter.

\The Spanish leader's policy of conciliation andeaceful submission of the Aztec nation to his king

was no longer possible. Never questioning, theright of his conquest, he faced a situation similarto the one in Cholula. He felt compelled to invokea violent conquest to achieve his end, even if itmeant the destruction . of Tenochtitlan, whosebeauty and inhabitants he 'truly 'admired. Theinitial phase or the reconquest called for thesubduing of -various Indian tribes around'Tenochtitlan, who were allies of the Aztecs.-Essential to a successful conquest were hiselaborate preparations to construct a navy atTexcoco on the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco.Cortks' strategy was to make his attack onTenochtitlan an amphibious operation. Theconstruction of the fleet would have beenimpossible without the help of Indian workers,especially from Texcoco and Tlaxcala. Not only

7

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was the co ander dependent on eir labor inthis regard bu his Indian allie upplied him and

Ihis army with food and tem ary housing. As theconquest got \under. ,uday, Indians providedinvaluable help in r airing causeways and usingtheir canoes in ices where the larger brigantineswere unable eater. Finally Cortes found hisfaithful dian allies indispensible in keeping hislines communication with the coast open while

was engaged in taking Tenochtitlan. Theconstruction of the brigantines was done under thesupervision of Spanish soldiers, who proved

esthemselv adept as carpenters, blacksmiths andbuilders. The skill of these 'men shows that,t4eywere more than soldiers and these were the veryskills that were required when the soldier, after thefall of Tenochtitlan, became the colonizer.

While Cortes was preparing for the occupationof the Aztec capital; anepidemic of smallpox ragedthrough the country. Aztecs and Indian allies fellto the dread disease, including the Aztec EmperorCuitlahuac and Maxixcatzin, the king of theTlaxcalans. Cuauhtemoc, the eleventh and lastAztec emperor succeeded to the throne. He was abitter opponent of Moctezuma's vacillation policyand was more determined than ever to oppose theforeigners even at the point of death. The Spanishcommander's last minute efforts at conciliationWere doomed to failure with Cuauhtemoc's ascentto the Aztec throne.

Cortes concluded.. the preparations the siegeby May of 1521. It was an imposin f rce, whichaccording to Francisco Lopez de G mera, thesecretary of the captain, consisted_of 200,000

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Indian allied, 900 Spaniards,-80 horses, 16 pieces ofartillery, 13 brigantines and 6,000 canoes. He split Qhis army into three divisions under the respectivecommands of Pedro de Alvarado, CristObal de Olidand Gonzalo de Sandoval. Zilch was to march /

.towards Tenochtitlan on one of the .three majorays. In this waST Cortes was able to cut off

effectively the city from outside supplies, whichincluded drinking water coming in e city bymeans of the aqueduct froni Chapultep Beforinitiating the siege Cortes reminded the ani4hsoldiers that the primary objective of the conquestwatetheLconversion of the Indians; otherwise it wasanunjust war and all sptoils must be returned. Hefurther stressed the need for order, discipline andgood treatment of their Indian allies. .

Having obtained the capitulation of a number ofcities along the shores of Lake Texcoco and LakeXochimilco the commander focused his attentionon the capital. On June 28 he ordered a generalattack on the city but he was repelled and almostcaptured by the Aztecs. After a series of failuresto reach a truce with Cuauhtemoc, the commanderordered the destruction 'of the city. Since theenemy was using the top of the buildings to harassCortes' army, he came to thethat the beautiful city must be destr . The L'......1,

work of destruction was accompanied by bitterfighting, the spread of pestilence and famine. Itwas the bloodiest part of the entire conquest andfinally came to an end on August 13 whenCuauhtemoc attempting to escape in a canoe wascaptured. The siege had lasted slightly more thanseventy days. It is estimated that some 140,000

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Az,tecs lost their lives of whom some 50,000perished through disease. Cortks lost some 30,000Indian allies and 50 Spaniards. The city was ahapof ashes. The destruction must have painedthe Spanish governor who in the letters to-the kingcould hardly find the words to describe thegrandeur of the city. Now the conquistador must

rn colonizer and he wasted no time inreconstructing the city.

REBUILDING OF TENOCHTITLAN,rCortes ected his first efforts at seeking thegood wig` f his capted royal prisoner. Shortlyafter his capture, on meeting the Spanishconque the Aztec commander declared that hehad defen ed his people bravely but now he was atthe complete mercy of his anish victor. TheSpanish governor commend him for his courageand sent for his wife and ficuowers. Unfortunatelythe good treatment of the royal prisoner wasterminated when Spanish soldiers complainedabout not finding the expected treasures. Theyinsisted that Cuauhtkmoc had the treasure and,wanted him tortured until he revealed the locationCortes consented to torture but was forced to

N.a.halt to the cruelties when Cuauhtemoc woreveal ,nothing. The infliction of torture wasnothing unusual for the peric4, but he probablyrealized that to inflict torture on his royal prisonerwas insulting to the Aztec leader and also reflectedon Cortes' own name who sought good treatmentof the Indians. He decided on another means toappease the desire for gold among his men. Heorganized a new expedition to various provinces, in

central Mexico, where opefully treasures could befound that had esca them in Tenochtitlan.

iThese treasure hunting ventures resulted inspeedy colonization of the area. In the meantimeCortes could Set about the Work of rebuilding

_Tenochtitlan. -,

The governor wasted no time in initiating thereconstruction of Tenochtitlan. It occupied the

. same phice as the original one,- with the plazamayor or great square being located where beforestood tlipalace and temple of Moctezuma. Herepaipel the aqueduct of Chapultepec to providedrinking water. Streets we widened' and many ofthe old canals were filled up. e new architecturewas more European than Indi ;but the laboringforce was mainly Indian and the imprint of theircraftmanship is still in the buildings constructed

during the colonialiteriod. Work was started onthe cathedral dedicated to St. Francis. Its location'was on the site Of the temple of the Aztec war god,Huitzilpochtli. The adobe brick of the Indian

mple became the building stones for theChrittian church. Opposite the cathedral on theplaza Cortes constructed his palace, which jaterbecarneAhe residence of the Spanish viceroy whogoverned Mexico. He also provided for building afortress, cannon foundries and the manufacture ofgun powder to protect the city.

The soldiers of the conquistador along with theAztec Indians and other loyal Indian followersbecame the first inhabitants of the city. TheSpaniards received the choice site selections in thecentral part of the city *hereas the Indians lived inoutlying areas of the city. The governor

28

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encouraged Spanish settlements through liberalland grants and the use of the repartimiento, aninstitution that already was in existence in Cubaand Hispaniola. Through this institution theSpaniards were entitled to a designated number ofIndian laborers. Periodically the Spanish crowissued directives regarding the use of therepartimiento . These covered regulationsdetermining minimum, wages, maximum hours ofwork and proper working conditions. Under Aztecdomination the Indians?ere required to providesimilar services. In general the Spanish settler didnot use the system in such a way as to harm hisIndian worker, but laxity of enforcement and thegreed of some Spaniards led to frequentexploitation of Indian labor. Cortes' colonizationpush resulted in the settlement of some twothousand Spanish families during the early yearsfollowing the fall of Tenochtitlan.

Along with the repartimiento the governorintroduced the encomienda which already had beenused in Hispaniola and Cuba. The Indians wereconsidered free vassals of the crown and wererequired to pay taxes like any citizen of Spain.This obligation the Indian worker could fulfill byrendering services to an encomendero, the holderof an encomienda. The encomendero was thebeneficiary of this work bbt in return he had theresponsibility to maintain a good horse, weapons,and armor and stand ready to defend the crown'sdomain. At his own expense he was to provide forthe general welfare of the Indians, especially theChristianization of those entrusted to him. Thecomplete details of the system were spelled out by

29

Cortes in his "Ordinances of Good Government- in1524. Being far removed from royal authority theencomendero played the role of a feudal lord, wenjoyed criminal, civil and ecclesijurisdiction. These extensive powers caconflict with civil and ecclesiastical s.

Cortes' encouragement to brin an settlersinto the city also proved very successful.permitted the Indians to live under their ownchiefs~, who might be described as barrio bosses,and to enjoy many of their traditional Indiancustoms. In the Indian quarter churches, schoolsand hospitals were constructed. Within a fewshort years it is estimated that the Indianpopulation may have numbered nearly thirtythousand. Early reports indicate a closerelationship between the Indians and Spaniards,making for a very peaceful but picturesqueconfusion. The city was very much alive with theinhabitants engaged in varying types ofoccupation 4nd trades. The industry of theinhabitants was very much in evidence-in the two

laces -one fOF the Sp,am'ar sanTOne--1:4

first partish g -8f _Mextho did notconfine his efforts solely to the capita-- as

__,ii ist,fftrti enta -Litfah77-fo .tt ..n.g.__,91 settlernethroughput central Nle)i-ice extna--ig- thepacific. He conatructed a road from Vera, Cruz --,

the apital. H {ancour.aadTh-ett-lenient iri:theseoutlying areas through extend-IQ Itxrral- -641grants and municipal privileges to the Indians,which permitted a certain degree of focal selfgovernment. Cortes was insistent thyt the-

/30

Spanish settlers should bring their wives fromSpain as soon as possible and those not married /-were required to pay a penalty if they were notmarried within a certain period of time. Obviouslybachelorhood was too much of a luxury in acountry that needed settlers. The governor's ownwife, Dofia Catalina Juarez from Cuba, was among Sthe early wives to arrive shortly after the fall ofTenochtitlan. She only for a few ponthsafter her arrival, perhaps du 9;: the fact that the.high altitude of the cap "wad not. sited to herconstitution.

Cortes' solicitude in dexeloping Mexicoextended beyond the attracting of new settlers.The easy wealth about whirr a conquistadordreamed was never realized./ Although somemining was started during early period, CorOsquickly realized that the true wealth of the countrylay in agricultural prpduction, a lesson that theIndians had made/all too clear to their newconquerors. Hiss&etters to the king reflect hisinterest in developing agriculture. Frequently heentreated the crown to permit no ship to departfrom Spain without a certain quantity of cattle andplants. He made it a condition for his land grantsthat the new settler must plant a certain number ofseeds and must own his land for eight years beforehe could relinquish ownership. Permanentresidence was one of the best means to create aninterest in the soil and to develop it. The governorknew from experience that failure to plantpermanent residences in the West Indies hadproved harmful to agricultural development ofthat area. Fortunately many of the European

31)

grains that the governor introduced, flourished wellin the diversified climate of Mexico. From theneighboring islands he introduced sugar cane,indigo, cotton and cochineal which formed aproductive staple product. Under the tropical sunEuropean fruits like the peach, the almond, theorange, the vine and the olive flourished. Thesefoods along with the Indian foods made for adiversity of diet that rivaled the best that Europehad to offer.

Cortes not only encouraged economicdevelopment of his domain but as a farmer of hisestate in Cuernavaca, he set a model. On hishacienda lie planted sugar cane, vines and cotton.As early as 1532 he was exporting cotton to Spain.He introduced cattle, horses and Merino sheep. Healso developed silver mining and dreamed ofstarting a sea-borne trade in the -Pacific a venturethat materialized after his death.

Cortks' concern for the Indians went beyondtheir material yell being. He insisted that hisconquest could never be justified if the primarygoal of the Christianization of the Indians wasneglected. The governor exhibited "the humanfrailties of greed and debauchyy( As a politicalleader he had few moral scruples. At the sametime he was a man of deep religious convictions.These convictions are in evidence in his continuousconcern for the spiritual well being of his newsubjects. One may reproach him for his haste andforce in bringing about conversions but never forlaxness in Christianizing the Indians. His lettersto the crown appeal frequently for the sending of,holy religious men to work among the Indians. He

32

made it clear he wanted no part of the Spanishclergy which was more interested in its ownmaterial well being than in the spiritual welfare ofthe Indians. He wanted men who would be livingexamples of their teachings. In compliance withthis request, twelve Franciscan friars under theleadership of Father Martin of Valencia arrivedearly in 1524 to aid the important work ofconversions, which Father Olmedo and other menhad already started.

The arrival of the-twelve Franciscans occasionedgreat festivities and the governor headed aprocession to meet the friars at the gates of thecity. On meeting them he bent his knee to theground and kissed the hem of the clerical garb ofthe religious leadera scene of humble submissionthat amazed the Indian subjects. The friars lost notime in beginning their work. First throughinterpreters and later through knowledge of thevarious Indian tongues, the missionaries provedtheir true value in conversions, building schools,orphanages and hospitals. Here one mustespecially note the name of Pedro de Gante, whola.id the educational foundation for colonialMexico. The friars in their zeal for conversiodestroyed Indian temples and priceless treasureswhich were associated with Indian pagan worship.At the same time the early nu-csionaries.provedthemselves zealous scholars in recording the lifeand history of their newly converted subjects. Acage in point is the invaluable work on the ancientAztecs l)y Bernardino Sahagtin, an WlyFranciscan missionary. One can legitima lyquestion the thvoughness of many of these

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" conversions, but it is difficult to question theurgent concern of the governor as reflected in thework of the early missionaries.

In his role of colonizer one can clearly detect theoutstanding traits of Cortes. He showed his lovefor rebuilding Mexico, never losing sight of theinterests of the Indians. He desired to raise theirstandard of living and incorporate them into hisenterprise. He respected , many of the Indianinstitutions, which he sought to retain andimprove. Successful colonization also meant theattraction of Spanish settlers. He desired toinspire in his countrymen the same love he felt forhis newly adopted land and make them forget theirfatherland. This sense of patriotism for Mexicohas a very modern ring but it was the heart of hisrebuilding program.

,

NEW CONQUESTSAlthough Cortes had been elected governor by

his own men4n 1519, no official confirmation of thetitle had, arrived from the crown by the timeTenochtitlan fell. His enemies, jealous of hissuccess, constantly bombarded the Spanish courtwith appeals not to recognize Cortes as governor.Governor Velasquez of Cuba and Panfilo Narvitezurged that CristObal de Tapia be named governorof the newly conquered territory.' Fortunately, theconquistador had his friends at court who ablydefended him against the accusations of GovernorVelitsquez. He obtained the official title ofgovernor and captain general on October 15, 1522.

Tht life of'gcvernor was ill suited to this man ofaction. He dreamed of extending his domain

',...

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south4d into Central America and finding thestrait leading to the Pacific Ocean. He sentCristobal de Olid with five ships and 400 soldiersto Honduras but the expedition ended in failurewhen Olid joined forces with Governor Velasquezand refused to recognize the authority of Cortes.In order to punish the rebel leader, the governororganized his own expedition and left Mexico Cityon October 12, 1524, with a large Spanish armyand Indian allies, including CuauhtemOc.

From the capital he moved to Tabasco and fromthere he crossed heavy jungle areas, swamps andhigh mountains. All along the way he was besetwith insects, disease, wild life and hostile Indiantribes. Along with these obstacles, he receivedword that Cuauhtemoc and some Indians wereplotting against him. The allegations ofconspiracy resulted in the execution of the Aztecking on February 25, 1525. Cortes penetrated intoHonduras, where he received word of the captureand death of Olid. After laying the foundations ofa colony, he returned to Tenochtitlan a year and ahalf after he had begun the ill-fated journey. Hewas so emaciated by disease during the arduousjourney that he was hardly recognized on hisreturn to the capital on June 20, 1526. -16*

During his absence his appointed governors ofthe city quarreled among themselves, causingmuch turmoil throughout the entire region.Indians and Spaniards alike lined streetsweleoming the return of their governor, who theyhoped could bring about a rule of peace and justice.The restoration of stability in the valley of MexicoCity became more difficult when- the enemies of

35

Cortes .Continued their plotting at the royal courtwith the hope of having him removed as governor.The charges against Cortes included thetraditional one that he was . concealing thetreasures of Moctezuma and therefore not givingthe king his share. A very telling charge was theone accusing Cortes of attempting to set up anindependent government. Neither charge could besubstantiated but the latter one did confirm royalsuspicions and the ediate result was thesuspension of Cor es w rs as governor. ,

The crown nam Lui -once de Leon as interimgovernor, who arrived in Mexico City on July 2,1526. ,A.IllatItigh unjustly accused, Cortes gave hisfull submission to the new governor, who diedshortly after hisarrival and was replaced byMarcos de Aguilar. Aguilar and his successorAlonso de Estrada proved themselves veryvindictive towards Cortes and in desperation theconquistador decided to return to Spain to presenthis side of the story to the crown. It is to the creditof Ccirtes that with his popular following amongthe Indians and Spaniards he did not attempt tostir up a rebellion among his former subjects todefend his interests.

On the eve of his departure Cortks received wordthat the, rown was planning to replace the militarygovernment in Mexico with a civilian, one.Accordingly the crown appointed an audienciawith executive and judicial powers. This body__proved to be as inimical to Cortes as the previouslyappointed -governors._ Again members of theaudientia raised charges of Cortks defraudingthc---7crown and seeking to make himself king of the new

36,4 c,

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land. In spite of these *accusations theconquistador's reception at -thie royal court wasmost cordial. He received the title of Marques delValle de Oaxaca together with extensive landgrants but the coveted title of governor of Mexicowas not restored. He was encouraged to continuehis explorations into Central America and a vaguecommission to serve as governor over any newlyclaimed lands. The crown was obviouslyinterested in extending the boundaries of itsempire, but did not fully trust the man who wantedto be governor over what he discovered andconquered.

Failing to fully recover all of his lost powersCortes did succeed in contracting a, marriage withJuana de Ztiniga, daughter of the Count de Aguilarand niece of the Duke of Bejar, both of whom wereof socially prominent families in Spain. This was aconsiderable step upwards on the nobility ladder inSpain for the man from Estremadura whose noblerank in. no way matched the social standing ofthese two families. Furthermore it could provideneeded influential friends at court in his continuingcontroversies with the audiencia of New Spain.His nv, kocial status was very_ much in evidencewhen he returned to Mexico on July 15 1530, withhis wife and an imposing retinue of followers. Hisstjourn in Spain had lasted two Years.

During the governos Obsence Nano de Guzmanwho headed the audiencia misruled the countrycausing much unrest and turmoil. Cortes on hisreturn did not go to the capital in order to avoid-further unrest especially among the Indians, whomight seek his aid to rectify the wrongs. Instead

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he retired to his estate in Cuernavaca, where hebusied 'hims,elf with developing grandiose Vansincluding the conquest of the Spice Islands and theold Columbus dream of bringing China into theSpanish empire. The political climate improvedwith the appointment of new members to theaudiencia who were more sympathetic to thecomplaints of their subjects. Although they weremore disposed to hear the grievances of Cortes,they, were not willing to extend any politicalauthority to him that might weaken their ownauthority. Undoubtedly the unchanged politicalsituation must have greatly influenced his decisionto set out on an expedition to the coast of Jalisco,which led to the discovery of the peninsula ofCalifornia. His hopes of becoming governor of thisnewly found area never materialized. The crowndeclared the area of Lower California to be part ofthe viceroyalty of Mexico and immediatelyproceeded to appoint Antonio de Mendoza asviceroy of New Spain, as Mexico was then called.The new viceroy arrived in 1535.

When the new viceroy immediately extended hisjurisdiction over the new claims of Cortes, theconquistador again felt it necessary to return toSpain to defend his interests. This time he metonly coldness and indifference and he becameembittered by the crown's refusal to hear hisgriesiances. Like Columbus he became convincedthat the king never fully appreciated his services.As a last resort to attract the crown's attention, heaccompanied the emperor on a crusade againstArgel, a Moslem stronghold in North Africa, but itprided in failure. After six years of such

38

Misfortunes lie decided to return to his belovedMexico to retie w. g estate in Cuernavaca.

END OF HIS CAREERThe preparations for his return to Mexico had to

be abandoned because of growing physicalinfirmity. Realizing his- end near, he retired toCastilleja de la Cuesta near Seville and spent hisfinal days in a spiritual ropevaluation of his life'sword___ His letter to Charles dated February 3,1544, staCed- his concern with balancing, hisaccount with God and indiCated that he was moreconcerned over losing his soul than his fortune.Although the conquistador and colonizer ofMexico had committed many acts in the name ofreligion which are difficult to defend by presentday standards, one cannot overlook the strongreligious motivation in his behavior, Further

.evidence-uft itseteriosi y can be seen in his finalwill swhich set aside money for the founding of ahospital, a monastery and college for priesthoodstudents\ and for instructing Indians inChristianity. The will provided for the saying ofmasses in all the churches and monasteries, asmany as possible on the day of his burial and inaddition five thousand more on successive days inthe following manner:

"One thousand for the souls in purgatory, two thousand forthe souls of those who lost their lives serving under me in thediscovery and conquest of New Spain and the remaining twothousand for the souls of all those toward whom I haveobligations of which I am ignorant or forgetful Myexecutors shall recompense the five thousand massesaccording to customs. and I beg of them n all that concernsmy funeral to suppress all worldly pomp and devote it ratherto the good of souls 2

2Charies S. Braden, Religious Aspects of the Conquest-of -lifeuccp____________(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1930), p.79.

39

5 7,

-thisfortimes_he decided to return to fug belovedMexico, to retire tohis estate in Cuernavaca.

END OF-HIS CAREERThe preparations for his return to Mexico had to

be abandoned because .q growing physicalinfirmity. Realizi.ng his end he retired toCastilleja de la Cuesta neargeville and spent hisfinal days in a spiritual re-evaluation of his life'swo . His letter to Charles- dated February 3,1544, state his concern with balancing, hisaccount with God and indiCated that he was moreconcerned-Over_losing his soul than his fortune.Although the conquistador and colonizer ofMexico had committed many acts in the name ofreligion which are difficult to defend by presentday standards, one cannot overlook the strongreligious motivation in his behavior. Furtherevidence-oft s iosi y can be seen in hiswill,which set aside money for the founding of ahospital a monastery and college for priesthoodstudents . and for instructing Indians inChristianity. The will provided for the saying ofmasses in all the churches and monasteries, asmany as possible on the day of his burial and inaddition five thousand more on successive days inthe following manner:

One thousand for the souls in purgatory. two thousand forthe souls of those who lost their lives serving under me in thediscovery and conquest of New Spain and the remalnuig twothousand for the souls of all those toward whom I haveobligations of which I am ignorant or forgetful Myexecutors shall recompense the five thousand massesaccording to customs, and I beg of them 'n all that concernsmy funeral to suppress all worldly pomp and devote it ratherto the good of souls .2

2ebaries S. Braden, Religious Aspects of the CGnqust-a(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1939), p.79.

39

0 52

The end to his long and colorful career came in hissixty-third year on December 2, 1547.

In accordance with his desire of returning toMexico, his remains were buried in the church ofSt. Francis in Mexico City and from here they wereonce more changed to the Church of JesUs in thesame city, where they remained until 1823.Outbursts of anti-Spanish sentiment that ---

--accompanied the Mexican. independencemovement caused the bones to be removed to theChurch of Jesus the Nazarene in Mexico City forgreater security. Durihg subsequent revolutionaryturmoil the remains were again moved. Even theremains of the restless man could find no rest inthe land he helped to found and colonize. Thepicture of the conquistador as destroyer andexploiter has haunted him down to the presentday. Ironic as it may sound, Mexico has honored .Cuauhtemoc with statues, but it has been veryreluctant to extend a similar honor to Cortes.

Although history has been cruel to Cortes, hisimprint in Mexican history remains indelible.There are few todab are convinced of thejustice of the conquest as was Cortks. Thequestion of conquest being just or unjust was inCortes' mind aniat emic question for theologiansto debate. For him the Christianization of theIndian justified the taking of Mexico. But this isonly a small part of the legacy that Cortes left tohis adopted land. His coming to Mexico gave birthto the mestizo which constitutes the vast majorityof Mexico today and at the same, time is theancestor of the Mexican American in theSouthwest. His destruction of Tenochtitlan was

40

for the conquistador a regrettable necessity whichhe hoped to undo by laying the foundation forpresent day Mexico City. His rebuilding of theland he conquered was everywheresin evidence inthe towns he built. Similarly his concern 'for thewell-being of his subjects was exemplified in thegovernment he set up, the new agriculturalproducts and cattle he introduced from Spain'andthe mining he started.

Neither was he oblivious of the contributions the.,

Indians made. Although he had no sympathy forthe pagan Indian relltions, he saw the need for thepreservation of Indian legal and social instieutions,agricultural products, crafts and customs. It was ,not only the birth of a racial mestizo but also of acultural mestizo. His recognition of the Indian as

human being and citizen of Spain was not alwayssh red by his contemporaries in theory or practice.Cort . himself undoubtedly did not always honorthe prinCiple in practice and he must have recalledhis sins in the'sesmatters frequently dOng his finaldays of spiritual re4oning. Despitehis manyhuman shortcomings, the final vel.dict in histreatment of the Indians is in favor of Cortes--According to Ramon Iglesia the accusation thatCortes was merely a tyrant bent on enriching,himself does not stand up in face of the historicalevidence that he had won the love and confidenceof the Indians. Is this not the highest honor towhich he could have aspired?

1,41

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Suggested Reading (or Teachers

The Bernal Diaz Chronicles Translated d edited by Albert !dell. Garden City,New York Doubleday and Com y Inc . 1956

Braden. Charles Samuel Religious Aspects of the Conquest of Mexico Durham,NN....th Carolina Duke Universe Press, 1930

Cantti, Caesar C Cortes and the all of the Aztec Empire Los Angeles ModernWorld Publishing Co , 196

Cortes the Life of the Conquerors by His Secretary Francisco Lopez de Camara,Translated and edited by Lesley Byrd Simpson Berkeley and Los Angeles.University of California Press, 1904

Descola, Jean. The Conquistadores. New York The Viking Press, 1957

Fut Letters of Cortes to the Emperor Translated by J. Bayard Morns New YorkW W. Nortrio and Company, -Inc.. 1962_

Gardiner. C. Harvey. Naval Power in the Conquest of Mexico Austin. TheUniversity of Texas Press. 1956

,Spain in America New York: Harper, 1966.

Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century Stanford, Cahfornia. StanfordUniversity Fress, 1967.

iglesia, RamOn "`ko:liumbiss, Cortes, and Other Essays Translated and edited byLesley Byrd Si pson Berkeley. University of California Press, 1969.

illtilatrick, Frederick A The Spanish Conquistadores 2nd ed. New York. Barnesan Noble,1967

Madariaga. Salvador de Herndn Cortes, Conqueror of Mexico Garden City, NewYork. Doubleday Company. Inc. 1969.

Magner, Men of Mextco Milwaukee. The Bruce Publishing Co., 1942.

Padden, Robert Charles The Hummingbird and the Hawk, Conquest andSovereignty in the ,Valley of Mexico, 1503-1541 Columbus, Ohio Phi() StateUniversity Press. 1967

Prescott. William H History of the Con {{west of Mexico New York. Hentage Press,1949171

White, Jon Manchip. Cortes and the Dounfall o ( the Aztec Empire New rk StMartin's Press, 1971

g-T Kia-puk

43

Suggested Reading foiySecondaryand Elementary Students

Appel, Benjamin 1 e Were Therewith Cortes and Montezuma New York. Grossetand Dunlap, 1959 (elementary)

Benitez. Fernando Century after rorteg Cicago University of Chicago Press.1962 (secondary)

In the Footsteps of Cortes New York. Pantheon Books, Inc , 1952*

(secondary)

Blacker, Irwin R The Golden Conquistador.. Indianapolis Bobbs Merril Co . 1960.(elementary)

Collis, Maurice. Cortes and Conquest of MetriLo New York. Harcourt Brace Co ,1955 (elementary)

Corte; Aztec Conquest. New York American Heritage Publishing Co. 1965(secondary)

Johil , Wilhana Captain ortes Conquers Mexico New York. Random. 1960

I ......----''''(secondary)

Ne comb, Covello. ?Os the Conqueror York. Random Iouse, 1947.(secondary)

I

AUDIOVISUAL AID M IALS

of Exploration C 14 Min14M

Desert the brat stages in Europe a expansion the growth of trade and nse of astrong merchant class, the scientific awakening ideas aboct man and his world.and Portugal a leading the way in exploration to lay a foundation for a great colonialempire. From the age of exploration series.Producer Encyclopedia BritanniaDistributorEncyclopedia Britannic* Films Educational Corp 1965

The Spanish Explorers C 14 MinMP0235 1SUses bye action photography. paintings and anunation to depict the chsosyery ofAmerica through the eyes of Spanish' explorers Discusses Spam 's reasons for exploration and shows the conquests of Cortes. Pizzaro and others in the New World.From the age of exploration seriesProducer Coronet FilmsDistributor Coronet Films 1967

Cortescol 49 fr EBF 60SS gr S 6. Geog gr 7 For Lang Spanish SecShows and tells why Cortes came to Mexico, how he subdues Indians, routes coyhow he conquered Aztec Empire. Cortes battle with Na niiez how his conquest helSpain. death of Cortes

Cortes and the Aztecscol 35 fr Gunter 57SS car 4-6 For Lang Spanish SecDrawing?. and maps describe the conquest of the Aztecs by Hernin Cortes in 1519 andthg of Mexico by the Spanish.

(Note: These last two are filmstrips.)

J