TheMiniFARMING™

GuidetoFermenting

TheMiniFARMING™

GuidetoFermentingSelf-SufficiencyfromBeerandCheesetoWineandVinegar

BrettL.Markham

SkyhorsePublishing

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Contents

AcknowledgmentsPartIIntroductoryConsiderationsChapter1:IntroductiontoFermentedFoodsChapter2:BasicChemistryforFermentationPartIIMakingWineChapter3:OverviewofWinemakingChapter4:TheScienceofWineChapter5:IngredientsandTechniquesChapter6:AdvancedTechniquesinWinemakingPartIIIBeerfromSeedtoGlassChapter7:OverviewofBeerMakingChapter8:TheScienceofBeerChapter9:BeerIngredientsandRecipesChapter10:BrewingTechniquesPartIV:VinegarfromBeerandWineChapter11:PrinciplesandMaterialsforVinegarChapter12:VinegarMakingTechniquesPartV:CheeseMakingChapter13:Cheese:IngredientsandEquipmentChapter14:PracticalCheeseMakingTechniquesPartVI:BreadforEveryOccasionChapter15:ArtisanBreadsontheStoneChapter16:Breadon-the-gowithYourBreadMachine213ConclusionAlphabeticalIndex

Acknowledgments

Thisbookdrawsonalotofchemistryknowledge.ThoughIhadchemistryinstructors in college, the groundwork was laid much earlier by my father’sencouragement in providing me chemistry materials as a child even after Iaccidentallygassedmyself.Twoteacherswhowereveryinspiringtomypursuitof science were Mr. Booth, my eighth grade Physical Science teacher whoprovideddemonstrationsofexplodingsodium(nothingenticesaboymorethanthings thatgoboom!),andMrs.Firestone,my teacher forChemistry I&II inhighschool,whoseloveandzealforthesubjectwasinfectious.

Abookissortoflikesausage.Youseethefinishedproductbutyoudon’tnecessarilynoticeeverythingthatwentintoit.Theprimaryingredientinabookistime.Whenyoualreadyworkafull-timejob,thattimecomesattheexpenseofotherpeopleinyourlife.IwouldliketoexplicitlythankmywifeFrancineforhereditorialassistanceandmydaughterHannahforherhelpwithpictures.IalsoappreciatethepatientindulgenceofmyfamilyandmanyfriendswhoenduredalongleaveofabsencesoIcouldwritebooksIfeltwouldbehelpful.

Therewerealsoalotofexperimentsalongtheway.I’dliketothankmanypeople I value across the country for their support and for often samplingmyconcoctions andgiving their honest opinions, includingmymother-in-law, co-workersatBELDandfriendsacrossthecountry.Ikepttellingthemiftheydrankenoughofmywineitwouldstarttotastegood.Eventually...itdid.

PARTI

IntroductoryConsiderations

1

IntroductiontoFermentedFoods

Thoughitmay behard to imagine, it isonly incomparatively recent timesthathumanshavehadaccess to technology suchas freezers, refrigerators, andcanning as ameans of preserving food. Even today,many parts of the worldhavescantaccesstoelectricityormoderndevices.Intheseareas,aswellasinhistoric times in locales where the availability of food has varied with theseasons,preservationoffoodforleantimeswasandstillisextremelyimportant.Likewise,inmanyperiodsofhistory,theknowledgeofsanitationhasbeenpoor,and the water supply a source of illness. Hence, fermented beverages free ofdisease-causing bacteria and protozoansweremore commonly consumed thanwater.

Fermentation is one of the oldest means of food preservation known tohumanity,perhapssurpassedinageonlybydehydration.Theunderlyingideaofusingfermentationtopreservefoodisstraightforward:Someelementofthefoodthat would ordinarily support rotting is converted into something that retardsrotting. In this fashion, the shelf-life of the food is increased while retainingmanyofitsbeneficialnutritionalqualities.

In the case of wine or beer, sugars that would support many diseaseorganisms are converted into alcohol, which is a potent germicide. In theinstance of yogurt and similar soft cheeses, the sugar lactose is converted tolactic acid, which lowers the pH of the milk sufficiently that many rottingorganisms cannot survive. Vinegar is a further oxygenation of alcohol that isbothdirectlytoxictomanymicrobesbut,likelacticacid,italsolowersthepHtosuch a level as to create an environment hostile to the survival of diseaseorganisms.

Sometimes fermentation is simply used to make something that is moretastyorportable.Certainly,cheeseismoreportablethanmilk,andbreadismoretastythancrackedwheatkernels.

Fermentedfoodshaveprogressedwellbeyondtheirstartasameansoffoodpreservation,andarenowacornerstoneofthehumandiet.Fermentedfoodsare

not justmade to preserve their ingredients: they are culinary elements in theirown right. I sincerely doubt that most people think of wine as a means ofpreservingtheantioxidantsofgrapejuiceorofcheeseasameansofpreservingtheproteinsinmilkforlongshelflife.Instead,theseareproducedandconsumedas dietary constituents that are, in many cases, preferred over their initialingredients.

Fermented foods costmoney.Because of the additionalwork required tocreate them, they usually cost considerably more than their raw ingredientswouldcost.Furthermore,somefermentedfoodshavecostsaddedintheformof“sintaxes”thatmakethemevenmoreexpensive.Sometimes,itisdifficultifnotimpossibletoevenbuycertainfermentedfoodsatall,suchaswinemadefromorganicapplesandlocalhoney.Ihavefoundlocalwinesthatincludehoney,butat$32/bottletheyarecost-prohibitive.Makingyourownwillgiveanexcellentproductatamuchmorereasonableprice.

WhenIsetout towrite thisbook,Iwasalreadybroadlyfamiliarwith themanybooksinprintaddressingthesesubjects.Someofthemaretrulyexcellentandcharminglywritten.Itreasurethemandenjoythem,andhopeyouwilltoo.But almost all of these books are predominantly dedicated to recipes. Theyprovide a bit of explanation, but their primary thrust is showing you how toduplicatewhatsomeoneelsehasalreadydone.Thoughthiscanbeuseful,itisn’ttrue self-sufficiency.What if someonegives you a bushel of starfruit that youwanttoturnintowinebutyoucan’tfindarecipe?Howdoyoumakeyourownmaltforbeer?

Manyotherbooksareessentiallychemistrybooks.Asamanwithhisownchemistry lab, I can really appreciate a good chemistry book! The problem isthatmost peoplehaven’t taken chemistry sincehigh school and are somewhatstymied by the chemical equations and theirmeanings.A discussion of pH intermsoflogarithmicconcentrationofH+ionsmaybeentirelyfactual,butalsoperfectlyuseless.Eventhoughthesechemistrybooksdefinitelycontainalloftheinformationneededtoadaptrecipes,translatingthemintosomethingactionablebyanon-chemistintherealworldcanbechallenging.

In my earlier books, Mini Farming: Self-Sufficiency on ¼ Acre andMaximizingYourMiniFarm, Iendeavored toconvey theunderlyingprinciplesandreasoningforthemethodsratherthanjustinstructions.Thatismyobjectivewiththisbookaswell.Iwanttoprovidesufficientbackgroundintheunderlyingchemistrytoenableyoutobeflexibleandadaptive,butconcentrateonpracticalnuts-and-boltsskillsneededtoconveyself-sufficiencyquickly.

Don’tgetmewrong.Thissortofmaterialcanonlybesimplifiedsomuchbeforeitbecomesuseless,soIamgoingtocoverthechemistryandsomemath

whenneeded.Butaftercoveringthose,Iamgoingtocompressthatinformationintocertainideasandprinciplesthatwillallowyoutousethemeasily.

In some ways, this book will seem a bit more complex than itspredecessors,butalloftheknowledgewillbebuilthierarchicallyfromasoundfoundation so as to be easily understood if you don’t skip chapters. I’ll keepthingsconceptualrather thanturningthis intoa textrequiringmemorizationofAvogadro’sNumber.1Knowledge is power, and knowledge that lends itself togreaterself-sufficiencyiswellworthacquiring.

1Avogadro’sNumberisthenumberofatomsormoleculesofasubstancecontainedinanumberofgramsofthatsubstanceequaltoitsatomicormolecularweight.

2

BasicChemistryforFermentation

Therearesome basics of chemistry you’ll need to know for the followingchaptersandfortherestofthisbooktomakesense.Mostofthis,aftersecondyearhighschoolchemistry,shouldjustbeareview.Butjustincaseithasbeenawhile sincehigh school, I’mgoing to reviewenough information so thatwhatfollowswillbestraightforward.

ConservationofMatterMattercannotbe created or destroyed. It can change form, but cannot bemade to simply appear or disappear.2 As a result, any physical, biological, orchemicalmanipulationofasubstancewillalways result incomponentshavingthesametotalmassasthestartingmaterial.Inaddition,thoughtransmutationofelements is indeed possible in a nuclear reactor, for all ordinary chemical andbiologicalprocesses,onefundamentalelementcannotbeturnedintoanother.Inotherwords,carboncannotbeturnedintosiliconandleadcannotbeturnedintogold. So all of the fundamental elements involved in a physical, chemical, orbiological processwill alsobepresent in the result of that process, and in thesamequantities.

SolutionsversusMixturesAsolutionisasolvent,suchaswater,inwhichsomeothersubstance,suchassugarorsalt,hasbeendissolved.Inasolution,theconcentrationofthedissolvedsubstance is constant throughout the solvent. The opposite of this is a simplephysicalmixture, such as vinegar and oil dressing.Neither is dissolved in theother,andtheycanbeeasilyseparated.

Elements,Compounds,andChemicalFormulasSubstances can be divided into two basic categories: elements andcompounds. Elements are the fundamental building blocks of ordinarymatter.Under ordinary circumstances, outside of a nuclear reactor or a particleaccelerator, elementscannotbebrokendown intoanymorebasicconstituents.Examplesofelementsarecopper,chlorine,oxygen,andnitrogen.Theperiodictableof theelementscontainsa listingofallknownelementsalongwith theirmostimportantchemicalproperties.Eachelementhasasymboltorepresentit.Forexample,carbonisrepresentedasC,hydrogenasH,andoxygenasO.Someelements have symbols that hearken back to German or Latin names for theelements.Forexample, lead is representedbyPb,which is short forplumbum(fromwhence thewordplumber isalsoderived)andsodiumis representedbyNa,whichisshortfornatrium.Thesesymbolsareusedinchemicalformulastorepresentthoseelements.

Compounds are substances comprised of more than one element. Forexample, table salt is a compound comprised of sodium(Na) and chlorine(Cl),andamoleculeofsaltisrepresentedbytheformulaNaCl.Somecompoundsaremorecomplexandhavemore thanoneunitofagivenelement. Insuchcases,the proportion of that element is noted in the formula as a subscript. Forexample, a molecule of glucose is represented as C6H12O6, meaning that itcontains six atoms of carbon, six atoms of oxygen and twelve atoms ofhydrogen. This iswhat is called an empirical formula. It tells you howmanyatomsofwhichelementsarecontained in thecompound,butnothingabout itsstructure.

PeriodicTableofElements

EmpiricalandStructuralFormulasSometimestheformulaforacompoundiswritteninsuchawayastogivesome informationabout its structure in space.That is, the formulagives someindication as towhich elements are connected to eachother or that give cluesabout the nature of the compound. For example, ethyl alcohol might berepresented by the structural formula CH3CH2OH rather than the empiricalformulaC2H6O.Thestructuralformularepresentsthefollowingarrangementofelements:

BywritingtheformulaasCH3CH2OHapersonfamiliarwithchemistrycaninstantly tell from the -OH ending that the compound is an alcohol. If it hadinsteadbeenwrittenasCH3OCH3,thiscompoundcontainingthesameelementsinthesameproportions,butwithadifferentstructure,wouldbedimethylether,adramatically different substance used to start cars and in prior decades as ananesthetic.Clearly, theelementsandproportionsofacompoundareimportant,butthestructureisequallyso.

EthylAlcohol

Dimethyletherhasthesamenumberofcarbon,oxygen,andhydrogenatomsasethylalcohol,butaradicallydifferentstructure.

AtomicandMolecularWeightsIntheincludedPeriodicTableofElements,you’llfindthateachelementislistedwithanatomicweight.(It’sthenumbernearthebottomineachbox.)

Atomicweightcanbeexplained invariousways.But forourpurposes inchemicalformulas, theatomicweightofanelementis thenumberofgramsofthat element needed to have a certain number of atoms. That number isAvogadro’sConstant,6.0221415×1023.Thisquantityofatomsisknownasamole.Youdon’tneedtomemorizethisnumber.Theimportantthingtoknowisthat one mole of an element will have a mass in grams equal to its atomicweight.Sobylookingattheperiodictable,wecanreadilyseethatonemoleofsulfurwillhaveamassof32.06gwhileamoleofcalciumwillhaveamassof40.078g.

Compoundshavewhat iscalledmolecularweightor formulaweight.Themolecular weight of a compound is computed by adding the atomic weightsfromtheperiodictableofeachconstituentatom.Theatomicweightsofcarbon,hydrogen, and oxygen respectively are 12.0107, 1.00794 and 15.9994. So themolecularweightofglucose,C6H12O6,wouldbe6×12.0107+12×1.00794+6×15.999or180.156.Thismeansthatonemoleofglucose,thatis,anumberofatomsequaltoAvogadro’sConstant,willhaveamassof180.156grams.

NormalityDon’t worry, we’re not delving into psychology! Normality in chemistryreferstohowmuchofasolutehasbeendissolvedinasolvent,andisequaltomolesperliter.TheunitfornormalityisanuppercaseN.Wealreadyknowthatonemoleofglucosehasamassof180.156grams,sowecouldmakesome1Nglucose solution by putting 180.156 grams of glucose in a beaker, and thenaddingenoughdistilledwatertofillthebeakertotheoneliterline.Ifwewanteda0.1Nsolution,we’dmultiply180.156gramsby0.1,toget18.016grams.

The primary reagent wewill be using in such a concentration is sodiumhydroxide.Wewillbeusing0.1Nsodiumhydroxideasameasurementstandardtodetermine theamountofacidpresent inwine.Using themolecularmassofsodiumhydroxideof39.997,youcouldmakeupthereagentyourself, then,byadding3.999gramsof sodiumhydroxide toabeaker,and thenaddingenoughdistilledwatertomakealiter.

Inpractice,themarkingsonbeakersaren’taccurateenoughforsuchwork,and you’d use a volumetric flask or a graduated cylinder instead.And as oneliter is way more of this than we’ll ever use, we’d be more likely to cuteverythinginquarterslikearecipe,andaddjustonegramofsodiumhydroxideandenoughwatertomakeup250ml.

Sodiumhydroxidesolutioniswidelyavailablefromwinesuppliersin0.2Nconcentration.Forourprocedurescallingfor0.1Nconcentration,youcancreate10mlof0.1Nsolutionbyadding5mlof0.2Nsodiumhydroxideand5mlofdistilledwatertoa10mlgraduatedcylinder.

DensityandSpecificGravityEverysubstancehas acertaindensity.Density ismeasuredas themassofthesubstanceingramsthatoccupyonecubiccentimeter.Thedensityofwateris1.0 grams per cubic centimeter, and the density of glucose is 1.54 grams percubiccentimeter,abbreviatedas1.54g/cm3.Thedensityofethylalcoholis.789g/cm3.Substancesheavier thanwaterwill haveadensitygreater thanone (1),andthosethatarelighterthanwaterwillhaveadensityoflessthanone(1).

Densitycanbemeasuredinvariousways.Aclassicmethodwhendealingwithsolidssuchasironistoweighasampleofthesubstance,andthenimmersethat substance inwaterandmeasurehowmuchvolume itdisplaces.When themassisdividedbythevolume,yougetthedensity.Youcoulddothesamewithaliquidbyweighinganemptygraduatedcylinder,fillingthecylindertoacertainvolume,thenweighingthefilledcylinder.Ifyousubtracttheemptyweightfrom

thefilledweightanddividebythevolume,you’llgetthedensity.Inpractice,whenmakingbeerandwine,analternativemeasureofdensity

isused,calledSpecificGravity.Specificgravityismeasuredusingahydrometer.Ahydrometerisacalibratedweighteddevicethatlookslikeathermometerwithlead shot in the bottom. The less dense the liquid, the deeper the hydrometersinksandviceversa.Becausethedensityofasubstancevarieswithtemperature,hydrometers are calibrated at a given temperature. If the density is beingmeasured at a temperature substantially different than the temperature used tocalibratethedevice,acompensationfactorisaddedorsubtracted.

pHpH is a measurement of how acidic (like lemon juice) or alkaline (likeammonia) a solution is. Distilled water is neutral, and has a pH of seven.AlkalinesolutionshaveapHgreaterthanseven,andacidicsolutionshaveapHlessthanseven.TheunderlyingscienceofpHisrelativelycomplex.Thenumberrepresents the negative base ten logarithm of the molal concentration ofhydronium (H3O+) ions in the solution. For our purposes, though, it is mostimportant tounderstand that thepHofa solutionaffectswhatmicroorganismscan live in it, and also how chemical reactions proceed. For example, whenmaking beer, a great deal of tannin will be extracted from grain with boilingwater at a pHnear seven, but that very little tanninwill be extracted in a hotmashwithapHoflessthanfive.

pH can be measured using test papers, indicator solutions such aphenolphthalein,orusingameter.InpastbooksIhavedescribedhowtotestpHusingphenolphthalein, but as the accuracyof using ameter is greater and thepriceofmetershasdeclined,InowrecommendgettinganinexpensivepHmeter.

OrganicChemistryWhenIspeakoforganicchemistry,theterm“organic”hasnorelationtoitsmeaning in the context of organic gardening. Instead, it is referring tocompounds that contain carbon. Some high school and college chemistryteachersmaygiveacollectivegaspathowquicklyIamgoingtosummarizethistopicbecauseIwillbeskippingthesystematicnamingsystemsandadiscussionofcovalentbonding.Butmygoal is to convey the informationneeded todealsuccessfully with fermented foods and understand what is going on in broadtermsratherthanpasstheGREChemistryexam.

Carbon-basedorganiccompoundslieattheveryrootoflife.Whetheritisthe amino acids that form the DNA in the nucleus of cells or the esters thatprovidemanyoftheuniquetastesandsmellsoffood,allofthesecompoundsarecarbonbased.Carbonatomshaveauniqueability tobondwithotherelementsandalsotoformchainsoftheoreticallyunlimitedlengthbybondingwithothercarbon atoms. Silicon can form similar bonds that are the basis for siliconeproducts,butwithnowhereneartheflexibilityofcarbon.Inessence,nocarbon=nolife.

Thesugars,alcohols,acids,proteins,tannins,andcarbohydratespresentinthematerialsweuse tomake fermented foodsare allorganic compounds, andtheydon’tjustsitthereanddonothing.Giventime,therightconditions,andthecatalytic action of enzymes generated by microorganisms, these compoundstransformandcombinetomakenewcompounds.

Atfirstblush,theideathatwinewouldtastelikeanythingotherthangrapejuiceinwhichthesugarhasbeenreplacedwithalcoholseemspreposterous.Butoncloserexamination,itisdiscoveredthattheorganicacidspresentinthewinewillcombinewiththealcoholspresenttocreatenewcompoundswithaltogethernew flavors thatweren’t present in the original juice, and the tannins that arepresentwillcombinewiththeproteinstoforminsolublecompounds.Soputonyourseatbeltforawhirlwindtourofthebasicsoforganiccompounds.

AlcoholsWhentheterm“alcohol” isused,weareusuallyspeakingofethylalcohol,whichisthetypeproducedbyfermentationanddistillation.Butrubbingalcoholisanaltogetherdifferentcompounddescribedas isopropylalcoholand the so-called “dry gas” added to gas tanks is yet another type of alcohol known asmethylalcohol.

There are many different types of alcohols. In general, you can tell thatsomethingisanalcoholinachemicalsensebythelasttwolettersofitsname.Ifitendswith-olitisanalcohol.Examplesincludeglycerol(acoreconstituentoffatty acids), propylene glycol (used in foods), ethylene glycol (a poisonouscompound used as antifreeze), and so forth. Alcohols are distinguishedstructurally by the presence of an -OH group attached to a carbon atom. Thestructural formula for methanol (AKA methyl alcohol) is CH3OH, and theformulaforethanol isCH3CH2OH.Thisseriesproceeds indefinitely,and therearemanyvariationsonthetheme.

Alcohols with more than two carbon atoms are referred to as “higher

alcohols”withinthecontextoffermentation.Tosomeextent,insmallquantities,these are naturally present in some foods. Others will be produced in smallquantitiesbyyeastandbacteriaaspartofthenaturalprocessoffermentation.

The important thing that needs to be understood is that an alcoholicfermentation, though presented as though ethyl alcohol is the only result,willactually result in a wide array of alcohols being produced in very smallquantities.Theseotheralcoholswillaffect the tastedirectly,and theywillalsocombine with other constituents to form altogether new compounds that willcreatenewflavorsandsmells.Thetemperature,specificstrainofyeastandtheother nutrients present all have an effect on the proportion of higher alcoholsproduced. This is why two otherwise identical batches of wine will tastedifferentlyiftheirrespectivefermentationandagingwerecarriedoutatdifferenttemperatures.

Ifyouhaveheardtalesofpeoplegoingblindfromdrinkingmoonshine,thereasonisbecauseitwasdistilledimproperly.Differentalcoholsboilatdifferenttemperatures.Methylalcohol,whichturnsintoformateinthebodyanddamagesthedelicateopticnerves,isproducedalongwithethylalcoholintheyeastymashthat is distilled to make moonshine. Methyl alcohol evaporates at a lowertemperature than the ethyl alcohol people drink.Whenmoonshine is distilledimproperly,themethylalcoholiscollectedalongwiththeethyl,andthisiswhatmakesitdangerous.

Thoughwewon’tbediscussingdistillationofliquorsinthisbook,Ithinkitisworthwhile toknowthatdifferent typesofdistilled liquorssuchaswhiskey,rum,brandy,andso forthhavedifferent tastes—notonlybecauseofwhatwasused as a starting material—but because when they are distilled a differentproportionofhigheralcohols, esters, andothercompoundsarepassed into thefinalproductbecauseofdifferencesintime,temperature,andsoforth.Inallofthose cases, the deadly methyl alcohol is allowed to pass off without beingcollectedbeforetheactualportionintendedforhumanconsumptioniscollectedfromthestill.

Just as liquors have different flavors and odors due to these differentproportionsofalcohols, thesamecanoccurwith fermentedproducts thathavenot been distilled. The variety of yeast used, the starting ingredients, thetemperatureoffermentation,andthenutrientsthatarepresentallhaveaneffectontheproportionsofhigheralcoholsproduced.

OrganicAcids

Organicacidsareapartofoureverydaylivesandareconstituentsofeveryliving thing.Uricacid ispresent asawasteproduct inoururine, citric acid iscommonly found in citrus fruits and tartaric acid is the primary acid in winegrapes. But this just scratches the surface. Upon close examination it isdiscovered thatnearlyall foods thatwewilluse infermentationcontainavastarrayoforganicacidsthatimpartflavorsandsmellsoftheirown.Inchemistry,acids can be readily identified by structural formulas ending in -COOH. Forexample, butryic acid (found in butter and cheeses) has the structural formulaCH3CH2CH2-COOH, and propanoic acid (present in Swiss cheese) has thestructuralformulaCH3CH2COOH.

Thestructureofpropanoicacid.

Organicacidsalsoplayakeyrole,alongwithalcohols, in thecreationofnewflavorsinfermentedfoods,particularlyif thosefoodsareaged.Acidsandalcoholscombinetoformesters.

EstersEstersarenaturallypresentinfruitsandvegetables,andarefundamentalinproviding their unique and distinguishing flavors and scents. Esters are alsoformed,albeitslowly,by thecombinationofacidsandalcohols.That is tosaythatovertime,theacidsandalcoholsinfermentedfoodswillcombinetocreateflavoringestersthatweren’tthereinthefirstplace,andtherebydevelopuniquedepthandcomplexity.

Thestructureotethylacetate.

For example, small quantities of acetic acid, CH3-COOH, are present in

wine,asisethylalcohol,CH3CH2OH.Whenthesecombine,amoleculeofwaterislost,andethylacetate,CH3-COO-CH2CH3,iscreated.Ethylacetatehasatasteand smell similar to bananas.Because humans can detect tastes and smells ofcompoundswithconcentrationsmeasuredinparts-per-million,thefactthatnewesters are produced in very small quantities doesn’t mean they can’t make adifferenceinthetaste.

AldehydesandKetonesThecompleteoxidationofalcohols(throughburningforexample)resultsinwaterandcarbondioxideasthefinalproducts,butseveralintermediatestatesofoxidation are possible. Aldehydes and ketones are created through the partialoxidationofalcohols.

The most common aldehydes used in industry are formaldehyde andacetaldehyde,butmanyotheraldehydesoccur innature, includingvanillinandcinnamaldehyde.(Youcanprobablyguesstheflavorstheseimpartjustfromthenames!) An aldehyde can be distinguished in chemistry by the presence of aformylgroup,designated-CHO.Thus,benzaldehyde,whichgivesalmondstheircharacteristicodor,hasthechemicalformulaofC6H5CHO.

Aldehydes are very reactive, and it is very easy for them to be furtheroxidized,thuschangingthemtoyetanothercompound.Thisisonereasonwhyfermentedfoodsareprotectedfromairandwhythose,suchassherriesthathavegreaterairexposure,developdefiningtastesandsmells.

Ketonesareverysimilartoaldehydes,exceptthattheyformfromwhatarecalled“secondary”and“tertiary”alcohols.Asecondaryalcoholhasthedefining-OH group attached to a carbon atom with only one other hydrogen atomattached,andatertiaryalcoholhasthe-OHgroupattachedtoacarbonwithnohydrogenatomsattached.

In the case of secondary alcohols, the addition of an oxygen atom (i.e.oxidation) steals the one H from the carbon along with the H from the -OHgrouptocreatewater,andthecarbonisleftwithonlyanoxygenattached.Thedefining structural group of a ketone, then, is an oxygen double-bonded to acarbon:C=O.Asanexample,tertiarybutylalcoholmaybepartiallyoxidizedtoacetone, also known as methyl-methyl ketone (CH3-CO-CH3). Ketones aresubstantially less reactive than aldehydes, and occur pervasively in nature.Sugars (such as fructose) are a form of ketone, collectively referred to as“ketoses.”

ProteinsandAminoAcidsProteinsare formed from chains of amino acids,making amino acids thefundamentalbuildingblocksoflife.Theirstructureissimilartothatoforganicacids in that they have a defining -COOHgroup, but they also have an -NH2groupreplacingthehydrogenontheadjacentcarbonatom.3Thesimplestaminoacid is glycine, whose formula is CH2NH2COOH, but there aremany others.Someaminoacidsaredeemedessentialtoanorganismifthatorganismcannotsynthesizethemfromotheraminoacids.Inhumans,onlynineaminoacidsareessential.Givenan adequatediet, humans can synthesizewhatever alanineweneed, but we can’t synthesize tryptophan ormethionine andwould ultimatelystarve to death for their lack no matter what else we ate. Every organism issomewhatdifferentintheaminoacidsitcanorcannotsynthesize.

Becauseofthelargenumberofaminoacidsandthefactthattheycanformchains in any order and that the chains can be of any length, the number ofproteinsthatcanbecreatedinthisfashionisessentiallyunlimitedandaccountsfor theamazingcomplexityof life.Proteinsandaminoacidsarepresent inallplantandvegetablematter.

ChemistryEquipmentInthisbookIwillbeusingachemistryapproachtocertainthings,anditwillbe easier if you have certain basic laboratory equipment on hand. Thisequipmentwilllastyourlifetime,isn’tveryexpensive,andwillhelpmakeyourwork faster, easier, and more accurate. The precise glassware and chemicalsneededwillbenotedinthedescriptionofeachprocedure,butatabareminimumyouwillneedapHmeterandadigitalscaleof100gorgreatercapacitythatisaccurateto+/-.01gandacalibrationweightfordigitalscale.

2Strictly speaking, asEinstein revealed, energy ismatter andmatter is energy, somatter can in fact beconvertedtoenergyandviceversa.Butforourpurposes,sincewewon’tbeusingnuclearreactionsinthekitchen,thisphysicallawcanbeexpressedsimplyas“Mattercanneitherbecreatednordestroyed.”

3TheaminoacidsIamreferencinginthiscasearealphaaminoacids.Therearealsobranched-chainaminoacids,gammaaminoacids,andsoforth.

PARTII

MakingWine

3

OverviewofWinemaking

Anyonewhohasseenawinecriticontelevisioncanbeabitintimidatedbythe prospect of trying to make a wine that is even drinkable, much lessenjoyable. Fortunately, FredericBrochet conducted two studies using 57wineexperts at the University of Bordeaux in 2001 that will forever put the wineexpertsintoperspective.4

In the first study, theexpertsweregiven twoglassesofwine todescribe,onebeingawhitewineandtheotheraredwine.Unknowntotheexperts,bothglasseswereawhitewinebutthewineinoneoftheglasseshadbeendyedred.Notevenoneofthe57expertsattheUniversityofBordeauxcoulddistinguishthat theredwinewasreallywhite,and theyevenwenton todescribe thefakered wine as having characteristics associated with red wines such as “tannicnotes.”

In the second study, a cheap wine was put into bottles denoting both acheap and an expensive wine. Same wine, different bottles. The expertsdescribed the wine in the expensive bottles as “woody, complex, and round”whiledescribing theexact samewine in thecheapbottlesas“short, light, andfaulty.”

Whatthismeansisthatyouneednotbeintimidatedbywinesnobbery.Allyou need to do is make a sound product using good ingredients and propermethods,andaslongasyouputitinanicebottlewithanicelabelandserveitinaniceglassitwillbefullyappreciated.Perceptionofthedetailsreallymattersintheimpression,soevenifyouperformedyourprimaryfermentationinaplasticbucket,don’tyoudareserveitinaplasticcup!

Winemakingisamongtheoldestmethodsoffoodpreservation.Inwinethelevelsofsugarintheoriginaljuicearereducedtomakethejuiceunattractivetoorganismsthatrequiresugarforgrowth,andthesugarisreplacedwithalcoholthatmakes the juicean inhospitableenvironment formost spoilageorganisms.Meanwhile,manyofthebeneficialnutrientsintheoriginaljuicearepreserved,including vitamins and antioxidants. The yeast used to convert the sugar to

alcoholalsoimpartsanumberofBvitaminstothemix.Later,wine became an end in itself forwhich fruitswere grown, and an

entire culture andmythology have grown up around grapes,winemaking, andwine.What started as amethodof preserving the essential nutrients of grapesand compensating for dangerous water supplies in an era when asepticpackaging and refrigeration did not exist has now grown into a multi-billiondollarglobal industry,and therearebottlesofwine thatcanonlybehad foracostexceedingthatofanewcar.

Thetermwine,inthepurestsenseoftheterm,appliesonlytotheresultsoffermentingthejuiceofEuropeanvitisviniferagrapes.Theseareaspeciesthatisdistinct from the grapes indigenous to North America, and only vitis viniferagrapes—and no other grape or fruit—have the right levels of sugar, tannin,acidity,andnutrientstoproducewinewithoutaddinganything.Grapesgrowninparticularregions lend theiruniqueflavors towinesnamedafter them,suchasChampagne; and wines produced by some wineries have even become statussymbols,suchasthoseproducedbyChâteauLafiteRothschild.

Here,however,Iamusingtheterm“wine”torefertocountrywines.Thatis,winesmade from any fruit available and towhich sugars, tannins, organicacids,spices,andotheringredientshavebeenaddedtonotonlycompensatefortheareas inwhichthe ingredientsfallshortofvitisviniferagrapes,butalsotocreatetheirownexperienceoftasteandsmell.

Country wines are in no way inferior, and in fact being free of theconstraintsoftraditionalwinemakingleavesyouopentoexperimentbroadlyandcreatedelightfullyuniquewinesthatareforeverbeyondthereachoftraditionalwineries.Homewinemakingofupto200gallonsannuallyislegalintheUnitedStatessolongasyoudon’ttrytosellit.(Ifyoutrytosellityouwillrunafouloftheinfamous“revenuers”whoalwaysgettheirculpritintheend.)

Americansdrinknearly twogallonsofwineper capita annually,meaningtheconsumptionforastandardhouseholdisjustshyofeightgallons.That’s40bottlesofwine.Ifyoufigure$12/bottle,that’snearly$500peryear.Atthatrate,andusingfruityoueithergetinexpensivelyinseasonorfreeinyourbackyard,youwillquicklyrecoupyourinvestmentinmaterialsandsupplies.Inaddition,homemade wines make excellent personal gifts; every year I give bottles tofriends and business associates for holiday presents. The wine is alwaysappreciated.

The technique ofmakingwine is conceptually straightforward. The juice(and sometimes solids) of a fruit are purified of stray microbes andsupplementedwith sugar, acid, andother nutrients tomake amust, inoculatedwithanappropriatestrainofyeast,andfermented.Thefermentationtakesplace

in two distinct phases. The first phase, known as the primary fermentation, isveryfastandlastsonlyacoupleofweeks.Thewineisthensiphoned(aprocesscalled racking) into a new vessel and fitted with an airlock where it maycontinueitssecondaryfermentationforseveralmonthswitharackingagainafterthefirstcoupleofmonthsoranytimesubstantialsedimenthasformed.

I’ll explain the specifics of the equipment throughout this chapter, alongwith some of the nuances. For now, I want to convey that if you normallyconsumewineorwouldgivewineasagift,makingyourownqualitywinesisinexpensive,fun,andeasierthanmostwouldbelieve.

ThereareplaceswhereyouwillbetemptedtoskimpormakedoonthelistofingredientsandequipmentIamabouttopresent,butletmeencourageyoutoget everything on the list. Because the techniques I describe rely on naturalingredients whose constituents will vary, all of the testing equipment isnecessary. The other equipment and ingredients are necessary to maintainsanitaryconditionsormakeaqualitywine.Ifyoudon’tlivenearastoreforwinehobbyists, there are a number of excellent sources on the Internet that can belocatedviaawebsearch.Tosaveonshipping,I’drecommendgettingasmuchfromonestoreaspossible.

WinemakingEquipment

PrimaryFermenterTheprimaryfermenterisalargeplasticbucketmadeoffood-gradeplastic.Itissizedatleast20%largerthanthelargestbatchofwineyouplantomakeinordertokeeptheconstituentsofthevigorousprimaryfermentationfromspillingout of the fermenter andmaking amess youwill not soon forget.The bucketshouldbeequippedwithalidandgasket,andalsohaveprovisionsforfittinganairlock.Theseareavailableinvarioussizesfrombeerandwinehobbysuppliers.I’drecommendatwo-gallonandasix-gallonbucket.Eventhoughitispossibletogetthesebucketsforfreefromrestaurants,Iwouldadviseagainstitasmostwere used to hold something that was previously been pickled using vinegar.Youdon’twantvinegarorganismsinyourwine.

Ingeneral,theprimaryfermentationevolvescarbondioxidesorapidlythatan airlock isn’t strictlynecessary.Furthermore, the first stagesof fermentationrequire oxygen until the yeast cells multiply enough to reach a critical massbefore the start of fermentation. Just plugging the hole in the lidwith a clean

cotton ball that allows air movement but blocks dirt, dust, and insects willsuffice. (Replace thecottonball if itbecomessaturatedwithmust.)Evenso, Iusuallyuseanairlockafterthefirstweek.

It is possible for the smells and tastes of plastic to become infused intowine.Thisisnotaconcernfortheprimaryfermentationbecausethewineisonlyincontactwiththecontainerforacoupleofweeks.Also,youwillhaveusedacontaineroffoodgradeplasticselectedforitslowdiffusionwhichyoucleanedthoroughlypriortouse.

SecondaryFermenterBecausethewinestaysincontactwiththesecondaryfermenterformonthsorevenyears,thisisbestmadeofglass.Youcanalsousespeciallymadeoakcasksforlongsecondaryfermentation,buttheseareveryexpensiveandneedspecialcareandmaintenance.Sofornow,Iwouldskiptheoakcasks.

One-andfive-gallonprimaryandsecondaryfermenters.

Theglassvesselscomeinvarioussizesfromonegallonuptofivegallons.Thesmallerone-gallonvesselsare justone-gallon jugs,and the larger three-orfive-gallonvesselsareglasscarboysusedonwatercoolers.

Youwillalsoseesomeplasticcarboysavailableinwinemakingmagazinesand fromvarious suppliers.These are advertised as beingmade in away thatmakes them impervious to the diffusion of the plastic into thewine, and theyoffer the advantageof beingmuch lighter thanglass so the shipping costs arelower. Nevertheless, plastic is harder to clean than glass, so I would notrecommendtheseifglasscanbeobtainedinstead.

Youwill alsoneed toget a specialbrush for cleaningyour jugor carboybecausetheopeningistoosmallforeventhesmallesthandsandaregularbottlebrushistooshortandisn’tbentforcleaningaroundtheedges.

The fermentation that takes place in the secondary fermenter is long andslow.As thecarbondioxide isevolvedmoreslowly, it ispossibleforair tobe

drawn into the vessel, especially if temperatures change. During secondaryfermentation, you want to prevent oxygen from coming into contact with thewine,becauseoxygenadverselyaffectsthequalityofthewinebychangingthecharacterofsomeoftheevolvedorganiccompounds.

Byfittingtheholeinthefermenterwithastopperandanairlock,youwillallowaprotectiveblanketofcarbondioxidetocoverthesurfaceofyourwine.Youwillneedrubberstopperswithoneholeinthemthataresizedcorrectlyforyour secondary fermenter. The airlock is prepared, put into the hole in thestopper,andthenthestopperisplacedintheholeatthetopofthefermenter.

Becauseyouwillberackingyourwinefromonesecondaryfermenterintoanother,youneedtwosecondaryfermentationvessels.

Onethingthatpeopleoftenoverlookisacarryinghandle.Ifyouaremakingwine in batches larger than a gallon, those carboys are extremely heavy anddifficult tohandle.Thehandle thatyouordercanbe installedonacarboyandthenremovedtobeusedonanother,soyouonlyneedone.Theycostabout$10atthetimeofthiswritingandarewellworthitastheymakethetaskofhandlingcarboysagreatdealeasier.

AirlocksAirlocksaredevicesinstalledonafermenterthatallowgastoescape,butdonotallowairtoleakbackin.Theycomeinavarietyofconfigurations,butallarefilledwithwaterorasolutionofpotassiummetabisulfite.Theairlockisfilledtothelevelspecifiedonthedevice,insertedinaone-holerubberstopperandthenattachedtothefermenter.Youshouldhaveat least twoof these.Thestyleyouchoose doesn’t usually matter, but if your wine will experience swings intemperature,avoidthetypeillustratedontheleftbecausetheliquidinitcouldbesuckedbackintothefermenter.

Two popular airlock styles. The one on the right is better if your wine islikelytoexperienceswingsoftemperature.

RackingTubeA racking tube is a long two-part tube that is inserted into the wine andpumped to start a siphoning action in order to transfer the wine from onecontainerintoanother.Ithasaknobatthebottomthatdirectstheflowoffluidinsuch away as tominimize the amount of sediment transferred in the process.Youwillalsoneedfivefeetofplastictubingtogowithit.Astop-cock,whichisaplasticclipthatcanbeusedtostoptheflowtemporarily,willcomeinhandywhenusingtherackingtubetotransferwineintofinalwinebottlesforcorking.

Racking tubes come in two sizes; one that is smaller and will fit into agallonjugandonethatislargerandwillnot.Getthesmalleroneinitiallyasitwillworkforbothgallonjugsandfive-galloncarboys.

Alwayscleanyourrackingtubeandplastictubingbeforeandafteruse,andrun a gallon of sulphite solution through it to sterilize the components.Otherwise, it will accumulate debris attractive to fruit flies that carry vinegarbacteria and youwill unwittingly startmanufacturing vinegar instead ofwine.Thetubingisinexpensiveanditisbesttoreplaceitafterseveraluses.

CorkerCorkersareused to insertcorks intowinebottles.Asyou’vediscovered ifyouhaveevertriedtoputacorkbackintoawinebottle,corksareslightlylargerthantheholestheyareintendedtofit.Acorkercompressesthecorkenoughforit toslip inside thebottle.Corkerscomeinmanysizesandstyles,but Iwouldrecommend a metal two-armed lever model which, although somewhat moreexpensivethantheplasticmodels,doesabetterjobandwillserveyouwellforyourlifetime.

Vinyltubingandrackingtubessizedforfive-andone-gallonfermenters

I’vehadthecorkerontheleftforeightyears.Theoneontherightisjustatoy.

Corksneedtobesoakedbeforeinsertion.Youdon’twanttoinadvertentlytransferaspoilageorganismonthecorks,soIrecommendboilingthecorksfor20 minutes and then allowing them to set in the boiled water for another 10minutesbeforecorking.Thiswillmakethecorkspliablewithoutcontaminatingthem.

Anotherproblemyoumayencounter is thecorkbackingoutof thebottleafteritwasinserted.Thisiscausedbythefactthatthecorkfitssotightlythattheair in the bottle is compressed as it is inserted.The compressed air forces thecork back out of the bottle.You can solve this problemwith a bent sterilizedpaper clip.Straighten the paper clip except for a hook that you leave for it tohang on the edge of the bottle’smouth. Insert the straight part into the bottlemouthandleaveithookedintheedge.Insertthecorkasusual.Thepapercliphas allowed room for compressedgases to escape.Pull thepaper clipout andyouaredone.

WineThiefAwinethiefisalongtubewithaspecialvalveontheendthatallowsyoutoremovewinefromacontainerveryeasily.Cleanandsanitizeitbeforeandafteruse. It is generally recommend that wine removed not be returned to thecontainertoavoidcontamination.However,unlessyouhaveaddedanadulterantto thewine(suchassodiumhydroxidefor testingacidity),as longas thewinethief and any equipment used are cleaned and sanitized, I have never had a

problemfromputtingthewinebackintothesamecontainer.Thebiggestreasonwhyyouwouldwantto“steal”wineinthisfashionisso

it can be tested for specific gravity and acidity. I cover these tests and therequiredequipmentextensivelyinthenextchapters.

NylonStrainingBagsThesearefine-meshednylonbagswithzipperedclosuresusedtoholdfruit

forcrushinginafashionthatallowsyoutoremovethesolidslaterwithminimalmess.Thebagscanbecleaned,sterilized,andre-usedmanytimes.Thesecomein very handy when making wines from crushed blueberries, cherries, andsimilar fruits. They come in various sizes in order to accommodate differentsizedbatchesoffruitsandwine.

WineBottlesYouwillneedwinebottles.Usually, light-coloredwines arebottled in clearbottlesanddark-coloredwineingreenorbrownbottles.Thisispredominantlyasocialconvention, though thedarkerglassserves thepurposeofprotecting thecoloring matter in the wine from being bleached out by ultraviolet light andsunshine.Yourwineshouldbestoredwellawayfromsunshineanyway.

Eitherway,youwill certainlywant touse realwinebottles that requireacork.Realwinebottlesusuallyhaveaconcavesectionatthebottomthatallowsfor solid sediments to remain separate from thewine and have a topmade tofacilitateaperfectsealwithacork.

There is debate amongexperts over theuseofplastic, screw-top caps, orgenuinecork,andwhetherthishasaneffectonthelong-termtasteandqualityofwine. Inmyopinioncorksarebest simplybecause theyareeasiest.Corksareinexpensiveinquantity,easilyinsertedforaperfectsealusingsimpleequipment,andwillliterallylastforeverifabottleisstoredonitssidetokeepitwet.Unliketheexperts,Ican’ttellthedifferencebetweenawinestoredinacorkedbottleasopposed to one using a screw closure, but I recommend corking because it iseasierandcheaperinthelongrun.Also,itjustlooksbetter,andthepresentationofyourwineisasimportantasanyofitsotherqualitiesintermsofthereceptionitreceives.

If you decide to make a sparkling wine, you will need to get bottlesspecifically for thatpurposebecauseordinarywinebottlesaren’t rated for thatpressure.Youwillalsoneedspecialplasticcorksandwireclosuresthatwillhold

thecorksinplaceonthebottle.Winebottlescome in375mland750mlsizes.Youwillneed fiveof the

750mlbottlesortenofthe375mlbottlesforeachgallonofwinethatyouarebottling.

ConsolidatedEquipmentListThefollowinglistwillmake iteasy togeteverythingyouwillneedfor theforeseeable future in one shopping trip. I priced this out with a well-knownInternetbeerandwinehobbyshopfor$228.60plus$63.22forshipping.Atthatpriceforshipping,ifyoucanfindthegearlocallyitisworththetrip.Youcouldalsosavesomemoneybyonlygettingtheequipmentneededtomakeone-gallonbatches,and theequipmentwouldonlycost$134.75plus$25.95 for shipping.Thesecostsalsodon’ttakeintoaccountthatitisofteneasytogetwinebottlesforfree.Igetminefromaco-workerwhoworkspart-timeatabar.HebringsmeafewdozenemptybottlesandIgivehimacouplebottlesofwineyearly.

1 Fiveorsixgallonplasticfermenterwithsealingplasticlidandgrommet1 Twogallonplasticfermenterwithsealingplasticlidandgrommet2 Fivegallonsecondaryfermenters,preferablyglass2 Onegallonsecondaryfermenters,glassjugs1 Cleaningbrushforcarboys1 Carboyhandle2 #6.5universalrubberstopperswithonehole2 One-gallonsecondaryfermenters,glass2 #6rubberstopperswithonehole4 Airlocks

Airlocks,wine thief, racking tube, stoppers, corkers and other gear. Thesewillgivemanyyearsoffaithfulserviceifgivenpropercare.

1 Rackingtube,sizedtofittheone-gallonsecondaryfermenters,butwillworkwithboth

5ft

”plastictubing

1 Hoseclamp, ”1 Winethief2 Nylonstrainingbags1 Two-handedcorker36 Winebottles50 Corks

In addition to equipment, making country wines requires a variety ofinnocuous but nevertheless important additives.All fruits other thanEuropeangrapeswill requireadditionalsugar in the formofeithersugarorhoney.Mostfruitswilllacksufficientacid,thoughwithoutdilutionafewmayhavetoomuch.Likewise,mostwon’thavesufficienttannintogiveaproperlywine-likemouth-feel.Of course, yeastwill need to be added, and the fruits don’t have enoughnutrients on their own to sustain a healthy fermentation to completion, sonutrientswillneedtobeaddedfortheyeast.

Citric,Malic,andTartaricAcidsThough most fruits contain more than one of these acids, citric acid isusually associated with citrus fruits, malic acid with apples, and tartaric acidwithgrapes.Youcanbuythesemixedtogetherasaso-called“acidblend,”butthey are inexpensive and I recommendbuying them separately.Thisway, youcanusetherightacidforthefruityouareusingorthecharacteryouwantyourwinetohaveandyouaren’tlockedintotheformulaofagivenmanufacturer.Ifyou are using a recipe that requires “acid blend” you canmake it yourself bythoroughlymixinganequalquantityofeachofthethreeacidstogether.

The acidity of your must should be checked prior to the beginning offermentation.Mostoften,acidwillneedtobeadded.

GrapeTanninTanninsareresponsiblefortheastringenttasteofawine.Theyarepresentin the skin and seeds of grapes, and sowines that result from conducting theprimaryfermentationwiththeskinsandseedswilltendtohavemoretanninandhavemoreastringency.Whitewinesderivedfrompressedjuicearethereforelessastringentthanredwinesderivedfromfermentingwiththeskins.

Ingredientsotherthangrapescanhavemoreorlesstannincontent,andthatcontentwillvarybasedupontheamountoftimewholefruitisleftintheprimaryfermenteraswell.

PecticEnzymePecticenzyme is needed to break down the pectins in fruits so theywon’tleaveacloudyhaze in thewine.Grapeshaveenoughpecticenzymenaturally,butallotherfruitsyouarelikelytousewillneedsomehelp.

FermentationInhibitorIt can be difficult to judge when fermentation is completed. Early inwinemaking it is also common for thehomewinemaker tobe abit impatient(and justifiably so!) for the finished product. The unfortunate side effect ofbottlingabit tooearly isawinebottlewithapoppedcork(andcorrespondingmess)orevenashatteredbottle.Sometimesyoucanget luckyandjustendupwith a barely perceptible sentiment and a lightly sparkling wine. In winejudgings, this is considered a defect in a still wine, but for home use it is adelightful thing.Still, ifyouwant tomakesparklingwines it isbetter tomakethemonpurposeratherthanaccidentally,becausetheiraccidentalmanufactureisattendedbysomerisk.

Potassiumsorbate,asemi-syntheticpreservativethatinhibitsfermentation,isaddedtowinesasastabilizertopreventfurtherfermentation.Itisusedintwoinstances.First,toabsolutelyguaranteeanendoffermentationinwinesthatarebottledyoung.Second,tostopfermentationinwinesthatareintentionallysweetandtheonlythinginhibitingtheyeastisthehighalcoholcontent.

Thepositiveisthatpotassiumsorbateworkswell,isgenerallyacceptedassafe, andwill give you good insurance against exploding bottles. It is seldomnoticeableatallwhenusedforyoungwinesandwhitewines.Thedownsideisthatitcandevelopoff-smellsinsomewinesoveraperiodofyears.Soifyouare

makingawinethatyouplantokeepformanyyears,ratherthanusingpotassiumsorbate I would recommend bulk aging it for at least a year in a secondaryfermentertoassuretheendoffermentationpriortobottling.

Anothermethodofending fermentation is toaddsupplementalalcohol tothewine in the formofbrandy (which is distilled fromwine).Thisprocess iscalled fortification. Raising the alcohol level in the wine above the alcoholtoleranceoftheyeast(usually20%)assuresitsdormancy.Fortificationisusedinthemanufactureofportwines.Portwinesaretypicallysweetanddark,thoughsomedryandwhiteportsexist.Thesesweetwineswerestabilizedforshippingpurposes by racking them into a secondary fermenter that already containedenoughbrandy(about¼ofthevolumeofthewine)toraisethealcohollevelto18%to20%.Thisbroughtaboutaquickendtofermentationwhileretainingasmuchas10%residualsugar.Thestabilityofportwinescanallowthemtokeepfordecades.

YeastEnergizerYeastenergizersuppliescrucialnutrientsforyeastthatallowittoreproduceanddoagoodjobofconvertingsugartoalcohol.Anywinemadefromanythingbut vitis vinifera grapes will need this. Yeast energizer usually contains foodgradeammoniumphosphate,magnesiumsulfate,yeasthullstosupplylipids,andthe entire vitamin B complex, of which thiamine (vitamin B1) is the mostimportant.

SulfiteSulfite is used to retard spoilage organisms and wild yeasts and as anantioxidant.Thoughitispossibletomakesulfite-freewine,itsuseincreasesthelikelihoodofsuccessforbeginners,particularlywhentheyareusingreal fruitsinsteadofpasteurizedbottledjuices.SulfiteisevenpermittedinwineslabeledasUSDAOrganic.

Youshouldgettwoformsofsulfite.ThefirstispotassiummetabisulfiteintheformofCampdentablets.Campdentabletsaresizedwiththeideainmindofaccuratedosingofwineandmuststopurifymustpriortoinitiatingfermentationandhelpclear andpreserve thewine later.The second ispowderedpotassiummetabisulfite. In powdered form it is used to make sterilizing solutions forsterilizingequipment.

YeastHomewinemakinghasbeenpopularsolongacrosssomanycountriesthatthere are literally hundreds of varieties of yeast available. Because coveringthemallwouldbeaprodigioustask,Iwanttocoversomecommonyeaststhatwill bemost generally useful for practically anythingyou’d like to try to turnintowine.Later,youcanbranchoutandtrytheotherexcellentvarietiesofyeastthatareavailable.

RedStarPasteurChampagneThis is an excellent all-around yeast for making dry wines. It produces

glycerolaswellasalcohol,andthisgiveswinesanicemouth-feel.Iparticularlylike using this yeast in wines containing apple, pear, and flower ingredientsbecauseitproducesfresharomasthatmatchtheseingredients.Itworkswellatlowertemperatures,evenaslowas55degrees,andtoleratesupto16%alcohol.

RedStarMontrachetYeastIfyoudon’thavemuchcontrolof theambient temperatureofyourmust,

thisyeast isagoodchoice. Itcanworkat temperatures ranging from55 to95(thoughitdoeslesswellattheextremesthanitdoesinthemiddleofthatrange),andproduceslessacetaldehydethanmostyeasts.Thearomasarenice,andwithan alcohol tolerance of 15%, this yeast iswell-adapted tomaking sweet port-stylewines.Ilikeusingittomakeblueberryandcherrywines.

LalvinD-47Ifyou’dliketomakeadrywhitewinestartingfromapplesorpears,thisis

an excellent choice. Its temperature range is narrow—only 58 to 68—but thatmakes it perfect for fermentations that proceed in the house during thewinterwhenhomesareusuallymaintainedpreciselyinthatrange.ThesedimentformedbyD-47iscompact,whichmakesrackingeasier.

LalvinICV-D254With an alcohol tolerance of 18%, ICV-D254 will ferment any practical

must to dryness. This yeast ferments quickly, so you’ll want to keep thetemperature under 80 degrees to avoid foaming. Youmight want to keep thetemperature even lower to preserve volatile flavor components because ICV-D254creates avery complex and fruity flavorprofile that really enhances the

fruitcharacterofawine.Thiswouldbeagoodchoiceforblueberrywine.

Wyeast4632DryMeadYeastMeads,alsoknownashoneywines,areenjoyingaresurgenceinpopularity.

Manyyeastswillworktomakemead,butthisyeastinparticularcreatesflavornotesthathaveresultedinmanyaward-winningmeads.Thetemperaturerangeis55 to75,butyou’llwant tostayasclose to65asyoucan tomaximizeflavorproduction.Wyeast 4632 has an alcohol tolerance of 18%andwill result in averydrymead.

ConsolidatedIngredientListThe following ingredient list will allow you to make many successfulgallonsofwine.Asyourexperienceexpands,youmaywish toadoptdifferentmaterialsandtechniques;butmosthomewinemakersfindthatthislistismorethansufficientfortheirneeds.Incompilingthislist,Iwenttotwowell-knownonline retailers of winemaking supplies, and in both cases the total cost wasunder$40.Youcansave$7byomittingtheWyeast#4632fromthelist.

4oz Citricacid4oz Malicacid4oz Tartaricacid2oz Liquidtannin½oz Pecticenzymeliquid2oz Yeastenergizer1oz Potassiumsorbate100 Campdentablets4oz Powderedpotassiummetabisulfite2pkt RedStarPasteurChampagneyeast2pkt RedStarMontrachetyeast2pkt LalvinD-47yeast2pkt LalvinICV-D254yeast1pkt Wyeast#4632DryMeadyeast

Important additives and adjuncts used for making wine. These areinexpensiveandlastalongtime.

4Downey,R.(2002),WineSnobScandal,SeattleWeekly,Feb.20,2002

4

TheScienceofWine

Atitscore, thetheoryofmakingwine(alsobeerandbread)isnothingmorethan the conversion of sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide by theenzymesinyeast:

glucose ethyl alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy C6H12O62(CH3CH2OH)+2(CO2)+Energy

Using the foregoing formula based upon the molecular weights5 of thecompounds, 180 grams of glucose will be converted into 92 grams of ethylalcoholand88gramsofcarbondioxide.Thismeansthattheyieldofalcohol,byweight, inaperfect fermentation is92/180or51%,and thatnearlyhalfof theweightofthesugarislostintheformofcarbondioxidegas.

Thedensityofglucoseis1.54g/cm3,sothevolumeoccupiedby180gramsofglucoseis180/1.54or116.88cm3.Thedensityofethylalcoholis.789g/cm3,andthevolumeoccupiedby92gramsofethylalcoholis92/.789or116.6cm3.

Inotherwords,eventhoughnearlyhalfofthemassofsugarislostintheformofcarbondioxidegas,thevolumeofthesolutionstayssonearlythesameastobeindiscerniblewithoutresortingtoveryprecisemeasurements.

Furthermore, the percentage of alcohol in beverages is not measured bymass,butratherbyvolume.Thismeansthatthevolumeoccupiedbyalcoholinacompletely fermented solutionwill be nearly identical to the volume of sugarthatwasinthesolution.Soifyouknowhowmuchsugarisinasolutionbeforefermentation starts, you know how much alcohol could be produced in acompletedfermentation.

Aswediscussedabitinthelastchapter,whathappensovertheprocessofmaking wine is a lot more complex than a simple conversion of sugar intoalcohol,soI’dliketoexpandonthatsomemore.

SugarUnlessyouareusingvitisviniferagrapes,allofyourwinemustswillcontainlesssugar than isneededtomakeaself-preservingwine.Thesugarcontentofcommonfruits(otherthanwinegrapes)isinsufficient.Inorderforawinetobeself-preservingwithoutneedforpasteurizationortheadditionofpreservatives,itneedsanalcoholcontentofatleast9%.Inpractice,becauseyoumayaddwaterbetweenrackingsinordertofillairspace,you’llwantenoughsugartoyieldanalcoholcontentof10%orhigher.

MeasuringSugarLevelsManywinemakingbooks andpamphlets are fullof recipes that specify acertainfixedamountofsugarforagivenfruit.Suchrecipesrelyuponthefalseassumption that the sugar content of a given fruit is the same nomatter howclosetoripenessitwaswhenharvested,howlongithasbeenstored,oreventhevarietyofthefruitinquestion.

Thekey togetting the sugar right isusingahydrometer.Thehydrometerwas discussed briefly in the previous chapter. As stated, it looks a lot like athermometerwith a big bulb on the end. Itmeasures the amount of dissolvedsolidsinasolutionbyhowfaritsinks.Thereisalongstemandascale,andthespecific gravity is read where the liquid touches the glass. This is importantbecausethesurfacetensionoftheliquidwillgiveafalsereadinganywhereelse,sobesuretoreadthevaluewheretheliquidistouchingtheglass.

Usingtheweightmethodofdeterminingspecificgravity.

Iuseawinethiefthatdoublesasahydrometerjar.SoIcleanandsanitizethewine thiefandhydrometer, and thengive thehydrometera spinas Iput it

intotheliquid.Givingthehydrometeraspinisnecessarybecauseotherwiseairbubblescouldcling to itandgive it falsebuoyancythatwouldgive inaccuratereadings.

Onceyouhaveyourreading,youwillneedtocorrectittocompensateforthetemperatureofthemust,becausehydrometersarecalibratedfor60degrees.Ifthetemperatureisbetween40and50degrees,subtract0.002fromthereading.If the temperature is between 50 and 55 degrees, subtract 0.001. If thetemperatureisbetween65and75,add0.001,andifthetemperatureisbetween75and80,add0.002.Ifthetemperatureisover80,letitcoolbeforemeasuring.

There is another method that I have never seen mentioned in books onwinemaking,but Ibelieve is superior even though it requires theuseofmath.Themethodisasfollows:

Buy a jug of distilled water at the supermarket. Leave it at roomtemperaturenexttoyourprimaryfermentersothatitisatthesametemperature(by doing this, you won’t need tomake temperature corrections later). Use ascale accurate to within 0.01g to weigh an empty and dry 10ml graduatedcylinder.6Thenfillthecylinderwith10mlofthedistilledwaterandrecordthatweight.Finally,emptythecylinder,andusingalargesterilizedsyringe,fill thegraduated cylinder to the 10mlmark with winemust and record that weight.When measuring volume, put your eye at a level with the markings on thecylinderandfilluntil the lowestpartof the liquid isperfectlyalignedwith the10mlmark.

Wenowhavethreenumbers.Aistheweightoftheemptycylinder,Bistheweight of the cylinder filled with distilled water, and C is the weight of thecylinderfilledwithwinemust.Theequationforthespecificgravityis:SG=(C-A)/(B-A).Forexample,mygraduatedcylinderweighs37.65g.Whenfilledwithdistilled water it weighs 47.64g, and when filled with a light sugar syrup itweights 48.57g. SG = (48.57-37.65)/(47.64-37.65) or 1.093. Because both thedistilledwaterandthemustwereweighedatthesametemperature,temperaturecorrectionsaren’tneeded.Evenbetter,theamountofmustusedfortestingwastrulytiny—lessthananounce.Discardthesampleinthesinkaftertesting.

AdjustingSugarLevelsAsImentioned earlier, in order for awine to be self-preserving, it shouldhave at least 9% alcohol. The following table gives you the potential alcoholbaseduponspecificgravity,andhowmuchsugarispresentinagallonofmusttogiveyouthatmuchalcoholifitiscompletelyfermentedbytheyeast.

Because water may be added to the wine at some rackings—therebydiluting the alcohol—you should also aim for a starting specific gravity thatexceeds1.080,correspondingto10.6%alcohol.Also,eventhoughaparticularstrainofyeastmighthavea theoreticalalcohol toleranceexceeding20%,suchyeasts will not thrive in musts containing enough sugar to make that muchalcohol. Higher levels of alcohol like that are achieved by fortification or byadding small amountsof sterile sugar syrup as existing sugars in themust aredepleted.Inordertoavoidafermentationfailingduetoexcessivesugarlevels,you should limit the initial specific gravity of your musts to no greater than1.100, which corresponds to 13.6% alcohol. So, aim for a starting gravitybetween1.080and1.100.Inpractice,Iuse1.090foralmostallofmywines.

Almost all of yourmustsmade frompressed or juiced fruitswill containinsufficient levels of sugar to reach the minimum necessary alcohol content.EventhoughIamabouttocoverthemathinmoredepth,thefollowingshortcutequationwillworkfine:

OuncesofSugar=(DesiredS.G.-MeasuredS.G)×360

SpecificGravityTable

Ifyoudecidetoaddhoneyrather thansugar, thenmultiply theamountofsugarneededby1.3tomakeupforthemoisturecontentofhoney.Ideally,youwoulduseascale formeasuringsugar tobeadded;but ifyoudon’thaveone,youcanusemeasuringcupsandallowforsevenouncesofgranulatedsugarpercup.

Forexample,ifyouaremakingcyserfromjuicedapplesandthemeasuredS.G. of your must is 1.040 but you want a starting S.G. of 1.090, you firstdeterminehowmuchsugarisneeded:

(1.090—1.040)×360=18ounces

Becauseyouwillbeusinghoney insteadofsugar,you’llmultiply thatby1.3tocompensateforthemoisturecontentofthehoney:18×1.3=23.4ounces.

Sometimes, you might want to start with a high-quality bottled juice tomakewine.Youcantellhowmuchsugarisinthejuicejustbyreadingthelabel,anditusuallyamountstoanywherefrom30gto50gper8fl.oz.serving.Yourfirsttaskinthatcaseistodounitconversion.Letmeillustratewithanexample.

Imighthavesome100%blackcherry juice that Iwould like to turn intowine.Ithas50gofsugarpereight-ounceglass.Howmanyouncesofsugardoesithavepergallon?Agallonis128ounces,so thereare16eight-ounceglassespergallon.Sothetotalamountofsugarinagallonofthejuiceistheamountin16 eight-ounce glasses, or 16× 50g= 800g.You convert grams to ounces bydividingby28.35,so800g/28.35gramsperounce=28.2ouncesofsugarpergallon.Lookingatourtableofspecificgravities,wecanseeitalreadyhasplentyofsugar.

I may also have some organic concord grape juice that contains 40g ofsugarpereightounceglass.Doing the samemath, (16glasses×40g)/28.35=22.6ouncesofsugarpergallon.Thatcorrespondstoonly8%alcohol,whichistoolowforaself-preservingwine.Iwanttobringitupto12.3%,buttoaccountfor the increased volume from adding the sugar, I’ll use the sugar quantitycorrespondingto12.8%alcohol.SoIneedtoadd33.1—22.6=10.5ouncesofsugar.

Sometimesusinghoney insteadofcane sugarcangivewinea reallynicebackgroundflavor.Whenusinghoneyasasubstituteforsugar,justmultiplythenumberofouncesneededby1.3 tocompensate for thehoney’swatercontent.Manycookbooksadvocateoilingthecontainersusedforhandlinghoney.Donotdothis,asyou’llendupwithapersistentoilylayerinyourwine.Instead,heatthe honey by placing the jar and any handling tools in simmeringwater.Thatwillmakeiteasiertousewithoutaddingoiltoyourmust.

Togiveyousomeideaofhowmuchsugarwouldneedtobeaddedtothejuicesofvariousfruits,IhaveincludedatablelistingsomefruitsandtherangeofspecificgravitiesIobtainedwhentestingdifferentvarieties.Keepinmindthatthisisjustaguideline.Don’tsubstituteuseofthistablefortestingthespecificgravity yourself because the particular fruits you use will be of differentvarieties,growninotherplaces,andharvestedatdifferenttimes.

SpecificGravityRangesofCommonFruits

TanninsTanninsarecomplex polyphenols7 produced by plants. In foods, they arebitter and astringent, and it is theorized that they serve to deter herbivores,thoughitislikelythattheyserveotherpurposesaswell.Chemically,theycanbedivided into several categories, but they all have in common the characteristicthattheyareabletobindtoproteinsandprecipitatethemoutofsolutions.

Tanninsaremorepresentintheskins,seeds,andwoodyportionsofplants.Hence,whenredwineismadebyfermentingtheseedsandskinsofthegrapes,tanninisdissolvedintothewine.ThesolubilityoftanninisaffectedbythepHofthe solution.Tanninsaremore soluble inneutral solutions than inacidicones,andtheyaremoresolubleinalcoholthaninwater.Sowhenafermentationfirststarts,verylittlecolorandtanninisextractedbutoncesomealcoholisproduced,theextractionproceedsmorerapidly.Inaddition,tanninsareimpartedtowinesthroughagingprocesses thatutilizeoakbarrelsor theadditionofoakcubes tothefermenter.

Theabilityoftanninstoprecipitateproteinshasimportantimplicationsforthe aging of wines and beers. Precipitation refers to the dissolved tanninscombiningwithdissolvedproteinstoformacompoundthatcan’tbedissolved.This compound, once formed, slowly sinks to thebottomof thevessel.Whenthishappens,theastringentorbitterflavorsimpartedbythetanninarelessenedandthehazinessimpartedbytheproteinisdiminished.

Tanninsarealsochelators.That is, theycombinewith the ions(positivelychargedatoms)ofmetalsinordertomakethemnon-reactive.Amajoreffectoftanninsis that theycombinewithironinsuchawayastomakeitbiologicallyuseless to living things.Pathogenicbacteria love iron.Theylove ironsomuchthat they invade thehumanbody toget it.8Oneof the reasonswhy redwineskeep somuch better than others is because the tannins have tied up the iron,

making the environment unattractive for pathogenic bacteria. Tannins alsochelate magnesium, copper, and other metals, but do so without making themetalsunavailable.Thisaltersthetastebyalteringthenatureofthecompounds.

Ingredientsotherthangrapescanhavemoreorlesstannincontent,andthatcontentwill vary based upon the amount of time thewhole fruit is left in theprimaryfermenteraswell.

Unfortunately,becausetanninsencompasssuchavastarrayofcompounds,assessing the tannin content of a must is a devilishly complex exercise inexperimental chemistry. If you are curious, please seeNew Tannin Assay forWinemakers by Moris L. Silber and John K. Fellman for the most accuratemethod using protein dye markers or the older (and more controversial)precipitation technique published by Hagerman and Butler in the Journal ofAgriculturalFoodChemistryin1978.

Some fruits already have so much tannin that they should be diluted inorder to make a drinkable wine, whereas others will require the addition oftannintohelppullproteinsoutofsolution.Ihaveincludedatableofcommonfruitsthatshowshowmuchrelativetannintheyhave,dividedintolow(lessthan3gramsperliter),medium(3–4gramsperliter)andhigh(morethan4gramsperliter). If a juice is in the “low” category, add teaspoon of grape tannin pergallon.Ifajuiceisinthe“medium”category,add¼teaspoonpergallon.Ifitisin the“high”category,youwill likelyneed todilute the juicewithwateror ajuicewithlowertannincontenttoavoidmakingawinethatistooastringenttobeenjoyable.Ifyouhavetodilutethejuiceanywaybecauseofitsacidity(laterinthischapter),considerthedilutedjuicetobeonecategorylowerforpurposesoftannincontent.

RelativeTanninContentofCommonWineIngredients

YourfruitswillcertainlydiffertosomedegreefromthoseIusedfortestingandmytestingmethodusedmyownhomelabratherthanaprofessionallab,soIrecommend thatyoumixupyourmustandaddhalf the tanninsspecified,andthen take a clean spoon and actually taste themust. If it isn’t giving you any“pucker effect”go ahead and add the rest of the tannin specified.Amust that

startsouttastywilllikelyturnintoatastywine!Ifyouhaveafinishedwinethatforsomereasonhasexcessivetannin,keep

inmind that somewines are at their best after being stored for several years,during which time the tannins slowly polymerize, combine with proteins orotherwisebecomelessastringent.Ifthatdoesn’twork,oryouneedtouseawineearly, you can precipitate out the tannins using a combination of gelatin andkieselsol.

To use gelatin, use your scale tomeasure out one gram of fining gelatin(fromawinemakingstore),andmixthatwithtwotablespoonsofcoldwaterinacleancoffeecup.Separately,putseventablespoonsofwaterinaglassmeasuringcup,andheatonhighinthemicrowaveforoneminute.Addthehotwatertothedissolvedgelatininthecoffeecup,mixingthoroughly.Allowthistocooldowntoatemperatureof80degrees,andthengentlystirintwotablespoonspergallonof wine or the whole amount for five gallons. Leave it for two to five daysbeforeaddingthekieselsol.

Wheneveryouusegelatin,itwillimpartsomehazetothewine.Thiscanberemovedwithkieselsol,asolublesilicagel.Solublesilicagelhasanionicchargethat will attract uncombined gelatin and gelatin-tannin complexes. This willprecipitatequickly.Useonemlpergallonofwine.Stiritingently.Waitatleastfivedaysbutnotmorethantenbeforerackingthewinetoleavetheprecipitatedtanninsbehind.(Rackingisexplainedinthenextchapter.)

AcidsinWineTheacidityofwinesisimportantbecausetheorganicacidshelpestablishanenvironment favorable toyeast.Theyalsocombineover timewithalcohols toenhance flavor and smell, and they assist sulfite in sanitizing themust.Mostimportantly,theyconveyatasteoftheirownthatbalancesthewine.

Dependingupon the fruit youuse, yourwinemustwill alreadycontain acombination of organic acids. Every fruit has some amount of citric acid, ascitricacidiscrucialtometabolism,butoftenadifferentacidispredominantandthecombinationofacidsisuniqueforeveryfruit.Eachfruitalsohasadifferentoverall level of acidity. Some fruits are so acidic (> 9 grams per liter) theycannotbeusedexclusivelytomakeawinemust,andtheirjuicemustbedilutedwith either water or the juice of a less acidic fruit. The following table listscommonfruits,theiracidityastestedbytitrationandtheprimaryorganicacidsineachfruitindecreasingorderofrelativequantity.

AcidityofCommonWineIngredients

MeasuringAcidityThankfully, unlike tannins, which are hard to measure, the overall acidcontent of wine musts is easy to determine.Wine musts contain a variety ofacids, but it isn’t possible for a home winemaker to separate these out andmeasure them independently.Because eachof theprimaryorganic acidshas adifferent molecular weight (150.9 for tartaric, 134.1 for malic and 192.1 forcitric), but a mole of each is neutralized by twomoles of sodium hydroxide,whatwinemakershavestandardizeduponis interpretingtheresultsof thetestsasthoughtheacidbeingneutralizedweretartaric.Likewise,winemakersdon’tusually like to think in terms of moles, so the results are converted via amultiplierintothemorefamiliar“partsperthousand.”Soacidmeasurementsofwinemust are provided in terms of TA (titrateable acidity) as tartaric in PPT(parts per thousand). This is the same thing as grams per liter, abbreviated asg/L.

Themethod ofmeasuring the acid content is called titration, and it takesadvantageofthefactthatacidsandbasesneutralizeeachother.Youmighthaveobserved this phenomenon as a kid bymixing baking sodawith vinegar. Thecombination generated carbon dioxide gas initially, but after a while settleddownanddidnothingonceeithercomponentwasfullyneutralized.Wewon’tbeusingbakingsodabecausewedon’twant togenerategas. Instead,we’lluseastandardizedsolutionofsodiumhydroxide—otherwiseknownaslye.

Thewidelyavailableacidtestkitshaveaproblem.Thatis,theyrelyuponthe color change of an indicator (phenolphthalein) which turns pink whenenoughsodiumhydroxidehasbeenadded.But ifyouaredealingwithapink,blue,orpurplesample,ascertainingwhenithaschangedcolorisreallydifficult.IrecommendusinganinexpensivepHmeter9instead.

Byusingeitheranindicatorthatchangescolorwhenthesolutionhasbeenneutralized or a pHmeter, you can tell when enough base has been added toneutralize the acid. Because you know the concentration of the base you areusing, the amount of acid in your test sample can be easily calculated. Thecalculationisasfollows:

(Normality of Base) X (Volume of Base) = (Normality of Unknown) X(VolumeofUnknown)

Because the calculations are just the arithmetic of convertingmolarity togramsper liter, Ihavedesigned theprocedurebelow to take that intoaccount,andusejustaone-timemultiplication.

Supplies150mlbeaker1glassstirringrod110mlsyringe

1cupdistilledwater

1containerof0.1Nsodiumhydroxidesolution

ProcedureWearsafetyglasses.Usethecleansyringetomeasure5mlofwinemustandtransferitintothe

beaker.Cleanthesyringeandthenrinsewiththedistilledwater.Fillthesyringetothe10mlmarkwithsodiumhydroxidesolutionAdd the sodium hydroxide to the beaker 0.1 ml at a time. After each

addition,stirthecontentsofthebeakerandtestthepHwiththemeter.RepeatthepreviousstepuntilthepHmeterreads8.3orhigher.Thenstop.Makenoteofthereadingonthesyringe.The TA (tartaric) in PPT (or g/L) of your must is equal to 1.5 × (10—

readingonsyringe).Clean,rinse,dry,andstoreyourequipment.

AdjustingAcidityAcids affect flavors and indirectly create new flavors in amaturingwine.Whenmakingwine,theacidityofamustneedstobeadjustedsothatitishighenough,butnotsohighastomakeanunpleasantflavor.Thoughyoursenseoftaste is the final arbiter, there are some ranges of acidity that have beenestablishedbywinemakersovertimethatcanserveasageneralguideline:

DryWhiteWine:7.0-9.0g/LSweetWhiteWine:8.0-10.0g/LDryRedWine:6.0-8.0g/LSweetRedWine:7.0-9.0g/LDryFruitWinesandMeads:5.0-6.5g/LSweetFruitWinesandMeads:6.5-9.0g/LSherries:5.0-6.5g/L

Manycountrywinesareblended.Forexample,youmightmakeablueberrywine thatcontainsa fairamountof redgrapeconcentrate.Soconsider the fullnature and character of your wine in assessing which category of acidity is

appropriate. In the case of a dry blueberry wine containing red grapeconcentrate,I’dbeaimingforabout7.0g/L.

Ifyoufindyourwineis tooacidic,nomorethan2g/Ltoomuch,youcanreduce the acidity by adding potassium carbonate. Potassium carbonate has amolecularmassof138.2,andtartaricacidhasamolecularmassof150.9.Thereare 3.79 liters in a gallon, and potassium carbonate removes onemolecule ofacid for every molecule of potassium carbonate added, so for every PPTreductioninacidityrequired,add3.5gramsofpotassiumcarbonatepergallon.

For example, if I have five and a half gallons ofwinemust as describedabove,ithasanacidityof8.2g/LandIwantanacidityof7.0g/L,theamountofpotassiumcarbonateIwouldneedtoaddis:

(5.5 gallons) × 3.5 grams (8.2g/L-7.0g/L) = 23.1 grams.Measure itwithyourscaleforbestaccuracy.

Forreductionsgreater than2.0g/L,Idonotrecommendaddingpotassiumcarbonateasitcanimpartundesiredsaltytastes.Instead,Irecommendblending.You can blend with water or other juices with lower acidity. In general, youdon’t want to blend with too much water as that will reduce the flavor andincrease the amount of sugar you’ll need to add.Keep inmind thatwhateverfruit juices you use for blending shouldn’t overpower the primary ingredient.Thiswillrequireabitofalgebra.

Pretend Iwant tomake blueberrywine. To that end, I have juiced someblueberries, and tested the acidity of themust at an excessively sour 11g/L. Iwant7g/L.Iammaking5.5gallonsofmust.

Thereare3.79litersinagallon.Ifmydesiredacidityis7g/L,thenthetotalamountofacidin5.5gallonsofmustwillbe7g/LX3.79L/gallonX5.5gallons=145.9grams.Myblueberrymustcontains11g/Lofacidity,whichworksoutto11g/LX3.79L/gallon=41.7gramspergallon.

If I wanted to dilute the juice with water alone, it would be easy todeterminehowmuchblueberrymustIcouldusebydividingthetotalamountofdesiredacidin5.5gallonsofmust(145.9grams)bythenumberofgramsofacidinagallonofmyblueberrymust(41.7grams).So145.9grams/41.7gramspergallon= 3.5 gallons. So tomake 5.5 gallons ofmustwith the proper level ofacidity, Iwoulduse3.5gallonsofblueberrymust andmakeup the remainingtwo gallons with water. Because blueberries are very strongly flavored, thiswouldlikelyworkfineaslongasweaddedtanninandsugarasneeded.

Ofcourse,wewouldn’thavetousewater.Wecouldusewatermelonjuiceinstead!Ifwehaveonegallonofwatermelonjuicehasanacidityof3g/L,howmuchblueberryjuiceandwaterwouldweneedtouse?

The total acidity available from the watermelon juice is 3.79L/gallon X

3g/LX1gallon=11.4grams.Themustrequiresatotalof145.9grams,sotheamount of acidity remaining is 145.9 grams-11.4 grams = 134.5 grams. Ifwedivide thatby thenumberofgramsofacidpergallonofblueberry juice (41.7grams)weget134.5grams/41.7gramspergallon=3.22gallons.That’scloseenough to three gallons plus a quart, so now our recipe is 3.25 gallons ofblueberryjuice,onegallonofwatermelonjuice,andtheremaining(5.5gallons-3.25 gallons-1 gallon) 1.25 gallons made up with water. As you can see, themathforblendingtogettherightacidlevelsisn’tverydifficult.

Usually,however,excessiveacidisnottheproblem.Theproblemismorelikelytobeinsufficientacid.Thisisespeciallythecasewithlowormediumacidfruitsthatarefullyripened,andwithfruitswhosequantitiesneedtobekeptlowduetohightanninssuchascherries.

If Iweremakingacherrywine,becausecherry ishigh in tannin, Iwouldlikelyusehalfcherryjuiceandhalfredorwhitegrapejuiceinmymust.Becausetheresultwouldbearedwine,I’dwanttheaciditytobeataround7.0g/L.Inalllikelihood,though,whenImeasured,I’dfindtheaciditycloserto5.5g/L.

To increase the acidity, you add acid directly to the must and stir it in.Winemakingshopsmakecitric,tartaricandmalicacidsavailable,aswellasanacidblendcomposedofequalpartsofall three.Theonlyplace Icanseeacidblend being used is in meads (honey wine) that have no fruit component.Otherwise,what I recommend is theuseofacidsbasedupon thenatureof thefruit.

Earlierinthischapterisatablethatlists,inorderofinfluenceontaste,theprimaryorganicacidspresentinavarietyoffruits.Forsomefruits,theprimaryacid ismalic, forothers it iscitricor tartaric.Whencorrecting theacidityofamustwhoseprimarycharacteristhatofaparticularfruit,youshouldusethetwomostimportantacidsforthatfruitina2:1ratio.

Forexample,ifIammakinganapplewine,theprimaryacidsarefirstmalicandthencitricacid.WhenIaddaciditytothemust,Iwilladdablendofacidscomposedoftwopartsmalicacidandonepartcitricacid.

Determininghowmuchacidtoaddisstraightforward.IfIwantmymusttohave6.5g/Lacidityanditonlyhas5.0g/Lofacidity,thenIneedtoadd6.5g/L-5.0g/L=1.5g/Lofacid.Convertingthattogallonssimplyrequiresmultiplyingtheresultbythenumberof liters inagallon,whichis3.79.Soto increase theacidityof5.5gallonsofmustfrom5.0g/Lto6.5g/LIwouldneedtoadd1.5g/LX3.79L/gallonX5.5gallons=31.3gramsof acid. In evennumbers, then, Iwouldadd20gramsofmalicacidand10gramsofcitricacid.

There isaschoolof thought thatcitricacidshouldneverbeused inwinemusts. The reason is because citric acid can promote acetification (i.e. the

process of turning wine to vinegar) or can contribute to the development ofdiacetyl (buttery) flavors. Both statements are true. However, if you arescrupulous in your sanitation, acetification is not likely to happen and somewinescouldbenefitfromanydiacetyldeveloped.Thathavingbeensaid,ifyouareconcernedabout this,youcansubstitute tartaricacidforcitricacid,andbydoingthisyouwillincreasethegrapeflavorsinyourwine.

PectinsPectins are long chains of carbohydrates composed of various sugars thatformthecellwallsof thefruitsusedtomakewine.Pectinsareresponsibleforturning the juices of some fruits into jelly. European grapes contain enoughpecticenzyme—anenzyme thatdestroyspectin—todestroy thatpectin soyouendupwitha clear fluidwine rather thana semi-solidgelatinousmass.Otherfruits don’t usually have enough of this enzyme naturally, whichmakes themexcellentformakingjellybutsuboptimalforwine.

Pectic enzyme purchased from the winemaking store is used in smallamounts tosupplement thenaturalpecticenzymes in themust.Over time, thisdegrades the pectin and thereby either makes its sugars available forfermentationorprecipitatestheleavingsintothebottomofthefermentersotheyare left behind at thenext racking.Therefore, pectic enzymehelps to produceclearwines.

You may recall that one reason most fruits and vegetables are blanchedbefore freezing or dehydrating is that the high temperature of blanchinginactivatestheenzymesthatcausetheproducetodegradeovertime.Thesamewilloccurwithpecticenzyme,sopecticenzymeshouldonlybeaddedtoamustwithatemperatureunder80degreesandthemustcannotbereheatedthereafter.

Whenmakingwineswithnoaddedsulfitesorwhenmakingwinesinwhichhoneyistheprimaryingredient,itiscommontoheatthemustinordertoassureitssterility.Anytimeheatedingredientsareaddedtothemust,thetemperatureofthemustshouldbeallowed todropadequatelybeforepecticenzyme isadded.The container of pectic enzyme has instructions printed on the label for howmuchtoaddtoyourmust,butthisisageneraldirection.Somefruitsrequirethestandardamount,butsomerequiredouble.Thefollowingtablewillletyouseeataglance.

EnzymeAccordingtoDirections DoublePecticEnzyme

Blackberries,Blueberries,Cherries,Nectarines,Peaches,Plums,Raspberries,Watermelon

Apples,Pears,Strawberries

PecticEnzymeRequirementsofVariousFruits

YeastNutrient,YeastEnergizer,Thiamine,andLipidSupplyDuring thereproductive phase of yeast in themust, the sheer volumeofyeast that is created from a tiny packet is impressive. There will literally bemillions of yeast cells per milliliter of must. All of this cellular budding anddivisionrequirescorebuildingblocksforproteinandtheotherpartsofayeastcell. As with many important factors, though these are usually present inEuropeangrapes toasufficientdegree, theyare lacking inpracticallyallotherprimaryingredientsforwinemaking.

A wine can be made successfully in some cases without the addition ofnutritionalbuildingblocksfortheyeast,butaddingthosebuildingblockswillgoalongwaytowardstackingthedeckinfavorofasuccessfuloutcome.

Youwill seewine supply stores sellingmany supplements for yeastwithnamessuchasyeastnutrientandyeastenergizer.Thereisnouniversalstandard,andso theprecise ingredientswillvarywith thesupplier. Ingeneral, theywillcontainpurifiedsourcesofnitrogenandphosphorusataminimum,thoughmanywill also contain a variety ofB-vitamins.Yeast nutrient usually contains onlyfood grade ammonium phosphate, whereas yeast energizer will contain thisalongwithmagnesiumsulfate,killedyeast,andtheentirevitaminBcomplex;ofwhichthiamine(vitaminB1)isthemostimportant.Sometimesyoumayseeureaas an ingredient. If you do, don’tworry. This is purified food-grade urea thatsuppliesnitrogenforbuildingproteinsanditisperfectlysafe.

Yeastcelldivisionrequirespropernutrition.

Iwould recommendusing yeast energizer in preference to yeast nutrient.But ifyouuseyeastnutrient instead,at leastadda100%RDAthiaminetabletandapinchofEpsomsaltinadditionforeachgallonofmust.

Thecellwallsofyeastalsorequirelipids(fats),andsuchfatsareinshortsupplyinsomewinemusts—especiallymeadsmadepredominantlyfromhoneywithlittleornofruit.Insuchcases,youcanuseyeasthullsasanadditiveoraspecialized additive that contains essential fatty acids such as FermaidK orGhostex.

SulfiteSomepeoplewhogetheadachesfromdrinkingwinebelievethemselvestobesensitivetosulfites.Usually,however,theygetheadachesfromredwinebutnotfromwhitewine,bothofwhichcontainsulfites.Sosulfitesarenottheissue.10ThisheadacheiscalledRedWineHeadache,andexpertsdisagreewidelyonitstruecause.Lessthan1%ofpeoplearetrulysensitivetosulfiteswhicharefoundubiquitously in lunchmeats, dried fruits, and evenwhite grape juice from thesupermarket.Obviously, if you are truly sensitive to sulfites you should avoidthematallcosts.

Sulfite is used so pervasively inwinemaking and considered so essentialthat itsuse isevenpermitted inwines labeledasUSDAOrganic.Though it ispossibletomakewineswithouttheuseofsulfitesandIhavesuccessfullydoneso, the odds of success for a beginner are greatly enhanced by using sulfites,especiallyifyouareusingfreshorfrozenfruitsinthemust.

Sulfiteisusedinwinemakingasasanitizertokillorinhibitwildyeastsandbacteria soyouendupmakingwine insteadofvinegar. It is alsoused tohelpclearwinesduringrackingtoarrest fermentationandtohelppreventoxidationandconsequentdegradationofflavor.

Sulfitecomesinmanyforms,butforourpurposestwoformsareimportant.The first is potassiummetabisulfite in the formofCampden tablets.Campdentabletsaresizedwiththeideainmindofaccuratedosingofwineandmuststopurifymustpriortoinitiatingfermentationandhelpclearandpreservethewinelater. To use Campden tablets, do not just plunk them into thewine ormust.Instead,useacleanedandsanitizedwinethieftoremovefourtoeightouncesofmust orwine, andput it into a sanitizedglass.Thoroughly crush the requisitenumberoftablets,andaddthepowdertothemustorwine.Stirtodissolve.Oncethetabletsaredissolved,addthemustorwinebacktotheoriginalcontainer.Fortheinitialsanitizingofamust,usetwotabletspergallonofmust.Forprotectingwinefromspoilageandoxidation,addonetabletpergallonbeforeracking.

The second is powdered potassiummetabisulfite. In powdered form it isusedtomakesterilizingsolutionsforsterilizingequipment.

Make a gallon jug (a clean empty plasticwater jug is fine) of sanitizingsolution. To make the sanitizing solution, dissolve a measuring teaspoon ofpotassiummetabisulfitepowder inagallonofwater.Youcanuse this solutionrepeatedly,andpouritbackinthebottleaftereachusetorinseafermenterorarackingtubeuntilitlosesitspotencyorbecomesobviouslydirty.Ifyoukeepthecontainer tightly sealedwhen not in use, itwill stay effective for a very longtime.Youcantellifitispotentbysniffingthesolution.Ifthescentjustbarelyticklesyournose,itneedstobereplaced.

There are other sanitizers available and when you have become moreexperienced and confident, you can branch out and start experimenting. Butsulfites are the easiest to use not only for the beginner, but also for themostprestigiousofprofessionalwineries.

TestingSulfiteLevelsIt isvery rare that youwouldneed to test the sulfite levels inwine.Simplyfollowing the directions in this book will assure adequate but not excessivelevels of sulfite formost purposes.However, there are instanceswhere you’llwanttoknowhowmuchsulfiteisinthewine.Forexample,ifyouplantofollowyour secondary fermentationwithamalolactic fermentation inorder to reduceperceived acidity, most malolactic cultures will be inhibited by sulfite levelsgreaterthan20ppm.Soifyouhavebeendosingregularlywithsulfitebetweenrackings,whenyourackintoacontainertoinitiatemalolacticfermentation,youshouldtestthesulfitelevelsinyourmust,andreducethemiftheyaretoohigh.

Youcanpurchasesulfitetestkitsfromwineequipmentsuppliers.Thesetestkitsusewhatiscalledthe“Ripper”methodandtheyworkquitewellwithwinesthatarenot stronglycolored.Withstronglycoloredwines, theygivea readingthat is toohighbecause thecompounds that impartcolor to thewinecombinewithsomeofthetestingredientsmakingtheminert.Youcan“guesstimate”theerror by subtracting10ppm from the results of the test, or you cando amoreelaborate test on your own. I’ve detailed that test in the advanced techniqueschapter.

To reduce sulfite levels, stir 3% hydrogen peroxide solution from thepharmacyintoyourwineandwaitanhour.Theamountyouneedisequalto1ml foreveryppmreductionpergallonofwine.So if Ihave5gallonsofmustwithasulfite levelof33ppmandIwant toreducethesulfite level to15ppmbeforeaddingamalolacticculture, Ineeda reductionof33ppm-15ppmor18ppm. The amount of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution to add is calculated like

this:(Gallonsofwine)X(ppmreductiondesired)=mlof3%hydrogenperoxide

solutiontoaddSo5gallonsX18ppm=90mlof3%hydrogenperoxidesolution.

YeastYeast is the star of the show.Wild yeast naturally colonizes the surfaces offruits, so sometimes crushed fruit, left to its own devices and protected fromother organisms, will ferment all by itself. In fact, this is the case in certainfamouswineregionswherethewildyeastsinhabitingtheareahaveco-evolvedwith the wine grapes. Though most wine yeasts are of the speciesSaccharomycescerevisiae, there arehundreds ifnot thousandsofvariationsofthis species, somewith dramatically different properties. The genome ofwineyeasthasovertwelvemillionbasepairs,makingforsubstantialpossibilitiesforvariation.

In practice, wine makers do not rely on wild yeasts because theunpredictability can often result in serious failures or faults in the finishedproduct. Instead, wine makers usually purify the musts of wild yeasts andbacteriabyadding sulfite.Once the sulfitehasbeenadded, themust is stirredthoroughly and then allowed to sit for a day before a cultured wine yeast ofknowncharacterisadded.

Addingyeasttothemustisknownaspitchingtheyeast, thoughinrealitylittle real pitching occurs because one-and five-gallon batches are relativelysmall. Inbatchesof thissize, thepacketofyeast is justsprinkledasevenlyaspossibleontopof themust in theprimaryfermenter.Donotstir. Ifyoustir, itwilltaketheyeastfarlongertomultiplyenoughtobecomeactive.Youwanttheyeasttobecomeactiveasquicklyaspossiblebecauseitisaddedafterthesulfitehas dissipated, so long lag times expose your must to a risk of spoilage bydelayingtheonsetofproductionofalcohol.

Because yeast needs oxygen in its initial replication stage beforefermentationbegins,youshouldaeratethemustbystirringitvigorouslybeforepitchingtheyeast.Somewinemakersputasanitizedfishtankaeratorconnectedtoanairpump into themust foranhouror sobeforepitching theyeast,but Ihavefoundagoodvigorousstirring(carefullysoastoavoidstickymesses)tobesufficient.

Yeast comes powdered in packets, in liquid in vials, and in many otherforms.Asyoubecomeamoreadvancedwinemaker,youmightdecide touse

liquidyeasts.The liquidyeasts require amplification,which I have covered inthe chapters on beer. But your initial use should be of powdered dry yeast inindividual foil packets. These are very well-characterized and foolproof. Justopenthepacketandsprinkleontopofthemust—anditworks.Don’tbefooledbythesimplicityofuseorthefacttheseyeastsareinexpensive.DrywineyeastsareaveryhighqualityproductandIhaveused themsuccessfullyforyears. Ifyou skimp and use bread or beer yeast tomake yourwine, don’t complain ifyourwinetasteslikebreadorissyrupy-sweetbecausethealcoholtolerancewastoolow.

5Themolecularweightofacompoundiscomputedbyaddingtheatomicweightsfromtheperiodictableofeachconstituentatom.Theatomicweightsofcarbon,hydrogenandoxygenrespectivelyare12.0107,1.00794 and 15.9994. So the molecular weight of glucose would be 6*12.0107 + 12*1.00794 +6*15.9994.ForeaseofdiscussionIhaveroundedtheresultstothenearestgram.

6 I use the AmericanWeighAWS-100 scale. Complete with calibration weights it costs less than $20.Graduatedcylindersarelikewiseubiquitouslyavailableonlineforlessthan$10.Getaglassoneratherthanplastic.Large syringes are available from livestock stores andonline for less than$3.Youdon’tneedtheneedle.

7 Phenol is a benzene ring compoundwith an -OHgroup on one of the carbons,making it an alcohol.Polyphenols are compounds composed of multiple phenol groups bonded together. The molecularweightsoftanninsrangefrom500tomorethan3000.

8Ewald,Paul(2002),PlagueTime:TheNewGermTheoryofDisease9IusetheMilwaukeepH600.Itcostsabout$20fromvariousvendors.10K.MacNeil,(2001)TheWineBible

5

IngredientsandTechniques

Theoretically, you could make “wine” or at least a liquid containingalcohol,fromjustsugar,water,yeastandsomenutrients.Butthewholepointofwineistopreservethenutritionalcontentofthestartingfruitsorvegetables,sowe’ll lookat it from thatpointofview.Any fruitorvegetablecanbeused tomake wine. Other than wine grapes, all fruits will require some amount ofsupplemental sugar.The juiceof some fruitswill require considerabledilutionduetotheirhighdegreeofacidityorastringency,andsomewillproducewinesso tasty you’ll wonder why you can’t find them commercially. Others, likeasparagus, will be downright unpalatable in some cases and suitable only formakingmarinades.

FruitsWinegrapes are the perfect fruit for making wine. All you need to do iscrushthemandtheymaketheperfectamountofjuicewiththeperfectlevelsofacidityandsugar.Everyotherfruitisimperfectinsomeway.Whilefruitsotherthangrapesareimperfect,theycanbemadeperfectthroughproperadjunctsandtechnique.

With air transportation for produce so prevalent, there are more fruitsavailable inour localmarkets than I couldever list, andquite a few Ihaven’ttriedbecausetheyaresoexpensive,suchasstarfruitandguava.Ingeneral,thehigher thequalityof the fruit, thehigher thepotentialqualityofyour finishedproduct. You will never make great wine from bad fruit—no amount oftechniquewillimproveitsquality.Butifyoustartwiththehighestqualityfruit,thereisatleastthepotentialforcreatinggreatwinethroughsolidtechnique.

Youcanusefruitinnearlyanyformtomakewine:freshfruits,dehydratedfruits,cannedfruits,andfrozenfruits.Freshfruitsandfrozenfruitsgivethebestresults,andinmanycasesfrozenfruitsaresuperiortofreshbecausetheprocessoffreezingbreaksdownthecellwallstoreleasemorejuiceandflavor.Canned

fruitsoftenhaveadistinctly“cooked”tastethatcandetractfromawine,makingit taste flat. They are best used for nomore than half of the fruit in a wine.Winemakingshopssellspeciallycannedfruitsthatcomeoutbetterinwinesthanthe canned fruit at the supermarket, but even these should constitute nomorethanhalfofthefruitbyweight.

Dehydrated fruits retain their sugar, but have been subjected to oxidationandthelossofsomeoftheirmorevolatileflavorcomponents.Usually,theyareusedintheformofraisinsforpurposesofaddingsomegrapecomponentstoawineso that ithasamorevinousquality;dehydratedfruits ingeneral,suchasprunes and apples, are good for adding sherry-like taste qualities.Dehydratedbananaisgoodforaddingbodytoawinesuchaswatermelonwinethatwouldotherwisebeverythin.Veryoften,dehydratedfruitsaresulfitedtopreservetheircolor. This is not a problem when they are added to a primary fermenter. Ingeneral,onecupofminceddriedfruitwill impart threeouncesofsugar to themust,butthisruleofthumbisnosubstituteformeasuringwithahydrometer.Dokeepinmindthatmakingwineoutofadriedfruitcanconcentratetheeffectsofthatfruit,asIfoundtomychagrinwithsomeprunewineImade.

Fruits,youwilldiscover,areprettyexpensiveinthequantitiesyou’duseformakingwine.For example, you’ll need twenty pounds of blueberries tomakefive gallons of blueberry wine. If you buy frozen organic blueberries at thesupermarketfor$3.69/lb, thatmeans$73.80 just infruit.Sinceyouget twentyfive bottles of wine from five gallons, that works out to just under $3/bottle,whichisstilladecentdeal.Evenso,itquicklybecomesclearthatyourbestbetis toeithergrow fruityourself,go toapick-it-yourselfplaceorbuy it inbulkfromafarmstand.IpicktheblueberriesformywineatMrs.Smith’sBlueberriesnearby, and it’s a lotmore affordable. (You can alsomakewine in one-gallonbatches so your initial outlay isn’t so much. This is a good idea whenexperimenting!)

Alwaysuseunwaxedfruit.Waxedfruitswillcreateamessratherthanwine.

Fresh fruits for country wines are primarily processed using only onetechnique.Inthistechnique,thefruitisplacedinacleannylonstrainingbaginthebottomoftheprimaryfermenter,crushedwithcleaned/sanitizedhands,withthe difference in volume beingmade up by addingwater. Thewater helps toextractthedissolvedsugarsandflavorcompounds,andasfermentationbegins,the alcohol created helps to extract the color. This technique is best suited tosofterfruitsthatareeasilycrushedbyhand,thoughitisusedforpracticallyallfruitsfortheoverwhelmingpreponderanceofcountrywines.11

Asanalternative,especiallyforharderfruitssuchasapples,IrecommendusingahighqualityjuicemachinesuchastheJuiceman™orChampion™.Withthesemachines, the expressed juicegoes intoone container and thepulpgoesinto another. For darker fruits fromwhich you want to extract color, such ascherries or blueberries, scoop the pulp from the pulp container into a nylonstrainingbagthatyouputinthebottomoftheprimaryfermenter.(Note:Excludethe pits from stone fruits as they contain a cyanogenic glycoside that ispoisonous.)

Organicfruitjuicescanmakeavaluableadjuncttohomemadewine

JuicesIhavemadeverygoodwinesfromhigh-qualitybottledjuices.Forexample,twoquartsofappleplustwoquartsofblackcherrywiththesugarandacidlevelsadjustedandahintofvanillaaddedwillmakeagallonofreallygreatwine.

Bottled juice that hasn’t been treated with an additive that suppressesfermentation(suchaspotassiumsorbate)canalsobeusedtomakewine.Keepinmind that something like the generic apple juice you can buy cheaply by thegallon ishardlymore thansugarwateranddoesn’tmakeverygoodwine.But

thereisabigdifferencebetweenbrands,andsometimesyoucanmakeareallyexcellentwineoutofablendedJuicyJuice™.

Bottledjuicesandjuiceblendsfromthenaturalfoodsectionofthegrocerystoreareoften100%juicefromthedescribedfruit.Thesehavebeenspecificallyformulatedtoretainthedistinctiveflavorofthefruit,andcanbeeasilyusedasanadditiontowines.Youmightwanttobesparingintheirusethough,astheyoftencostasmuchas$10/quart.

Grapejuiceconcentratescanhelpadd“vinous”quality toacountrywine,making its mouth-feel resemble that of traditional wines. These are specialconcentrates purchased from winemaking stores that have had the waterremoved under vacuum, and have been preserved with sulfites rather thanthroughheat; therefore, theypreserveadistinctivegrapecharacter.At roughly$16/quart(theymakeagallonofmustwhenwaterisadded)theyareexpensive,but theymake good additions as part of amust. They come inwhite and redvarieties.

VegetablesVegetablesareusedforwineeitherbyboilingtheminwaterandincludingthewaterinthemust,orbyjuicingthevegetableswithajuicemachine.Manyvegetables,nomatterhowtheyarehandled,willimpartahazetowines,butthiseffectismorepronouncedwhenusingboiledvegetables.Thisisbecauseboilingtends to set the pectinswhile denaturing the natural enzymes in the vegetablethatwouldotherwisebreakdownthepectinsovertime.There’snoreasonwhyyou couldn’t try bottled vegetable juices so long as they haven’t been treatedwithafermentationinhibitor,buttheresultscanbeprettyiffywhenusingbrandsthatincludeaddedsalt.Saltisaddedtovegetablejuicetobalancenaturalsugarsforatastybeverage.Butwhenyouusesaltedvegetablejuiceinwine,thesugarisconvertedtoalcoholduringfermentationbutthesaltremains.Theresultscanbegoodformakingmarinadebutdecidedlynotgoodfordrinking.On theflipside, there’s nothingwrongwith having a variety of self-preservedmarinadesreadyandwaiting!

Speaking of marinades, both wines and vinegars are commonly used forthispurpose,andbothareself-preserving.Youcanmakeverygoodmarinadesby fermentingmixtures that include onions, herbs, celery, parsley, and similaringredients.Withtheirhighalcoholcontent,theywillkeepfordecades.

If you aren’t making marinades but you are instead looking to makedrinkable wines, both carrots and tomatoes can be excellent candidates for a

wine.Carrots alsoblendquitewellwith apple.But don’t let the fact that I’venevermadeokrawinedeteryouifyouwanttogiveitatry.

HerbsandSpicesThoughspicesarenotaddedtowinesverymuchtoday,inpasttimesspiceswerequite expensive soheavily spicedwineswere an indicatorofwealth andstatus.UnlikethetraditionalwinemakersofFrance,asahomewinemakeryoudon’thavetocontendwith thetraditionalrulesformakingwine.Onebonusisthatyoucanaddanythingyou’d like.Youcanaddmulling spices to anapplewine, a hint of vanilla and cinnamon to a blueberrywine, and just a touch ofrosemarytoacarrotwine.Theonlyruleistomakesomethingthatyouandyourfriendswillenjoydrinking,soifspicescanenhanceawinetoyourtastes,thenthere’snoreasonnottousethem.However,justaswithfood,itcanbeeasytoover-dospice.Bettertoolittlethantoomuch.

Whenaddingspices,usewholerather thanpowderedingredients.Foronething, powdered spices tend to have lost some of their volatile flavorcomponentsandwillgiveinferiorresults.Foranother,theyoftenformahazeinwinesthatisharmlessbutunsightly.

The technique foruse is straightforward.Put thechosen spices in a spicebag,andlightlyboilthebaginaquartofsugarwaterfortentofifteenminutes,thendiscardthebag.Allowthespicedsugarwatertocooltoroomtemperaturebeforeaddingtothemust.

SourcesofSugarBecauseyeastcontainsenzymes that turnmanyformsofsugar intoasortmoreeasilyused,anycommonsourceofsugarwillhavethesameresultintermsof alcohol production. You can use granulated cane sugar, dextrose, glucose,fructose,honey,molasses,brownsugar,maplesyrup,high-fructosecornsyrup,driedfruits,concentratedfruitjuices,andmore.

Thoughthesourcedoesn’tmatterintermsofcreatingalcohol,itcanmakeabigdifferenceintermsoftaste—forexample,manyofthechemicalcompoundsthatmakehoneyorbrownsugarhaveadistinctivetasteandaromawhichwillbepreserved in wines that include them. For this reason, I would recommendagainstusingbrownsugarormolasses.

Glucose, dextrose, fructose, and sucrose (cane sugar) are all treatedidentically by yeast. If the sugar isn’t in a form the yeast can use, the yeastemploysanenzymecalledinvertasetochangeitintoausableform.Nothingisgainedbyusing themore expensive fructose fromahealth food storeover aninexpensive bag of granulated sugar from the grocery store. None of thesecontribute flavor to the wine, and simply serve as a source of sweetness oralcohol. They are a good choice for wines in which you want the tastes andaromasoftheprimaryfruittodominatetheircharacter.

Bottledjuicesandjuiceconcentratescanalsobeusedasasourceofsugar,especiallygiventhatsugaristheirprimarysolidconstituent.

Containingawidearrayofminerals,aminoacids,andvitamins,honeyisatasty addition to many wines. A number of cultural traditions (including thehoneymoon)havegrownuparoundhoneywines.Strictlyspeaking,awinemadefrom honey alone is called mead. Wine that combines honey with apples iscalledcyser,whereaswinemadefromhoneyandanyother(non-grape)fruitiscalledmelomel.Winemade fromhoneywith addedherbs is calledmetheglin,andwinemadefromhoneyandgrapesispyment.

Whenmakingmeadvariants, thesourceandqualityof thehoneyyouusemakes a difference in the taste of the finished product. The generic blendedhoneysinthesupermarketarefinewhenthehoneyisprimarilyusedasasourceofsugar.Ifyouaremakingmead,however,blendedhoneyisuselessbecauseithasbeenpasteurizedandhomogenizeduntilitisnothingbutsugar.Ifthetastesand aromas of the honey will be important to the end product, use a single-source honey from a bee keeper. The nectar that the bees collect positivelyaffectsthemineralcontentandflavorofmead.Clover,alfalfa,orangeblossom,wildflower, and mesquite are just a few of the types of honey available; ingeneral, darker honeys impart stronger flavors.You can get single-source and

wildhoneysfromalocalbeekeeper,orderthemovertheInternetor,ifyouareambitious,startkeepingbeesyourself12andcreateyourownhoney.

CleanlinessandSanitationBefore I get into the details of making wine, I want to delve a bit intocleanliness and sanitation, as these are crucial for a successful outcome. Youdon’tneeda laboratoryclean roomor a level3hazmat facility tomakewine.Youcanmakewineinyourkitchenoranyroominyourhome.Butyouneedtobe attentive to detail. Everything that touches your must, wine, or wine-in-progressmustbecleanandsanitized.

“Clean” simplymeans “free of visible dirt or contamination.” Dish soapandwaterareadequatecleansers.Winebottles,fermentationvessels,winethief,plastictubing,andhydrometeralongwithallutensilsthattouchyourwineneedto be cleaned. Sometimes, all that is needed is to add some soapywater andshake.Other times,aswithcarboys,youmayneed tousea specialbrush.Forsubsequentsanitationprocedurestowork,thesurfacesmustfirstbeclean.Oncetheyhavebeencleaned,theyshouldbethoroughlyrinsed.

To sanitize the equipment, all surfaces that will touch the must or wineshould be rinsed orwiped downwith a sanitizing sulfite solution.Don’t rinseafterwards.Forbottles,vessels,andcarboysyoucanaddaportionofthesulfitesolutionandswishitaroundthoroughlysothatitcontactsallsurfaces,andthenpouritbackintoyourcontainerofsolution.Forotherutensils,soakpapertowelsin sanitizing solution and use those towels to wipe them down immediatelybeforeuse.

Yourhandsiphonandtubingmightlooktoposeaproblematfirst,butthereisaneasy technique forkeeping themclean.For this technique,youneed twocleanplasticgallonjugsthatwerepreviouslyusedforwater.Putonewithsoapywateronyourcounterandtheemptyoneonthefloor.Now,useyoursiphontopumpthesoapywaterall thewayupinto the tubeandthroughthe tubingintothe empty container on the floor. Then, switch the containers and repeat theprocess until the equipment is clean.Emptyout the containers and rinse themthoroughly.Next,putthebottleofsanitizingsolutiononthecounter,andsiphonthatintotheemptycontaineronthefloor.Makesuretowipedowntheoutsideoftheequipmentandtubingaswell,asthesemaycontactthewine.

MakingtheWineMust

Asnotedpreviously,yourwinemustdoesn’thavetobemadefromasinglesource.Youcanuseapplesmixedwithpears,carrotsmixedwithapples,juicedtablegrapescombinedwithbottledcherryjuice,orwhateverstrikesyourfancy.Aslongasyouusegoodsanitationandtechnique,theresultswillbeatleastasgoodasmostwinesyoucanbuy.

Somefruitsareeitherhighlyacidicorhighlytannictosuchanextentthatyouwouldn’twanttousetheirextractedjuiceexclusivelytomakewinebecausetheresultswouldbetoosourorbitter.Inthosecases,onlyaportionofthemustismadefromthatfruit,andtherestismadeupfromwaterorotherjuices.

Whatfollowsisarecipetable that indicateshowmanypoundsofagivenfruittouseinmakingagallonofwinefromthatfruit,howmuchtannintoaddtothatwinepergallon,andanyotheradjunctsthatI’drecommend.Anydeficitinjuicetomakeagallonismadeupwithwater.

ThePrimaryFermentation:Step-by-Step1.Startwithfruitjuiceobtainedasdescribedearlierinthischapter.2.Ifneeded,addenoughwatertothefruitjuicetoequaltheamountofwineyouwish tomake. (It ishelpful toaddpreviously-measuredamountsofwater toyour primary fermenter in advance and use amagicmarker tomark gallonsandquartsontheoutsideofthevesselforeasyreference.)Iusebottledwaterbecausemywellwater issuboptimal,but ifyouhavegoodwaterwhereyoulive, tap water is fine. Don’t worry about whether or not your water ischlorinated,becausetheCampdentabletswe’llbeaddinglaterservetoremovechlorinefromthewater.

3.Useyourhydrometer tomeasure thespecificgravity (SG)of themust.Youareaiming foranSGofbetween1.085and1.110,but inall likelihoodyourmust measures much lower. Add the required amount of sugar or honey toyourmust.Thiswillslightlyincreasethevolumeofyourmust,butthat’sfine.

4.Useyouracidtestingkittotesttheacidityofyourmust.Ifneeded,addacid.Trytousethespecificacid(oracidblend)thatwillbestenhancethecharacterof the fruit. For example,malic acidwill enhance apples andpearswhereascitricacidwillenhancewatermelonsandtartaricacidwillenhancegrapes.Ifyouareindoubt,useanacidblendmadeupofequalpartsofthethreeacids.

5.Addoneteaspoonofyeastenergizerforeachgallonofmust.6.Addpecticenzymeasdirectedonthecontainer,ordoubletheamountif the

recipetablespecifiesdoingso.7.Add tanninas appropriate for the fruitbeingused. (This isdescribed in theaccompanyingrecipetable.)

8.CrushandaddoneCampden tabletdissolved in abitof juicepergallonofmust.Vigorouslystirthemust.

9.Coveryourprimaryfermenter,andplugtheholewithabitofcottonball tokeepforeignobjectsout.Wait24hours.

10.Vigorouslystirthemusttooxygenate.Oncemovementceases,sprinkleyeastfromthepacketoverthesurfaceofthemust.Donotstir.

11. Place the cover on the fermenter, and plug the hole loosely with a bit ofcottonball.

12.Allowtositforaweek.Duringthistime,youshouldsmellthefermentation.Also,itmayfoamheavilyandcomeoutthroughtheholeinthelid.Ifitdoes,cleanupontheoutsideandinsertanewcottonball.Aftertheweek,replacethecottonballwithanairlockfilledwithsanitizingsolution.

13.Allowtositforanotherweekor two,until theair lockonly“bloops”onceevery few seconds. Thismarks the end of the primary fermentation phase.Oncetheprimaryfermentationphasehasended,rackassoonaspossible.Ifitsetsformorethanacoupleofdays,thedregsatthebottom(knownaslees)willimpartbadflavorstoyourwine.

YourFirstRacking:Step-by-Step1.Adaybeforeyouplantorack,moveyourprimaryfermentertoatableorcountertop.(Bydoingthisadayinadvance,yougiveanysludgestirredupbymovementachancetosettle.)Putawedge,book,blockofwood,orsomethingelsefrom1”to2”highunderneaththefermenterontheedgethatisawayfromyou.Thiswillallowyoutosacrificethesmallestamountofwinepossiblewiththelees.

2.Clean and sanitizeyour racking tube, tubing, andyour secondary fermenterand get your rubber stopper and fresh air lock ready. Put your secondaryfermenter on the floor in front of the primary fermenter, and then carefullyremove the lid from the primary fermenter, creating as little disturbance aspossible.Putabitof thewine ina sanitizedglass,anddissolveonecrushedCampdentabletpergallon,thenadditbacktothewine.

3.Puttheplastictubingfromyourrackingsetupinthesecondaryfermenterandtherackingtubeintheprimaryfermenter.Keepingtherackingtubewellabovethe sediment, pump it gently to get it started. Itmay take a couple of tries.

Gentlylowertherackingtubeastheliquidleveldiminishes.Watchtheliquidin the tube very carefully. The second it starts sucking sediment, raise therackingtubeuptobreakthesuction.

Rackingrequiresabitofcoordinationbutwithpracticeitcomeseasily.

4.Placetherubberstopperwithanairlockfilledwithsanitizingsolutioninthesecondaryfermenter.Usingacarboyhandleifnecessary,movethesecondaryfermenter to a location out of sunlight where even temperatures aremaintained.

5. Immediately clean and sanitize your primary fermenter, racking tube, andtubing and stow them away. If you don’t clean them immediately theywilllikelyberuined.

TheSecondaryFermentation:Step-by-Step1.Wait.Andwait. Thenwait somemore. Patience, I have been told, is avirtue.Afteryour first racking from theprimary to secondary fermenter, theyeast will lag for a couple of days while it tries to catch up. Allow thesecondary fermenter to situnmolesteduntil: thewine starts tobecomeclear,youhavemorethanadustingofsedimentatthebottomofthecontainer,ortheairlockonlyoperatesonceeverycoupleofminutes.Thiswilllikelytakeabouta month. Because the secondary fermenter sits for so long, don’t forget tocheck the airlock periodically and top up the sanitizing solution in it so itdoesn’tevaporateandleaveyourwinevulnerable.

2.Thedaybeforeracking,sitthesecondaryfermenteruponatableorcounter,

andtiltitusingabookorotherwedge,asbefore.3.Boilsomewaterinapotonthestoveandallowittocooltoroomtemperaturewhile covered.Cleanand sanitize another fermentationvessel aswell as therackingtubeandtubing.Placethesanitizedvesselonthefloorinfrontofthesecondary fermenter,put theplastic tubing in thevessel,andput the rackingtubeinthesecondaryfermenter.Operatetherackingtubeandtransferthewinefromtheoldvesseltothenew.AddoneCampdentabletdissolvedinwineforeachgallonofwine.

Thesecondaryfermentationinthisvesselisalmostcomplete.

4.Likely,thereisanairspacebetweenthewineandthetopofthenewvessel.Thiswill expose toomuch surface areaof thewine tooxygen andpotentialinfections.Pourinthesterilizedwateruntilthewineisjustuptotheneck.

5. Clean the rubber stopper and airlock, sanitize them, re-fill the airlockwithsanitizingsolution,and install themon thenewsecondaryfermenter.Put thesecondaryfermenterinalocationwithoutsunlightandwitheventemperature.

6. Thoroughly clean and sanitize the empty secondary fermenter, the rackingtubeandthetubing.

7.Nowitisawaitinggame.Overweeksandmonthsyourwinewillultimatelycease toferment,and thehazewithin thewinewillsettleonto thebottomofthe container. Keep an eye on the wine. Anytime a substantial sedimentdevelops,rackthewineagainandtopupwithsterilizedwater.Makesuretheairlock doesn’t go dry and permit foreign organisms to enter.Depending oningredients,youmaynothavetorackagainoryoucouldhavetorackonetothreemoretimes.

8.Oncethewinehasgoneatleastthreemonthswithoutrequiringrackingandiscrystalclear,itisreadyforbottling.Youcanallowittoageinthefermenteras

longasyou’dlike—evenseveralyears.

BottlingYourWine:1.Gather, clean,and sanitize thewine bottles thatwill be accepting thewine.Youwillneedfivebottlespergallonofwine.Boilanequalnumberofcorksfor15minutes,andthenallowthemtosit inacoveredpot.Cleanandsanitizeyourcorker.

2.Rackthewine,butdonotaddwatertotopoffonthisfinalracking.AddoneCampden tablet per gallon by crushing the tablet and dissolving in a bit ofwineandthenaddingthatwineintothenewvessel.

3.Ifyouwanttoaddpotassiumsorbatetopreventre-fermentation,dissolvethatalso in thewine and add back into the newvessel.Use¼ tsp per gallon ofwine.

4. Place the secondary fermenter holding the wine on a table or counter top,tiltingasbefore.

Bottledblueberrywine.Magnificent!

5.Arrangethebottlesonatowelonthefloorinfrontofthefermenterandinstallthe plastic hose clampon the plastic tubing so you can turn off the flowofwinewhenswitchingfrombottletobottle.

6.Put theplastic tubinginabottleandtherackingtubeinthewine,pumptherackingtubeandstarttheflowofwine,pullingthetubehigherinthebottleasthelevelofthewineincreases.Stoptheflowofwinewhenitisabouthalfaninch into thebottomof theneckof thewinebottle.Put the tube in thenextbottleand repeat theprocessuntilyou runoutofwineor therearenomorebottlestofill.

7.Oneatatime,placethebottlesonasolidfloor,anduseyourcorkertoinstalloneofthesterilizedcorks.Onlyworkwithonebottleatatime.Aseachbottleiscorked,setitoutoftheway.Repeatuntilallofthebottlesarecorked.

8.Cleanandsanitizeyourfermentingvessels,rackingtube,andplastictubing.

9.Nowyoucanmakeandapplywinelabelsifyouwish.10.Enjoyatyourleisureorgiveasagift.

CreatingYourOwnRecipesMostwinebooksarefullofrecipes.I’msuretheyareuseful,butIthinkitismore useful to understand how they are created so you can make your ownrecipesbaseduponwhatyouhaveavailable.OneofthereasonsIwentintosomuchdetailinthechapteronthescienceofmakingwineissoyou’dhaveallthetoolsyouneedtobeself-sufficient.

Whenmakinganewwineforthefirst time,it isbesttomakeit inaone-gallon batch.Overall, larger batches tend to come out better because they areless susceptible to temperature fluctuations, but I’vemade plenty of excellentwinesinone-gallonbatches,andthesmalleramountmaybelessintimidatingtoabeginner.

Inaddition,eventhecheapestwineingredientsareexpensiveatthescaleofa five-gallonbatch,somakingaone-gallonbatch isalsobest forexperimentalrecipes.Reservethelargerfive-gallonbatchesfortestedrecipesyouknowyou’llbemakingforlong-termstorageorgifts.Somewinemakersnevermakebatcheslargerthanagallon,andtheyarequitehappywiththeirresults.

Solet’slookatthefirstcriticaldecisionsinvolvedinmakingawinerecipe.

• Dominant and any secondary or tertiary fruits or flavors. This decision ispurelyaesthetic,andifyouaresomeonewithchronicallybadtasteyoumightconsiderconsultingafriendor lovedoneforguidance.Forexample,Imightwanttomakeawinewithappledominant,mullingspicesecondaryandhoneytertiary.Itwouldberatherdaringastherewouldbelittleresidualsweetnesstobalance the spice, so instead I’llmake the appledominant, honey secondaryand mulling spice tertiary. Another example would be a wine with sweetcherrydominantandconcordgrapesecondary.

•Checkthetanninlevelsofeachfruit.Anyfruitthatishighintannincannotbemore than half of yourmust. If youwant the fruit to be dominant anyway,you’llhavetochoosesomethingunassertivesuchasgenericwhitegrapejuiceas a secondary. For example, if I want to make a wine with blueberrydominant,becauseblueberry ishighly tannic, Iamlimited to fourpoundsofblueberriespergallonandwillneedtouseadjunctsthatwon’tovershadowtheblueberry,suchaswhitegrapejuicetomakeupthedifferenceinvolume.

•Checktheacidlevelsofeachfruit.ThoughthetablesI’veincludedarenota

substituteforactualmeasurement,youcanusethemtogetanideathatlemonsare too acidic to constitute a major proportion of a wine must and thatwatermelonwouldneedacidadded.If the levelofacid in thefruit isgreaterthan 9g/L, then the quantity of that fruit should be limited to avoid excessacidity.

•Sugar level.Getageneral ideaofhowmuchsugarwillbe in themajor fruitingredients,andhowmuchwillneedtobeadded.Also,decidewhatformthatsugarwilltake.

•Spicing.Lookattheearliertableswhendecidinghowmuchspicingtoadd,ifany.

•Pecticenzyme.Otherthanstraightmeads,allrecipeswillneedpecticenzyme.Reviewthetablestoseeiftheamountusedisaccordingtopackagedirectionsorneedstobedoubled.

• Yeast. Decide what type of yeast to use based upon its characteristics, andincludeyeastenergizerintheamountrecommendedonthepackage.

OneGallonExample:CherryWineFewcanresist theideaofcherrywine,soit’sagoodstartforarecipe.I’vemadecherrywineduring thewintermonthsandusedacombinationofbottledcherryjuice,frozencherries,andotheradjuncts.•Iwouldlikemydominantflavortobecherry,mysecondaryflavortobegrape,andmytertiaryflavortobevanilla.

•Checking the tables, I see thatcherriesarehigh in tannin so theycan’t formmore thanhalfofmymust, and theyarehigh inacid too.So Iwilluseonequartofbottledorganic100%blackcherryjuice,andoneten-ouncepackageoffrozensweetcherries,andmakeupthedifferencewithorganicwhitegrapejuice.Becauselessthanhalftherecipewillhavethehighertanninsofcherryjuiceandtheremainderoftherecipewillcomefromwhitegrapejuice,tanninislikelytobeabitonthelowside,soI’lladdaquarterteaspoonoftannin.

•Thetwoprimaryacidsincherriesaremalicandcitricinthatorder,soifanacidtestshowsmoreacidisneeded,I’lladda2:1mixtureofmalicandcitricacids.

•BecauseI’musingbottledjuicesandfrozencherrieswithnutritionallabels,Icanadduphowmuchsugarwouldbe in thegallon:200gfromcherry juice,42gfromfrozencherries,and480gfromgrapejuiceforatotalof722grams.Converted toounces that is25.5ounces.Lookingat thehydrometer tables, IseethatIneed31.6ouncesofsugarforastartinggravityof1.090,soIfigureI’llneedaboutsixouncesofsugar,thoughIwilltestwithahydrometertobe

sure.•Looking at the spicing table, andnotwanting tooverpower the cherry, I amincludingonevanillabeanintheprimaryfermenter.

•Alotofyeastsareavailable,butMontrachetlookslikeareallygoodmatchforwhatwe’remaking.Sothefinalrecipelookslikethis:

WinterCherryWine

1quartorganicblackcherryjuice

1ten-ouncepackageoffrozensweetcherries

3quartsorganicwhitegrapejuice

6-8ouncesofsugar,basedonhydrometertest

1vanillabean

¼tspyeastenergizer¼tsptannin2:1blendofmalic/citricacidsasneeded

1packetMontrachetyeast

11 Ifyouareusingpurchased fruits,pleasemakesure theyareunwaxed.Thewax thatpurveyorsuse tomakefruitslookprettywillturnyourintendedwineintoauselessmess.

12Inmyopinion, Idon’thaveenoughexperience towriteabookonbeekeeping,howeverIhavefoundKimFlottum’sTheBackyardBeekeepertobeverygood.Ifyouareinterestedinkeepingbeesforhoney,Ihighlyrecommendit.

6

AdvancedTechniquesinWinemaking

Some of the techniques in this chapter truly are “advanced” in terms ofdifficulty or equipment, but most are merely extensions of what you alreadyknowthatwillhelpyouproducewineswithdifferentcharacteristics.

MakingWineWithoutSulfitesIn the previous chapter I oriented procedures around the use of sulfites,because the use of sulfites makes it easier to produce a solid product. Evenbeforemoderntimes,sulfiteswereemployedbyburningsulfur tocreatesulfurdioxidegastopurifymusts,andmanyyeastsgeneratetheirownsulfitesduringprimaryfermentation.Thereisnosuchthingasasulfite-freewine.

Ifyoudon’twantsulfitesaddedtoyourwine,herearesometips:

•Cleanallequipmentusingscalding(140+degree)water.Water thishot is, infact,scalding.Usecaution.

•Thoughitdecreasesthequalityoftheresultsomewhat,youcanpasteurizeyourmustbyheatingto150degreesandholdingittherefor½hourbeforeputtingitinyourprimaryfermenter.Addbottledwatertomakeupanydifferenceinvolume.Makesurethetemperaturehasdroppedbelow80beforeaddingpecticenzyme or yeast. Musts that have been pasteurized often create very hazywines,sodon’tdothiswithfruitsthatrequireadoubledoseofpecticenzyme.

•Whenusingunpasteurizedmust,youryeastmustout-competeallotheryeastsandbacteria.So insteadof sprinkling theyeast on topof themust, get youryeast ready two days in advance by sprinkling the yeast into a pint jarcontainingbottledapplejuicemixedwithapinchofyeastenergizerandthencap it with several layers of cheesecloth. Set it in a dark place at 60-70degrees.Whenyouaddthisyeasttoyourmust,justpouritinsmoothlyanddonotstir.Nowyouryeasthasaheadstartsoitcanout-competethewildyeasts

andbacteriaonthefruit.

AdvancedTestingofSulfiteLevelsThesulfitetest kits you canbuy throughwinehobby suppliers are fine forlightlycoloredwinesbutinaccuratewhentestingheavilycoloredwinesbecausethephenoliccoloringcompoundsinthewinetakeupsomeofthetestingreagent.Errorscanbeashighas20ppm.Inanearlierchapter,Iadvisedthatyoucould“guesstimate” by subtracting 10ppm from the test results. If you aren’tcomfortable with guesstimates, you can do your own testing. The followingproceduresworkontheprincipleofcalculatingtotalsulfite,calculatingtheerror,andthensubtractingtheerrorfromthetotal.Youwillbeworkingwithsulfuricacidinthisprocedure;safetygogglesandalabapronarerequired.

Equipment

50mlbeaker

3mlsyringe(noneedleneeded)5mlsyringe(noneedleneeded)

10mlgraduatedcylinder

250 ml volumetric flask (only needed if preparing your own iodinesolution)

Scale(onlyneededifpreparingyourowniodinesolution)

ChemicalsDistilledWater.02NIodinesolution131%Starchsolution25%SulfuricAcidsolution3%Hydrogenperoxidesolution

Cleanallequipmentwithdistilledwater.Puta20mlsampleofwineinthe50mlbeaker.Add5mlofstarchsolution,swirltomix,thenadd5mlofsulfuricacid solution to the sample and swirl tomix again. Fill the 3ml syringewithiodine solution. Add iodine solution a little at a time, swirling after eachaddition, until a distinct color change (it will be dark blue) that remains forseveralsecondsoccurs.Themeasuredamountofsulfiteinppmis:

(3ml-readingonsyringe)×32

Write this number down as we’ll use it twice in the next part of theprocedure.Nowweneedtomeasuretheerror.Todothis,we’llneedtoremovethefreesulfitefromthesolution.The3%hydrogenperoxidesolutioniswaytoostrongforasamplethissmall,somakesome0.012%solutionbyadding1mlofhydrogen peroxide solution to 250ml volumetric flask and adding enoughdistilledwatertomeetthe250mlmark.Cleanallequipmentwithdistilledwater.Puta20mlsampleofwineinthe50mlbeaker.Addanamountofyourpreparedhydrogen peroxide solution equal to 0.14 ml for every ppm detected in theearlierprocedure.Soifthefirstproceduregavearesultof57ppm,add0.14×57or8mlofhydrogenperoxidesolution.Swirltomixandwaitafewminutes.Add5mlof starchsolutionand5mlof sulfuricacidsolution to thesample.Fill the3mlsyringewithiodinesolution.Addiodinesolutionalittleatatime,swirlingafter each addition, until a distinct color change (it will be dark blue) thatremainsforseveralsecondsoccurs.Themeasuredamountoferrorinppmis:

(3ml-readingonsyringe)×32

Thecorrectedamountofsulfiteinthewineis:(measuredsulfite)-(measurederror)ppm.

MalolacticFermentationMostwinemusts will contain some lactic bacteria. These are inhibited bysulfite levels greater than 20 mg/L, by alcohol concentrations of greater than14%,lowtemperatures,andactiveyeast.Ifyouhaveeverbeenquitecertainthatsecondary fermentationhas completedbut later foundyour bottledwine to beslightly carbonated, it is likely that malolactic fermentation occurredspontaneously. Sometimes it even occurs simultaneously with alcoholicfermentationandyounevernotice.

Commercial wineries subject a large proportion of their redwines and alesserproportionoftheirwhitewinestodeliberatemalolacticfermentationforavariety of reasons. The most obvious reason is that malolactic fermentationchangessharpmalicacidtosmoothlacticacid.ItraisesthepHandreducestheacidity slightly. The formation of lactic acid in the presence of ethanol alsoallowsthecreationofethyllactate,anesterthatgiveswinesafruitycharacter.Inaddition,bacteriawillproducediethylsuccinate,anotherfruityesteralongwithdiacetyl and other flavor compounds. Malolactic fermentation also serves tomakewinemoreself-preservingbyconsumingpentosesandhexoses14notusedby yeast, as well as malic acid that would otherwise serve as food for otherbacteria.Malolacticbacteriasecretebacteriocinsthatinhibitthegrowthofotherbacteria, which makes the wine more microbiologically stable. Finally, bydeliberately conducting amalolactic fermentation, you can be certain that onewon’toccurspontaneouslyinthebottle.

There are a number of malolactic cultures available. Some are singlespecies (usuallyOenococcus oenii) and others contain amix of species.OnlyOenococcusoeniicanworkatpHvalueslowerthan3.5,soallculturescontainatleastthatonebacteria.

Malolactic bacteria and wine yeast are often incompatible as one willinhibit the other. Therefore, malolactic culture is best introduced after thesecondaryalcoholicfermentationiscompleteunlessthewinehasafinalalcohollevel exceeding 14%. Though different productswill require slightly differentproceduresandIbasedthefollowingontheuseofLalvin’smalolacticculture,it’sagoodguidelineformalolacticfermentationsgenerally.

• Wait until secondary fermentation has completed. It can be consideredcompleteafterthewinesitsforthreemonthswithoutdroppinganyprecipitateatthebottomofthefermenteranditisclear.

•Aboutaweekbeforeaddingthemalolacticcultures,movethewinetoanareawith a temperature between 64 and 75 degrees. It must remain at thistemperaturethroughoutthefermentation.

•Rackthewine intoanew,cleansecondaryfermenter.DoNOTaddsulfite inthisracking!

•Ifyouhaveasulfitetestkit,youcantestthatthesulfiteisunder20ppm.Ifitisabove 20 ppm, you can reduce it to that level via the addition of hydrogenperoxideasdescribedinthechapteronwinechemistry.

•Addthepacketofmalolacticculturedirectlytothewine.•Fitwithanairlock.(Thefermentationgeneratescarbondioxide.)•Malolactic fermentations complete in one to threemonths, but because theyproceed so slowly, it is hard to gauge. You could assess the progress usingcommercially available paper chromatography kits for malic acid detection,but these cost from $50 to $200 and their shelf life is only a fewmonths.UnlessyouaremakingaLOTofwine,thisdoesn’tmakealotofsense.

• After threemonths, rack the wine into a clean secondary fermenter, adding50ppmsulfite to themust (oneCampden tabletpergallon).Thiswill inhibitanymalolacticbacteria that remain.Allowtoageforat leastanothermonth,thenbottle.

FortificationFortificationistheadditionofdistilledspiritstowineinordertoincreaseitsalcoholcontent.Winesarefortifiedforthreereasons:tobringthemtoanalcohollevel suitable for thedevelopmentofwhat is knownas a sherry flor; to arrestfermentationbeforeallthesugarhasbeenconsumedsoitretainssweetness;andto make a more biologically stable wine for purposes of long storage andshipping.Beingdistilledfromwine,brandyisthemostcommonspiritusedforfortification.

Sherrywines are fermented to dryness, their alcohol content is assessed,andthentheyaremixedwithbrandytoreachanalcohollevelofbetween14.5%and16%.Thisrangeisconducivetoallowingthespecificstrainofyeastusedinsherries to develop a cap known as a flor that protects thewine from furtheroxidation and promotes aldehyde production. If the wines were good butunexceptional, they are made into oloroso sherry by fortifying to a level

exceeding16%sothataflorisn’tformed.If theywerereallybad,theyaresetasidetomakevinegarorbrandy.

Port wines are fortified to an amount of alcohol around 20% before theprimaryfermentationhascompleted.Thehighlevelofalcoholfromfortificationstopsthefermentationveryquicklysothathighsugarlevelsremain.

Because distilled spirits are expensive (why would you use the cheapstuff?),thefinanciallypracticalbatchsizeforfortificationwilllikelybelimitedtoagallonorso.Eventhoughfortificationwillstoptheyeastfermentation,thewine will continue to undergo small changes from aging for as long as fortyyears.

Thefirststepinfortificationistoassessthelevelofalcoholinthewine.Forwinesfermentedtodryness,thisiseasy—youcanjustusethepotentialalcoholcorrespondingtotheoriginalhydrometerreadingofthemust.Forwinesthatwillretainsweetness,youwilltakeahydrometerreadingeverydayortwoduringtheprimary fermentation and perform the fortification at a point corresponding tothedegreeofsweetnessyouwanttoretain.Ingeneral,you’llwanttodothisatareadingbetween1.010 for slightly sweet to1.040 forvery sweet.The alcohollevel can be determined by subtracting the potential alcohol at the point offortificationfromthepotentialalcoholatthestartoffermentation.

Forexample,iftheoriginalspecificgravityofmymustwas1.093(12.8%potential alcohol) and I performmy fortificationwhen themust reaches1.027(3.7%potentialalcohol),thelevelofalcoholis12.8%-3.7%or9.1%.

Once you know howmuch alcohol the wine already contains, you mustdecide howmuch alcohol youwant it to contain after fortification. If you arewanting a sherry flor, you’ll want 15%, but if you aremaking a sweet wine,you’llwant20%.

Thenyouneedtocalculatehowmuchdistilledspiritandhowmuchwinetoadd tomake a gallon at the desired strength.Though there are tables for this,algebraisthemostflexibletool,andtheequationiseasyenough.

A=PercentageofFinalWineasAlcoholexpressedasadecimal(e.g.20%=.2)

B=PercentageAlcoholofStartingWineexpressedasadecimalC=PercentageWineofDistilledSpiritexpressedasadecimalD=SizeoffinalbatchinouncesX=OuncesofWineforthebatchX=D(A-C)/(B-C)

So,ifIwantawinewith20%alcohol,mystartingwineis9.1%alcoholandIamfortifyingwithbrandy that is40%alcohol tomakeabatchofonegallon

(128ounces):X=128(.20-.40)/(.091-.40)=82.8roundedto83ounces.SonowIknowIwilluse83ouncesofwineand128-83or45ouncesof

brandytomakeagallonofmysweetfortifiedwine.The procedure is straightforward. You put 45 ounces of brandy in a

secondaryfermenter, rackwine into thefermenteruntilyouhaveagallon,andthentopitwithanairlock.Ifyouaremakingasweetwineyou’llneedtorackitinanotherweekorso,andthentreatitlikeanyotherwine.Ifyourstartingwinewas already completely fermented, you can wait a month before racking andthentreatitlikeanyotherwine.

OakAgingOakaging is traditional inwines, especially redwines.There’s noquestionthat the traditional aging ofwines in oak barrels alters the flavor through theextraction of a variety of compounds from the oak. However, oak barrels areveryexpensiveandrequireconsiderablecare.Studiesshowthatusinganeutralcontainer (such as glass) and adding toasted oak chips will impart the samecompoundsasaginginabarrel.15

Oak chips are available from both American and French oak, and in avariety of toasting levels. French oak imparts more tannin and spice notes,whereasAmericanoakimpartsmorevanillaandsweetnotes.Toastingoakcubesofeithersortmakessomeofthecompoundssuchasvanillinmoreavailablebutalsoimpartsamorecharredcharactertothewine,especiallyatthehighestlevelsoftoasting.

Oakchipsimparttheircharacterquicklyatfirst,andthenmoreslowlyovertime.Oncetheyhavebeenadded,theycanberemovedandthecompoundstheyaddwillremainandcontinuetoworkthroughouttheagingprocess.Thoughtheycanbe retained in the fermenter foras longasninemonths, little isgainedbykeepingthemforlongerthanamonth.

Oakchipsareeasier toworkwith thanbarrelsand impart indistinguishableresults.

Beforebeingaddedtothefermenter,thechipsneedtobesanitizedsotheydon’t infectyourwinewithsomethingnasty.Allyouneed todo is fill aquartcanning jar with water, add a quarter teaspoon of potassium metabisulfitepowder,putyouroakchips in thewater, and thenputon the lid.After twentyfourhours,thechipscanbeaddedtothewinebysimplydumpingthemintothewine in the secondary fermenter. Theywon’t fit through the racking tube, sothey’llberemovedatthenextracking.Justrinsethemoutofthefermenterwhenyoucleanit.

SoleraAgingAsolera is a grouping of containers (usually barrels) used to accomplish auniqueblendedagingtechniqueintheproductionofcertainvinegars,spirits,andwines.On a commercial scale, a solera is a substantial investment, but for anamateurwithcontainersnotexceedingfivegallons,thelargerconcerninspace.Thoughyoucantechnicallyusethistechniquewithasfewastwocontainersandwithnoupperlimit,Iamgoingtodescribeitusingthree.

LabelthreecontainersasA,B,andC,fillingthemallwithwine.Afterthewinehasagedayear,withdrawandbottlehalfof thecontentsofcontainerC.RefillcontainerCfromcontainerB,refillcontainerBfromcontainerAandusenewwinetorefillcontainerA.Dothesamethingeveryyear,andovertimetheaverageageofthewinebottledfromcontainerCwillapproachfiveyears,eventhoughyouarebottlingwinefromiteveryyear.

The techniqueofsoleraagingcanbeemployedathomeonasmallerscaleusingsimpleglassfermenters.

Theaverageageincreaseswiththenumberofcontainersandwithbottlingsmallerportionsaccordingtothefollowingformula:

Average Age = (Number of Containers-Fraction of ContainerUsed)/FractionofContainerUsed

So if you started with three five-gallon containers and only bottled onegallon(.2ofafive-galloncontainer)ayear,theaverageagewouldapproach(3-.2)/.2or14years.Ifyouusedfourcontainersinsteadofthreeanddrewoffhalfofacontainereachyear,theaverageagewouldconvergeuponsevenyears.

Ifyouhaveaparticulartypeorstyleofwinethatyoulikeandthatrequiressubstantialaging,settingupasoleraof threecontainerscanbeaneasywayofhavingyourcakeandeatingittoo,whereovertimeyoucanconsistentlyproducewell-agedwineinsmallquantityeveryyear.

Of course, this exact same approach is used with the higher qualitybalsamic vinegars, many of which have average ages exceeding a decade.Because vinegar is consumed in smaller quantities than wine, it is entirelypractical to set up an inexpensive vinegar solera using five one-galloncontainers. If you drew off and replenished a half gallon annually, the agingwouldconvergeuponnineyears.

13Thiscanbepurchasedfromalabsupplycompanyormade.Tomakeit,mix.63gofiodinecrystalsand1.3gofpotassiumiodidecrystalstogether,placeina250mlvolumetricflask,andfillto250mlwithdistilledwater.Duetomethamphetaminelabs,iodinehasbeenregulatedsince2007asaprecursor.Youcanstillbuyelementaliodine,butyournamegoesonalist.Yournamewon’tgoonalistifyoubuyready-made.02Niodinesolution,butitisprettyexpensive.Ifyouaren’trunningamethamphetaminelab,don’tworryaboutyournamebeingonalist.

14PentosesandHexosesarefive-andsix-carbonsugars,respectively.15A.Bautista-Ortín,A.Lencina,M.Cano-López,F.Pardo-Mínguez,J.López-RocaandE.Gómez-Plaza(2009),“Theuseofoakchipsduringtheagingofaredwineinstainlesssteeltanksorusedbarrels:effectofthecontacttimeandsizeoftheoakchipsonaromacompounds.”

PARTIII

BeerfromSeedtoGlass

7

OverviewofBeerMaking

Drinking beer, according to television commercials, will make youattractiveandsuccessful.Ifyouarereadingthisbook,youareprobablydubiousaboutsuchimplicitmarketingclaims,butyoumaywellenjoybeerbecauseofitsuniqueandrefreshingtaste.

Beerhasbeenaroundforthousandsofyears,16istheworld’smostpopularalcoholicbeverageandthethirdmostconsumeddrinkintheworld,behindonlywater and tea. The price of domestic beer ranges from $7.50/gallon to$11.00/gallonwhenpurchasedbythecase.Percapitaannualbeerconsumptionis only 20.5 gallons in Utah, but an impressive 43.5 gallons in Montana.Consideringthatmanypeopledon’tlikebeer,it’ssafetosaythatthosewhododrink it,drinkmore than theper-capita statisticswould indicate.Likewise,notallofthatbeerispurchasedbythecase,soitisfarmoreexpensivethanthecaseprices.Ahouseholdwithtwoadultscaneasilyspendhundredsofdollarsonbeereveryyear.

Consequently cost is a good reason why making your own beer is wellworthconsideration.Thoughthe ingredientsformakingyourownbeerarenotfree,theyareaboutaquarterofthecostofbuyingbeeratthestore.Furthermore,beer is a very interesting beverage and well worth learning how to makeyourself.Justaslearningtogrowyourownvegetablesandmakeyourownwinecanofferthebenefitsofaproductfarsuperiortowhatcanbepurchasedatanyprice,onceyougetthehangofmakingbeeryoucanroutinelyhavebeerofsuchhighqualitythatbuyingit,ifpossibleatall,wouldbecost-prohibitive.

Mostbooksonhomebrewingaredividedintobeginner, intermediate,andadvanced techniques.Beginner approaches usemalt extracts, and intermediatemethods combine malt extracts with infusions of grains that don’t requiremashing.Advancedmethodsrelystrictlyonmaltedgrainsandmashing.

Theapproachcoveredinthisbookreliesuponmaltedgrainsandmashing,andwouldthusbeclassifiedasadvanced.Iwilladmittherearealotofvariablestobeconsideredwhenmakingbeerthisway.However,themethodsreallyaren’t

complicatedandtheminutiaemaymakethedifferencebetweenagoodbeerandagreatbeer,andifyoumessupabit,you’llstillendupwithgoodbeer99%ofthetime.

Inaddition,brewingwithall-grainmethodsisjustifiedbyvirtueofthefactthat it lends itself to greater self-sufficiency than being reliant onmalt extractandkits.Maltedgrainscostalotless.Infact,mostbeerkitscostbetween$8and$15 per gallon, so itwouldn’t save you anymoney at all,whereas beer frommaltedgraincaneasilycostaslittleas$4pergallon—evenlessifyougrowandmaltyourowngrain.

Thecostofequipmenttogetstartedis,tobehonest,daunting.Ifyouhadtobuyeverythingneededrightoffthebat,itwouldcost$300-$400.Butifyouarealreadymakingwine,youcanusethesamefermenters, testingequipment,andmanyofthesameadditives.Likewise,ifyoualreadymakecheese,youusethelargespoonanddigitalthermometerneededtomakebeer.Soifyouarealreadyundertaking these aspects of self-sufficiency, making all-grain beer will onlyrequireafewitemsyoudon’talreadyhave.

Even with the worst case scenario of having to buy everything to makebeer,astheaveragehouseholdwillconsumeasmuchaseightygallonsofbeerannuallyyouwillstillbreakevenonthecostwithinayear,andsavehundredsofdollars going forward, sincemost of the equipment you usewill easily last alifetime.

Insummary,myargumentsinfavorofmakingyourownbeercomedowntothefactthatyouwillsavemoneyinthelongrunsoyoucanusethatmoneydifferently, you will have a superior product, you can choose to use organicingredients thereby reducing your exposure to unintended poisons, and you’llhavetheconfidencethatcomesfromcontrollingyourownsupplychain.

TypesofBeerBecausebeer is sowidely consumed, there are dozens of variants. For ourpurposesI’mgoing todividebeer intocategoriesbaseduponthe typeofyeastthat is used, the type of malt that is used, and the type of conditioning itundergoes.

Aleisbeerthatisfermentedusingatop-fermentingyeast.Aleisfermentedat room temperaturesbetween60and75degrees.Though todayale isusuallyflavored with hops, hundreds of years ago ale was originally flavored with amixture of herbs called gruit. A common gruit mix would include mugwort,yarrow,androsemary.Therearemanyvariationsofalebaseduponthedegreeof

roastingofthemaltsusedtomakeit.Porterandstoutarealsovariantsofale.Lager is beer that is fermented with a bottom-fermenting yeast and

undergoes primary fermentation at temperatures between 45 and 54 degreesfollowedbystorageat32to39degrees.Storingabeeratthattemperaturerangeiscalledlagering.Whatyouwillmostlikelyencounterattheballpark,andthetypeofbeermostoftenconsumed,isapalelager.

Therearemanyvariationsonthesethemes,bothintermsoftechniqueandingredients. Examples include altbier, which is top-fermented at roomtemperature like ale, and then lagered, and California common, which uses aspecialbottomfermentingyeastthatworkswellatroomtemperature.

Onceyouknowthe ingredientsand techniques, it’syourbeer, soyoucancreateitanywayyouwish.That’soneofthejoysofhomebrewing!

EssentialsofBeerandBrewingWhat isbeer? I amgoing to skip the dictionary definition that includes allsorts of stuff of little interest and give the American definition: Beer is afermentedalcoholicbeverageflavoredwithhopsandmadefrommaltedgrainssuchasbarleyandwheat.

Grainsarestarchyseeds.Intheirdryform,yeastscan’tdigestthembecausethey are all starch and no sugar. However, many grains in the process ofsproutingproduceenzymesthatwillturnthestarchesintosugars.Maltinggrainis littlemore than inducing it to sprout, halting thegerminationprocess at theright timebyheating thegrainenough tokill itbutnotenough todamage theenzymes,andthendryingandcrackingthesproutedgrains.Barleyandwheatarethe most commonly malted because their enzymes are the most efficient forconvertingstarchestosugars.

The cracked malted grains are mixed with water in a process known asmashing.Becausetheenzymesthatconvertstarchtosugarworkbestatcertaintemperatures, the mash is held at those temperatures until the process ofconverting starch to sugar has completed. The liquid thatwill become beer iscalledawort.Then,thesolublesugarsandothernutrientsarewashedoutofthemashintotheboilingkettleinaprocessknownassparging.Spargingservestwopurposes: it helps obtain the sugars resulting from enzymatic conversion ofstarch,anditusesthegrainbedasafiltertoremovesolids.Thesugarywateristhenboiled.Thisstopsenzymaticactivityandsterilizesthewort.Hopsareaddedatdifferentpointsintheboilingcycledependingontheirtypeandpurpose.

Towardthelatterpartoftheboilingperiod,adevicecalledawortchilleris

putintheboilingwort.Whentheboilingisover,thewortchillerisusedtocoolthewort to a proper range for fermentation as quickly as possible.Once it iscooled, specific gravity readings are taken, it is put into a sanitized primaryfermenter,andtheyeastispitched.Oncetheyeasthasdoneitsjobinanywherefrom two days to twoweeks, the beer is racked off the trub (spent yeast andcondensed solids) into a primingbucket containing a bit of sugar.Thebeer isthenputintosterilebottlesandcapped.Thebottledbeerisreadyafteracoupleofweeksandwilldevelopimprovedflavorforuptothreeorfourmonths.

This is really the essence ofmaking beer. In principle it is fairly simplethough it may be logistically complex due to the problems associated withhandling hot or boiling wort in quantities as large as five gallons. You can,incidentally,makebeerinsmallerquantities.Fortunately,unliketheingredientsofwinewhichtendtobeprettyexpensiveforlargequantities,thegrainsusedinmakingbeerareverybudget-friendly.Sotheprimaryreasonformakingbeerinsmaller quantities would be to avoid the expense of large brew pots and themeansofheatingthem.ThewayIhaveitfigured,ifyouwantto,youcanstartwithonegallonbatchesandthenusethemoneyyousavetoaffordthecoupleofitemsyou’llneedforlargerbatches.

Asimplebeveragecoolermakesanexcellentmashtun.

MashTunYouwill see the word “tun” used frequently in brewing literature. It is anantiquated term referring to wooden casks used in brewing back before ourgreat-great-grandparents were born. In modern usage it just means “containerdedicated to somebeer-brewing task.”Becauseof the longand tradition-ladenhistoryofbrewing,peopleholdontoandre-taskolderterminology.AlotofthetermsarealsoGermanic,andthisisbecauseoftheimpressivetraditionalhistory

ofbrewinginGermany.Mashing isawordused toconveyholdingamixtureofmaltedgrainand

water at certain temperaturesuntil the enzymeshaveconverted the starches tosugar.Therearedifferentapproachestomashing.Insomeapproaches,itisdoneatdifferenttemperatures(calledastepmash)andinothersitisdoneatasingletemperatureonly.

Ifyouareusingasingletemperaturemash,whichiswhatIdescribeinthisbook, themost important thing is that it holds heat. For this purpose, a five-gallonbeveragecooleristheleastexpensiveoption.

If you are using multiple temperatures, you could certainly still use abeveragecoolerbydoingcalculatedadditionsofwateratahighertemperature,butyourbestbetwouldbealargepotbecauseyoucanaddheattoapoteasily.Becausemashingdoesn’tusethefullvolumeofwort,youcanuseasmallerpotthanyou’llneedforabrewpot,oryoucansimplyuseyourbrewpot.Ifyouareusingpots,youwillneedagasburnerforaddingheat.Anelectricburnersimplyisn’tuptothetask.

LauteringTunIfyouuseabeveragecoolerasamashtun,youcanfititwithamanifoldthatwillallowittoworkasalauteringtunaswell,oryoucanmakeoneeasilyfromacoupleofbucketsfittedinsideeachother.Lauteringistheprocessofextractingallof thesugarsfromthemashedgrainwhileallowingthatgrain toserveasafiltertotrapthelargersolidparticles.Alauteringtuncontainseitheramanifoldorafalsebottomwithhundredsofsmallholestoholdthegraininplacewhileallowing the water that runs through the grain to exit. Lautering can beaccomplishedviaacontinuousprocessinwhichwaterisaddedtothetopofthetun as quickly as it is removed (called sparging), or it can be done in a batchprocess in which all of the sparging water is added at once and then slowlydrained.Whendoneusingacontinuousprocess,amanifoldisusedontopofthegrainaswellsothatthewaterisevenlydistributedaroundandthroughthegrain,soasmuchsugaraspossibleisextracted.

Don’tspendalotofmoneyonalauteringtunwhentherearemanywaystomakeityourself.

Themanifolds are actually very simple plumbing implementsmade fromeithercopperorCPVCpiping.Bothofthesematerialsareusedforhotandcoldwater in residences and are perfectly safe. Because they aren’t carrying anypressurewhenused ina lautering tun, the fittings requirenocementorsolder.Youcansimplyfitthembyhand.

Likely theeasiest andcheapestwayofmakinga lautering tun is touseaprimingbucketwithaspigottocatchtheliquid,andamatchingbucketinsertedintoitwhosebottomhasbeendrilledwithhundredsof ”holestoholdthegrainforlautering.

IuseacombinedmethodinwhichIusesmalltwo-gallonbuckets.Theoneonthebottomcontainsaspigotandtheonethatisinsertedhasthebottomdrilledwithholesforholdingandfilteringthegrain.Ihavemadeamanifoldthatsitsontopofthebucket,andpourwortintoafunnelontopofthemanifoldasneeded.

You can also buy these for $200 or $300, but I don’t seemuch point indoingsoastheycanbereadilymanufacturedathomeatlowcost.

BrewPot(s)Youneedapot forboiling the fullquantityofyourwort. Ifyouaremakingfive-gallon batches, then you need a pot that will hold seven gallons. That isbecauseyourwortwilllosevolumetoevaporationwhilebeingboiled,andyoudon’twantyourpotboilingoverandmakingamess.Youcanusethissamepotforheatingwater formashingand lautering,oryoucanusea separate smallerpot for these tasks.Thoughmostusestainlesssteel forbrewing,stainlesssteelpots of this size are very expensive—over $100 and sometimes approaching$200.

Enamelware,suchasistypicallyfoundinwaterbathcanners,ismuchmoreaffordableandperfectlyserviceableaslongasit isn’tchipped.(Anychipswill

make your beer taste like iron.) Aluminum pots are unpopular because manypeoplethinkthealuminumwillgivethemmentaldiseases,butifusedproperly(i.e.forheatingandboilingratherthanforstorage)theyareabetterchoicethaneitherstainlesssteelorenamelwarebecausetheyarebothaffordableandprovidebetterheatconductionandcontrol.Onetrickwithaluminumistoleavethehazypatinaintactinsteadofscrubbingitoff.Thehazypatinaisanoxidationlayerthatprotects the aluminum from what you are boiling, and protects what you areboilingfromthealuminum.

Ihavefoundthatseven-gallonturkeyfryerpotsareperfectlysized,andcancostunder$40eveninastainlesssteelversion.ThatiswhatIuse.

PropaneBurnerMakingbeerwill tie up your kitchen for at least eight hours.Thismay ormaynotbe acceptable inyourhouse. I’m lucky in thatmywifedoesn’tmindbecauseIthoroughlycleanthekitchenafterI’mdone.

Unfortunately, someelectric stovesaren’tpowerfulenough toboil fiveorsixgallonsofwort.Thesolutiontothisproblemisastandalonepropaneburner.Theycostabout$55 to$95,and theyuse thesamesizepropane tankasagasgrill.Onceyouhaveoneofthese,you’llfindithandyforallsortsofthings,suchas heating the water used for scalding chickens, frying turkeys and so forth.Theseburnersareforoutdooruseonly.Ifyoutrytousetheminagaragetheywillalmostcertainlystartafire,butthecarbonmonoxidemaygetyoufirst.Sooutsideonly!

Youcanuseanoutdoorpropaneburnerifyourkitchenstoveisinsufficientorofflimits.

WortChillerOnce the wort is boiled, it needs to be cooled to fermenting temperature

quickly. Otherwise, spoilage organisms will have too much time to gain afootholdandthebeerwillspoil.Awortchillerisasimplecoilofcoppertubingfittedwithhosesoneitherendforcoldtapwater torunthrough.Thechiller isimmersedinthewortforthelastfifteenminutesofboilingsoitissterilized,andonce the boiling is done, run cold water through it. This removes heat muchmorerapidly.

Awortchillercoolsyourwortquicklytoreducetheriskofcontamination.

Ifyoudon’thaveawortchillerordon’twanttogototheexpense,youcanchillthewortinthebrewpotmorequicklybyputtingitinabathtubfilledwithcold water, and running cold water down the sides if you can do so withoutgettingthewaterintoyourpotandcontaminatingthewort.Thiswilltakeabout35minutes,soitisn’tasgoodasawortchiller,butitisbetterthanallowingfortheseveralhoursitwouldtaketheworttocoolsufficientlyonitsown.

PrimaryFermenterTheprimaryfermenterisalargeplasticbucketmadeoffood-gradeplastic.Itissizedatleast20%largerthanthelargestbatchofbeeryouplantomakeinordertokeeptheconstituentsofthevigorousprimaryfermentationfromspillingoutofthefermenterandmakingastickymess.Thebucketshouldbeequippedwithalidandgasket,andalsohaveprovisionsforfittinganairlock.Theseareavailable invarioussizes frombeerandwinehobbysuppliers. I recommendasix-gallonbucket.

Ifyouare alreadymakingwine,youcanuse the sameprimary fermenteryoualreadyhaveandsavesomemoneythatway.

Don’tworryabout thesmellsandtastesofplastic infusingintoyourbeer.Thisisnotaconcernbecausethecontainerisfoodgradeplasticselectedforitslowdiffusion,youcleaneditthoroughlypriortouse,andthebeerwillonlybeinitforacoupleofweeksatmost.

PrimingBucketAprimingbucket (also called a bottling bucket) is identical to a primaryfermenter except that it has a spigot at thebottom for easilydraining thebeerintobottles.Primingisaprocessinwhichacontrolledamountofsugarisaddedtofinishedbeerbeforeitisbottled.Theremainingmicroscopicyeastinthebeereatsthesugartomakecarbondioxidewhichcarbonatesthebeer.

The reasonwhy a priming bucket is used instead of just bottling straightfromthefermenterisbecausethefermentationprocessleavesalotofdetritusatthe bottom of the fermenter.Youwant to get your beer away from that, as itcontains a lot of yeast cells thatwill auto-destruct (a process called autolysis)once theyhave runout of food, andwhen they autolyze they’ll release nasty-tastingcompounds into thebeer.So thebeer is rackedfromthe fermenter intotheprimingbucket,thesugarisaddedtotheprimingbucket,andthenthebeerisbottled.

SecondaryFermenterAlthoughalotof instructions forbeermakinggostraight fromtheprimaryfermentationtobottling,Idonotbelievethisgivesashighaqualitybeerasonethathasundergone secondary fermentation.Secondary fermentationwill allowthebeertoclarifynaturallyaswellasdevelopmorecomplexflavorcompounds.Likewise,duringsecondaryfermentationbeerwilllosethesharpyeasttangthatcan occur. It’s also an excellent opportunity for adding certain flavoringadjuncts.

Ifyoualreadymakewine,youcanre-usethewinecarboysforbeer.Ifyouaren’tmakingwine,youmighteventuallywantasecondaryfermenterforyourbeeranyway,andIrecommendglassforthispurposebecauseyoucankeepthebeerinthesecondaryforaslongasamonth.

Theglassvesselscomeinvarioussizesfromonegallonuptofivegallons.Thesmallerone-gallonvesselsaresimplyone-gallonjugs,andthelargerthree-or five-gallonvessels areglass carboys similar to thoseusedonold-fashionedwatercoolers.Youwillneedafive-galloncarboy.

Youwillalsoneedtogetaspecialbrushforcleaningyourcarboybecausetheopeningistoosmallforeventhesmallesthandsandaregularbottlebrushistooshortandisn’tbentforcleaningaroundtheedges.

The fermentation that takes place in the secondary fermenter is long andslow.As thecarbondioxide isevolvedmoreslowly, it ispossibleforair tobedrawn into the vessel, especially if temperatures change. During secondary

fermentation, you want to prevent oxygen from coming into contact with thebeer,becauseoxygenadverselyaffects thequalityof thebeerbychanging thecharacterofsomeoftheevolvedorganiccompounds.

Byfittingtheholeinthefermenterwithastopperandanairlock,youwillallowaprotectiveblanketofcarbondioxide tocover thesurfaceofyourbeer.Youwillneedrubberstopperswithoneholeinthemthataresizedcorrectlyforyour secondary fermenter. The airlock is prepared, put into the hole in thestopper,andthenthestopperisplacedintheholeatthetopofthefermenter.

One thing that people often overlook is a carrying handle. A five-galloncarboy filledwith beer is extremely heavy anddifficult to handle.The handlethat you order can be installed on a carboy and then removed to be used onanother,soyouonlyneedone.Theycostabout$10andarewellworththeprice.

AirlocksAirlocksaredevicesinstalledonafermenterthatallowgastoescape,butdonotallowairtoleakbackin.Theycomeinavarietyofconfigurations,butallarefilledwithwaterorasolutionofpotassiummetabisulfite.Theairlockisfilledtothelevelspecifiedonthedevice,insertedinaone-holerubberstopperandthenattachedtothefermenter.Youshouldhaveat least twoof these.Thestyleyouchoosedoesn’tmatter.

RackingTube/AutosiphonA racking tube is a long two-part tube that is inserted into the beer andpumped to start a siphoning action in order to transfer the beer from onecontainer intoanotherwhileminimizingcontactwithoxygen. It has aknobatthebottomthatdirectstheflowoffluidinsuchawayastominimizetheamountof sediment transferred in the process. Youwill also need five feet of plastictubingtogowithit.Astop-cock,whichisaplasticclipthatcanbeusedtostoptheflowtemporarily,willcomeinhandy.

Alwayscleanyourrackingtubeandplastictubingbeforeandafteruse,andrun a gallon of sulphite solution through it to sterilize the components.Otherwise, it will accumulate debris attractive to fruit flies that carry vinegarbacteria and you will unwittingly start manufacturing vinegar. The tubing isinexpensiveanditisbesttoreplaceitafterseveraluses.

WortAeratorWhenwortisboiled,allofthedissolvedoxygenisdrivenout.Theproblem

isthatyeastneedsoxygenforitsinitialreplicatingphase,sotheoxygenhastobeputbackintothewortbeforetheyeastisadded.Therearealotofwaystodothis,but I recommendahandy$4gadget thatgoesonto theendof theplastictubing you use to transfer the wort from the brewing pot to the primaryfermenter. The gadget sprays the beer all over the place as it goes into thefermenter,givingitampleopportunitytodissolveoxygen.ThisdeviceiscalledaSiphonSprayWortAerator.

HydrometerAhydrometerisusedtocheckthespecificgravityofyourwort,whichgivesanindicationastohowmuchsugarisdissolvedinit.Bymeasuringthespecificgravitybefore and after fermentation, you can tell howmuchalcohol thebeerhas.Ifyouaremakingwine,youcanusethesamehydrometer.

ThermometerInbrewing,temperature iseverythingbecausesomanyof theenzymaticprocesses are dependent upon specific rangesof temperature. I recommend aninstant-readdigitalthermometer,suchastheNorproModel#5976.Youcanalsousethethermometerincheesemaking.Inspiteofthe“instantread”designationofthisandsimilarthermometers,theytakeaminuteortwotogiveanaccuratereading.

pHMeterYouwillneed tomeasure and adjust the pHof yourmashing and lauteringwater,andaninexpensivepHmeterwillmakethiseffortless.Don’tforgettogetapH7bufferingsolutionforcalibratingthemeter.

CapperBecausebeerisacarbonatedbeverage,youcan’tcorkitlikewine.Thecapshave to form a good seal and be held securely to withstand the force ofcompressedgas.Cappers areused to secure the capsonbeerbottles.You can

buyabenchmodeloratwohandedmodel.Iuseatwo-handedmodelthatcosts$17.

Beerusesaspecialcapperandcrowncapstocontainthecompressedgas.

WineThiefEventhoughitiscalledawinethief,itisequallyusefulforbeer.Awinethiefisalongtubewithaspecialvalveontheendthatallowsyoutoremoveliquidsfromacontainerveryeasily.Cleanandsanitizeitbeforeandafteruse.Beerismoresusceptible thanwine tocontamination, soanywort thatyouremovefortestingshouldbediscardedinsteadofreturnedtothecontainer.

BeerBottlesYouwillneed beer bottles. Lots of beer bottles.A beer bottle holds twelveouncesofbeer.Agallonofbeer is128ounces,andfivegallonsofbeer is640ounces. That means 53 bottles of beer are needed for a five-gallon batch. Inpractice, you usually only need 48 bottles because of waste, spillage, and soforth.Evenso,that’salotofbottles.

Onceyouaremakingyourownbeerregularly,youcansaveandreuseyourbottles.But you’ll need an initial supply.One good place to get them is frombars. Because a lot of states have deposits, I offer to pay the bar double thedepositforthebottles,andhaveneverbeenrefused.(Ifyouareconcernedaboutpotentialdiseases,beerbottlescanbeboiledinaboilingwaterbathcannerforthirtyminutesafterwashing.)Youcanalsobuythemnew,atacostof$16percaseof24.Asyoucan see,you’dneed twocases foryour firstbatchofbeer,whichwillcost$32.Butyou’llultimatelystartreusingthosebottlessothecostforsubsequentbatcheswillbezero.

BottlingBucketAbottlingbucketisalargeplasticpailalmostidenticaltotheprimaryfermenterexcept that it has a spigot at the bottom. The beer is racked into the bottlingbucket, thepriming sugar is added, and thenbottles are filledusing abottlingwandattachedviaasectionofPVCtubing.

BottlingWandAbottlingwandisaspring-loadeddevicethatisusedtofillbottles.Oneendconnects to the bottling bucket with a piece of tubing, and the other end isinserted in thebottle tobefilled.Abottlingwandhasaspring-loadedvalveatthebottom.

GrainMill(optional)You can buy most malted grains already cracked. But if you buy them inwholeformoryoumakeyourownmaltedgrains,youwillneedagrainmill.IhaveaCoronagrainmillthatIhaveusedfordecadesformakingflourofvarioussorts,anditdoesjustfineforcrackingmaltedgrainwhensetproperly.Thecostisabout$55,butitisn’tanecessity.

ConsolidatedEquipmentListThefollowinglistwillmake it easy to get everythingyouwill need in thefewestpossibleshoppingtrips.Ipricedthisoutwithawell-knownInternetbeerandwinehobbyshopfor$412.50plusnearly$100forshipping.Atthatpriceforshipping, if you can find the gear locally it is worth the trip. This cost is, ofcourse,aworst-casescenario.Iamassumingyoudon’talreadyhaveagasgrillthatusespropane tanks,a30-quartpot,oranyof thegear formakingwineorcheese.Ifyoualreadyhavethesethings,thecostdropsdramatically.

Also, most people start brewing with malt extracts and a $100 kit. Butpretty soon, if they likemaking beer, they graduate through various phases toreachthepointofmakingall-grainbeers.Alongtheway,theyspendhundredsoreventhousandsofdollarsintrialanderror.We’reshort-cuttingthatprocessandtakingyoustraight to theend-gamewhereyousave themostmoneyandhavethegreatestflexibility.

1 30quartbrewpot,aluminum,enamel,orstainlesssteel1 Propaneburner1 FilledPropaneCylinder2 Six-gallonplasticfermenterswithsealingplasticlidandgrommet1 Priming/bottlingbucketwithlidandspigot1 Five-gallonsecondaryfermenter,preferablyglass1 Carboybrushforcleaningthesecondaryfermenter1 Carboyhandle1 Five-gallonbeveragecooler(thebestdealsareathomeimprovement

stores)1 Wortchiller1 Siphonspraywortaerator1 Hydrometer1 pHmeter1 Instant-readdigitalthermometer1 #6.5universalrubberstopperwithonehole2 Airlocks1 Rackingtube/autosiphon1 Bottlefillingtube5ft ”plastictubing1 ”hoseclamp1 Winethief1 Two-handedcapper48 Beerbottles100 Bottlecaps

Inadditiontoequipment,makingbeerrequiresavarietyof innocuousbutnevertheless importantadditives. Ingeneral,beeryeastarewell-adapted to thenutrientsinmaltandwillperformwell.However,justlikewine,beerisaffectedbyawidevarietyoffactorsandthebrewercanexercisesomecontroloverthesefactorswithmeasurementsandadjuncts.

Citric,Malic,andTartaricAcidsYoucanuseanyofthesetoacidifyyourmashwaterifthepHistoolow,andif you make wine you likely already have these handy. The reason why youwouldwanttoacidifythewateryouuseinmashingandspargingisbecauseanacidicwaterwilldissolvefewertanninsfromthehusksofthegrain.Theyalsoincreasetartness,whichmayormaynotbesomethingyouwantinaparticularbeer,whichiswhyotheradditivesareusuallyusedformodifyingthepHofthewater.Citricacidinparticulartendstohelpwithclarifying.

CalciumSulfateandMagnesiumSulfateCalciumsulfateandmagnesiumsulfatearepurifiedfood-gradeversionsofgypsumandEpsomsaltrespectively.ThoughcalciumsulfateiscommonlyusedinbrewingtolowerthepHofwater,thatisnotwhatitisusedforinmybrewingmethods. Rather, calcium sulfate andmagnesium sulfate are used for makingverymodestadditionsofcalciumandmagnesiumtowater,especiallydistilledorbottled waters, in which those elements are deficient. Yeast requires certainminimallevelsofbothcalciumandmagnesiumtofunctionoptimally.

Adjunctscommonlyusedinbrewing.

PhosphoricAcidThisisthesamephosphoricacidusedinallmannerofsoftdrinks,bottledicedtea and so forth. It comes as a 10% solution from brewery suppliers. It isinexpensive at $4 for eight ounces. I advocate the use of phosphoric acid tolower thepHofmashandspargingwater ifneeded.This is fareasier than thecomplexcalculationsofaccomplishingthisusingvariouspositiveions.

PotassiumHydroxide/WoodLye

Youcanget foodgradepotassiumhydroxide (also known as reagent grade)fromchemicalsupplystores.17A15gpackageismorethansufficient.Touseit,makea1Nsolutionbyputting14.03grams in a250mlvolumetric flask, andadding distilled water to the fill line. Wear gloves and goggles during thisprocedure as mixing lye with water can generate heat. Once the solution hasbeenmade,itcanbestoredinasealedplastic(butnotglass)bottle.IfthepHofyourmashorspargingwaterneedstoberaised(whichisunlikelybutpossible)potassium hydroxide will do a much better job than the potassium carbonateusuallyusedforthatpurpose,anditwillraisethepHwithoutaddinghardness.

PecticEnzymeThisisn’tneededwhenmakingbeerfromgrainsalone,butifyoudecidetoinclude fruits in your fermenter as an experiment, you’ll need to add pecticenzymeinordertoavoidthedevelopmentofhazesinyourbeer.

AmylaseEnzymeMalts used in making beer already contain amylase. The only reason youwouldadd this is ifyoudecide toaddgrains toyourmash thathavenotbeenmalted such as oats. In general, lightmalts have enough residual enzymes toconvert the starches of a reasonable amount of adjunct grains. But if you areusing relatively littlemalt or themalts you are using are predominantly dark,thenthenaturalenzymaticactivitywillbeinsufficientandalittleboostwillbeneeded.Addoneteaspoontothemashandmashasusual.

ClarifyingAgentsBecausewinespendssolonginsecondaryfermentation,atimerangingfrommonthstoyears,winehasplentyoftimetoclarifyonitsownwithouttheneedfor filtering or added clarifying agents. Beer, however, seldom has enoughbiological stability to spend more then three weeks—four at the most—incombined primary and secondary fermentation. So clarifying agents are oftenused right in the brew pot or at least added during secondary fermentation inordertohelpclearitofsuspendedyeastparticles,proteins,andsolids.Thoughintheneartermsuspendedparticlesjustgiveabadappearance,oncebeerhassataroundforawhiletheywillbreakdownandimpartoff-flavors.Soyouwantto

clarifyyourbeer.Abewilderingarrayofclarifyingagents(alsocalledfinings)areavailable,

but I recommend those that are easiest to use with the widest range ofeffectiveness:Irishmoss,gelatin,andPolyclar(PVPP).

Irishmossisabrownseaweedalsoknownascarrageen—asubstanceyouhave likely already consumed in ice cream, dressings, and so forth. It isinexpensive,andveryeffectiveatcoagulatingproteins.Addaquarterteaspoonof Irishmoss to the brewpot fifteenminutes before the endof boiling, at thesametimeyouwouldinsertthewortchiller.

With a week to go in the secondary fermenter before bottling time, youshouldaddamixtureofgelatinandPolyclar(PVPP)tothesecondaryfermenter.

Gelatinwill helpprevent proteinhazes andwill condense anydeadyeastthatisfloatingaround.Tousegelatin,useyourscaletomeasureoutonegramoffining gelatin (from a wine/beer making store), and mix that with twotablespoons of cold water in a clean coffee cup. Separately, put seventablespoons of water in a glass measuring cup, and heat on high in themicrowave for oneminute. Add the hot water to the dissolved gelatin in thecoffeecup,mixingthoroughly.Allowthis tocooldowntoatemperatureof80degrees,andthengentlystirthewholeamountintofivegallonsofbeer.

YoushouldaddPolyclar(PVPP)atthesametime.Thesearetinystatically-charged beads of harmless plastic thatwill attract any remaining particles notalreadyattractedby theIrishmossorgelatin.Mix¼teaspoonofPolyclar intothegelatinbeforeaddingit.

YeastEnergizerYeastenergizersuppliescrucialnutrientsforyeastthatallowittoreproduceand do a good job of converting sugar to alcohol. Yeast energizer usuallycontains food grade ammonium phosphate, magnesium sulfate, yeast hulls tosupplylipids,andtheentirevitaminBcomplex;ofwhichthiamine(vitaminB1)is the most important. Grain contains a lot of nutrients, so this isn’t usuallyneeded as it would be with country wines. But it also doesn’t hurt to add itanyway.

SulfiteBecause beerwort is effectively sterilized by boiling, there’s no point inaddingsulfitedirectlytothewortasisdoneinwine.Evenso,sanitationiseven

more important in beer than it is inwine due to both its nutrient density andloweralcoholcontent,andsulfiteiswellemployedinsterilizingequipment.

For brewing you only need one form of sulfite: powdered potassiummetabisulfite. In powdered form it is used to make sterilizing solutions forsterilizingequipment.

YeastThe only thing with more yeast varieties available than wine is beer. Thearrayisstaggering.Yeastsformakingbeerfallintotwoprimarycategories:aleyeaststhatfermentatthetopofthefermenterandprefertemperaturesabove60degrees,andlageryeaststhatfermentatthebottomofthefermenterandprefertemperaturesbelow60degrees.Theyareavailableinthreeforms:driedpacketsfor direct pitching, liquid tubes requiring amplification before pitching, andliquidfoilsfordirectpitching.

Whereas with wine, dried yeast packets are inexpensive and available innearlyinexhaustiblevariety,butwithbeertherearen’tmanyvarietiesavailable.Luckily,thosethatareavailableareofhighquality.Fermentismakessevenveryflexibledryyeasts.

Somecommonlyavailabledryyeasts.

Wyeastdirectpitchingyeastscomeasaninnersealedpacketofyeastinanoutersealedpacketofnutrient.Theyareactivatedbybreakingtheinnerpacketaccordingtopackagedirections,andthensettingthepacketasideforthreehoursormorewhile theyeastmultiplies.Besure tosanitize thepackagewithsulfitesolutionbeforeopeningandpitching.

Otherthanthetemperaturerequirements,makinglagersisnotappreciablydifferent than making ales, but because most homes aren’t maintained attemperaturessuitableforlager,Iamgoingtospecifythreegoodgeneralpurposealeyeasts:oneindriedformandtwoinfoilpacketform.

FermentisSafBrewS-33DryAleYeastThis is a verygood all-aroundyeast that develops excellent flavors.S-33

performs best when reconstituted prior to pitching. To reconstitute, add thecontents of the packet to four ounces of sterile (boiled and cooled)water at atemperature of between 74 and 86 degrees. Keep in a warm place, and stirperiodicallywith a sterile spoonuntil a slurryhasbeen formed.After anhourfromwhentheyeastandwaterwerefirstmixed,gentlydistributeintothewortintheprimaryfermenter.

Thepopular‘smack-pack’styleofliquidyeast.

Wyeast1056AmericanAleThisisagreatyeastformakingbeerthatisunmistakeablybeer.Thatis,it

produces very few fruity or ester aromas, and allows the flavors of theunderlyingmaltandhopstopredominate.Thisyeastisveryflexible,andcanbeused for making a variety of ales, porters, stouts, and even braggot orbarleywine.

Wyeast1084IrishAleThisyeastisalmosttheoppositeof1056.Especiallywhenfermentationis

conductedbetween64and70degrees,itproducesalotofestersandfruitnotes.Itisespeciallywell-suitedtomakingdarkandrobustalesandstouts.

ConsolidatedIngredientListThe following ingredient list will allow you to make many successfulgallonsof beer.Asyour experience expands, youmaywish to adopt differentmaterialsandtechniques;butmosthomebrewersfindthatthislistismorethansufficientfortheirneeds.Thetotalcostofallthesesupplieswillbewellunder$60.

4oz Citricacid½oz Pecticenzymeliquid4oz Amylaseenzymepowder2oz Yeastenergizer1oz IrishMoss1oz Brewer’sGelatin½oz Polyclar2oz CalciumSulfate2oz MagnesiumSulfate4oz 10%PhosphoricAcid15g–2oz ReagentgradePotassiumHydroxideflakes4oz Powderedpotassiummetabisulfite1pkt FermentisSafBrewS-33aleyeast1pkt Wyeast1056aleyeast1pkt Wyeast1084aleyeast

16NewYorkTimes,11/5/1992“JarinIranianRuinsBetraysBeerDrinkersof3500B.C.”17HMSBeagleatwww.hms-beagle.comandUnitedNuclearatwww.unitednuclear.comsellreagentgradepotassiumhydroxidein15gand2ozsizesrespectivelyforlessthan$5.

8

TheScienceofBeer

Thescienceofbeer isonlyslightlymorecomplex than thescienceofwine.Unlikewineinwhichthesugarsexistnaturally,thesugarsusedtofermentbeermustbeproducedbyenzymaticaction.Oncethesugarshavebeenproduced,thefermentationitselfworksthesame.

EnzymesEnzymes arebiological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that assists inbringingaboutachangeinsomeothersubstancewithoutbeingchangeditself.Acommon example of catalytic action is the catalytic converter mandated inmodern cars.Once it heats up, the catalysts it contains burn any unburnt fuelleaving the engine so that it won’t contribute to pollution and fog. Enzymeswithin our bodiesworkmuch the same, assistingwith nearly every body andcellular action. It is the enzymes in malt that are used to create fermentablesugarsfromstarch.

MakingMaltThe core of making beer is malted grain. When grain begins to sprout, itproduces enzymes that serve to convert the stored starches in the kernel intoreadily metabolized sugars for the emerging plant. If the grain continues tosprout,thosesugarsareusedbytheplantandtheenzymesaredestroyedastheyhave outlived their purpose. Malting arrests the germination of the seed atpreciselytherighttimeforthemaximumpresenceofenzymes.

Three grains are well-suited to making malt: barley, wheat, and corn.Thoughallgrainsmaketheappropriateenzymestosomedegree,itisthesethreewhoseconversionismostefficient.Barleyisthemostusedbecauseitnotonlymakesenoughenzymestoconvertitsownstarches,butitalsomakesenoughtoconvertthestarchesinamodestamountofunmaltedadjunctgrain.

The grains are induced to sprout through a cyclical soaking regimen:soaked inwater for eight hours, then removed from thewater for eight hours.Duringthetimetheyareoutofthewater,theyarespreadevenlyonaflatsurfaceandprotectedfromdryingeitherbyenclosureoroccasional lightmisting.Thisprocessisrepeateduntiltherootemergesandtheacrospire—thebabyleafthatisinside the grain kernel—is at a length of between 75% and 100% that of thegrain.Oncetheroothasreachedthelengthofthegrain,youjustopenasamplegrainand look inside to checkon the lengthof the acrospire.Theacrospire iswhite because it has not yet emerged into light andmay be hard to see. Thiswhole process will take around six days for barley and about three days forwheatandcorn.

Oncetheacrospireislongenoughtoindicateenzymesareattheirpeak,thegerminationishaltedbykilning,inwhichthegerminatinggrainsareheated.

Wheatandcornareheatedatatemperatureof110to125degreesuntiltheyweigh the same as they did before germination. Barley is heated at thattemperatureforaday,butthenthetemperatureisgraduallyraisedto140to160degrees until such time as the barley weighs the same as it did beforegermination.Thisprocessgivesyoupalemalt,thetypeofmaltwiththegreatestenzymaticactivity.Othermaltsgaintheirdarkercolorsfromroastingandimpartother flavors and textures, but generally have a lesser degree of enzymaticactivitybecausethehighertemperaturesdenaturetheenzymes.

Usingthisinformationyoucan,ofcourse,makeyourownmaltfromwholegrains—theultimateself-sufficiencyinbeermaking,especiallyifyougrowthegrains yourself! But the primary reason I covered this is somalts don’t seemmysterious, inaccessible, or something that you have no choice but to dependuponotherstosupply.

EnzymesandMaltMaltcontainsanumberofenzymesof interest,eachofwhichhasdifferenteffects,differentoptimumtemperaturesandworkbestatdifferentpHvalues.

ß-glucanasesß-glucanases are responsible for tearing down the cellwalls of the grain.

Tearingdownthecellwallsmakeswhatisinsidethecellsavailable.Theyworkbest at a temperature of 95 to 113 degrees. In general, these enzymes havealreadydone all thework theyneed tododuring the first stageof thekilningprocess, so there is no need to mash at this temperature. If you are using

homemademaltandyoumashatthistemperaturerangeforfifteenminutes,thisiscalledabetaglucansrest.

ProteasesProteasesareresponsibleforbreakingthebondsbetweenaminoacidsthat

hold protein chains together. This turns the proteins in grain into amino acidsthatcanbeusedbytheyeastsfortheirownreproduction.Themostactiverangeforproteaseenzymesisfrom113to131degrees.Normally,thetemperatureofmalt is raisedgradually,so itpasses through this rangeslowlyenoughwhile itstill has enoughwater content,whichmeans the jobof theproteaseshasbeencompleted in the malt. In this case there is no need to mash at this highertemperature. However, if you are using homemade malt, mashing for twentyminutesbetween122and125degreeswouldbeagood ideabefore increasingthe temperature for the rest of themashingprocess.This aspectofmashing iscalledaproteinrest.

α-amylasesAlphaamylasesarepresentinhumansalivaintheformofptyalinandalso

inpancreaticjuice,inmanyfungiandinseedssuchasgrainsthatusestarchasanenergyreserve.Inallofthesecases,thepurposeofalphaamylaseistoliquifystarchbybreaking the longchains into shorter chains.Thoughα-amylases areactivefrom140to167degrees,theyworkmostquicklyat158degrees.

β-amylasesBetaamylasesarepresent invariousplants,bacteria, and fungi.Theyare

responsible forbreakingup the starches in ripening fruit into sugars.Theyarealsopresentingrainsusedformalt,wheretheybreakdowntheliquifiedstarchintomaltose (sugar)molecules.Theyworkbestat140 to145degrees,butareactive from 140 to 150 degrees. Beta amylases are denatured within twentyminutesattemperaturesexceeding155degrees.

MashingBecauseproteasesandß-glucanaseshavealreadydonetheirrespectivejobsduringthemaltingprocess,mostmashingisoptimizedfortheactionofaandßamylases. The fact that they work best at different temperatures allows us tocontrol the alcohol content and mouth-feel of the beer by the temperature at

whichitismashed.Inpractice, then, themashingtemperatureissomewherebetween149and

159degrees,andthetemperatureofthemashprofoundlyaffectsthecharacterofthebeer.Toward149degrees,youendupwithathinnermouth-feeltothebeerand higher alcohol content because of the greater conversion to fermentablesugars, and toward159degrees the short chain starchesgive a thickermouth-feeltothebeer,butthealcoholcontentislower.

For most commercially available malted grains, what is called a single-infusionmashisadequateandtypical.Inasingle-infusionmash,thegrainsareaddedtothemashtunandasingletemperaturebetween149and159degreesismaintaineddependinguponthetypeofbeerdesired.Ifabeerwithalotofmouthfeel is desired but this doesn’t give enough fermentable sugar, an adequateamountofadjunctsugarismixedwiththewortwhenitisboiled.

Forasingleinfusionmash,thecrackedmaltisputinthemashtun(inmycase a $20 beverage cooler from a home improvement store) and water tendegreeswarmerthanthedesiredtemperatureisadded.Simplyheatupthewaterin a big pot on the stove, measuring the temperature until it is ten degreeswarmer, and then pour it into themash tunwith the grain. (Addwater to thegrainratherthangraintothewaterastheenzymesworkbetterthisway.)

Aquart toaquartandahalfofwater isneeded foreverypoundofmalt.Youneedtoheatthewatertendegreeshotter(sevenifusingaquartandahalfofwaterperpoundofmalt)because themalt at room temperaturewill lower thetemperatureof the addedwater.After adding thewater and stirring, check thetemperature and adjust by careful additions of nomore than a quart of hot orcoldwater.

Youcan“haveyourcakeandeatittoo”byusingwhatiscalledastepmash.Ifyouarehaving troublewithproteinhazesandheadretention inyourbeer,astepmashmaybecalledfor.Acompletestepmashisstartedinabrewingpotforeasily increasing the temperature, and ends in the mash tun for the finalconversionwhenthehighestmashingtemperaturehasbeenreached.

A typical stepmash spends 10-30minutes at 95 degrees for ß-glucanaseactivity(eveninstepmashesthisisoftenskipped),10-60minutesat122degreesforproteaseactivity(calledaproteinrest),20–30minutesat148-150degreestomaximizefermentablesugarswithß-amylases,andthen the temperatureof themash is raised to155–158degrees for themouth-feelgeneratedbya-amylasesand dumped into the insulatedmash tun; hold the final temperature for 30-60minutes.The finalmashing time isoverwhenall starchhasbeenconverted toeithersugarorshorterstarchchains.Thisischeckedusinganiodinetest.

IodineTestWhowould have thought that Mrs. Breckinridge’s seventh grade scienceclasswouldbesouseful?Inthatclass,alongwithdissectingfrogs,Ialsolearnedsomethingeminentlyusefulformakingmyownbeer:thestarchreaction.

Toperformtheiodinetest,putasmalloneteaspoonsampleofmashwortonaclean,whitesaucerandadropoftinctureofiodineonaseparatepartoftheplate.Gentlytipthesaucersothatthemashmakescontactwiththeiodineandobservethecolor.Ifitisblack,blue,ordeeppurple,therearestillunconvertedlong-chain starches. If it is red, brown, or reddish brown, all the long-chainstarcheshavebrokendownintosugarsandshortchainstarches. If themash iscompletelyconverted to sugars, the iodine remainsyellow.As longas the testshowsthatalllong-chainstarcheshavebeenbrokendown,itisfinetoproceedtosparging.

WaterWater constitutes between 90% and 95% of beer by weight, so it isimportant to use high-quality water when making beer. Not to disparage theeffortsofgoodpeoplewhohavewrittenhundredsofarticlesonmanagingwaterformaking beer, but 95%of the time you can brew fantastic beerwithwaterfromyourfaucetorusingbottledspring(notdistilled)waterwithonlyminimalmanagement.

ChlorineandChloraminesThe water used for brewing must be free of chlorine and chloramines.

These substances are used as disinfectants inmunicipalwater supplies, but inbeertheycombinewithnaturalphenoliccompoundstocreatenasty-tastingbeer.Chlorinecanberemovedwithacarbonfilter,andchloraminescanberemovedbyadding¼ofaCampdentabletper5gallonsofwaterandallowingtostandforanhour.

Angst-FreepHManagementpHisimportantbecausetheenzymesinmashingworkbestwithincertain

pH ranges.Water that is too alkaline (i.e. has too high a pH)will absorb toomany tannins from the grain whilemashing and sparging. In general, if yourwaterisgoodfordrinkingandisn’tveryhard,itschemistryissuchthatwhenitismixedinthemashtun,thenaturalphosphatesinthemashwillcombinewith

cationsinthewatertocreateapHsomewhereintheidealrangeof5.2to5.8.Though it is possible to adjust themineral content such that based upon

certaingrains,toastinglevel,adjuncts,startingwaterchemistry,andsoforthyouwill hit a certain pH, the task is complex and subject to error. If amistake ismade,thebeerendsuptastinglikeitwasbrewedfrommineralwater.

Instead,IrecommendusingyourpHmetertotestthepHofthemash,andtoadjust thepH right in themash tunbasedupon that reading ifneeded.Youwantareadingbetween5.2and5.8.Mostlevelswillbefine,butifitistoohigh,youcanloweritthroughadditionofdilutephosphoricacid.Ifitistoolow,youcan raise it with the addition of potassium hydroxide solution. Both of theseweredescribed(includinghowtomakethepotassiumhydroxidesolution)inthepreviouschapter.

Keepinmindthatonthefirsttestitwillbeimpossibletoknowhowmuchof these to add to change thepH, becausemany compounds inmash serve asbuffers.AbufferisacompoundthattakesupsomeoftheacidorbasethatyouareaddinginsuchawayastoavoidasignificantchangeinpH.Oncethebufferisusedup,thepHchangesfast.Add0.5ml(measuredusingasyringewithouttheneedle)ofeitherphosphoricacid(tolowerthepH)orpotassiumhydroxide(toraisethepH),mixintothemash,waitaminute,andtestthepHagainwiththemeter.RepeatuntilthepHiswithintherangeof5.2to5.8.

Sparging water doesn’t have the same opportunity for contact with themash, and so ismore likely toneedpHadjustment. In fact,most professionalbreweries pre-treat their spargingwater to a pHof 5.5, and I recommend thatyoudothesame.ApHof5.5willensurethatthespargingwaterwon’tdissolveaninordinateamountoftanninfromthegrainhusk.ToadjustthepHofspargingwater,doitrightinthekettleonceithasreachedspargingtemperature.Usethesametechniqueasformashwater,making0.5mladditionsofeitherphosphoricacidorpotassiumhydroxideandcheckingwiththepHmeteraftereachaddition.Because plain water doesn’t buffer as well as mash water, as you approachwithinhalfapointofthedesiredpH,decreasetheamountofyouradditionsto0.2ml.

MineralsIfyourwaterisgoodfordrinkingandifitalreadymakesgoodbeer,theold

adage“ifitisn’tbrokendon’tfixit”applies.Youcanbrewbeerfarsuperiortowhatyoucanbuywithoutevermessingwithyourwater.Wheremessingwithyourwatermakes adifference ison thehighendofbeer competitions.Underthose circumstances, just a tinydifference in ionconcentration in the sparging

watercanmakeadetectabledifferenceinacompetition.Butforbrewingagoodsolidbeerthatwillbeatthestoreanyday,youseldomneedtobotherwiththis.

Alloftheforegoingnotwithstanding,there’sjustsomethingaboutbrewingbeerthatmakesbrewerslovetinkeringwiththemineralcontentofthebrewingwater,andifyoucan’tresisttheurge,herearesomeguidelines.

Firstthingsfirst:Beforeyoucantinker,youneedtoknowwhatyouhave.Forthis,youneedawatertest.Ifyouareusingbottledspringwater,youcangetthat information from the manufacturer’s website on the Internet. If you areusingmunicipalwater,youcansometimesgetthatinformationfromyourwaterprovider.Iftheywon’tprovideitorifyouareusingaprivatewell,youwillneedtosendoutyourwaterfortesting.

TherearemanywatertestinglaboratoriesandIdon’townstockinanyofthem, but the one most often used by brewers is Ward Labs atwww.wardlab.com. The test you want is “W-6 Household Mineral Test” for$16.50.Iamgoingtocovereachparametertestedandgivesomeguidelinesandinformationthatwillbeusefulregardingeachone.

Sodium: (Na+) Just as it does with other foods, sodium rounds out theflavorinbeerbuttastessaltyinexcess.Theamountofsodiuminyourwatercango down to zero and as high as 150 mg/L without adverse effect, but you’lldefinitelynoticeasaltytastewithconcentrationsexceeding200mg/L.

Calcium:(Ca2+)Yeastandmashenzymesbothrequireacertainminimumlevel of calcium to function efficiently. In general, it is accepted that theminimumlevelofcalciumis50mg/Landthemaximumlevelis150mg/L.

Magnesium:(Mg2+)Aswithcalcium,theyeastandmashenzymesrequirea minimal level of magnesium in order to function efficiently. Theminimumlevel of magnesium is 10mg/L, and the maximum level is 30mg/L. Levelsgreaterthan50mg/Lwillmakebeertastesour.

Potassium: (K+) The level of potassium should be less than 10mg/L.Otherwise,thehighlevelofpotassiumwillinhibityeast.

Chloride:(Cl-)Chlorideisn’tthesamethingaselementalchlorine.Itisanionthatisusuallypairedwithsodium,potassium,calcium,oranotherelement.There’sno requirement forchloride inbrewingwater,but if levelsexceed250mg/Lyoucanendupwithsalty-tastingbeer.

Sulfate:(SO42-)Sulfatescontributetowhatiscalled“permanenthardness”inwater.Permanenthardness refers tohardness thatcan’tbe removed throughboiling,precipitation,orothermeans.At levelsup to150mg/L thebeerswillcomeoutasexpected,butat levelsgreater than150mg/L,yourbeerwillcomeoutsurprisinglybitter.

Carbonate/Bicarbonate: (HCO3-) The form in whichcarbonates/bicarbonates exist in water is dependent on the pH of the water.When the pH exceeds 8.4, carbonates predominate.With a pHof of less than8.4, bicarbonates predominate. The level of bicarbonates has an effect on thetypeofbeeryoucanbrew.Atlevelsbelow50mg/Lyoucanbrewpalebeers,atlevels greater than 150 mg/L you can brew dark beers, and from 50mg/L to150mg/Lyoucanbrewamberbeers.Youcan’tbreweffectivelyatlevelsgreaterthan 250mg/L, but luckily by boiling the water for 30 minutes and carefullydecantingyou’ll leaveallbut50mg/Lof thebicarbonatebehind in theformofinsolublecarbonates.

When the levels of a particular element are too high, you can purchasebottledwatertodiluteitsufficientlytobringthatelementwithinanacceptablebrewingrange.Thatpartiseasyandit’sprettyraretogetintotroublethatway.

Whenyouaretryingtotweakthelevelsofanelementhigher,don’tforgetthat these elements come paired (for example as magnesium and sulfate inmagnesium sulfate) so that by addingoneyou are automatically including theother.Thefollowingtableofcommonbrewwateradditivestellsyouhowmanymg/Lofeachionyougetbyaddingagramtofivegallonsofwater.

Weighingsomebakingsodatoaddtomywort.

Mineral additives and mg/L of Added Elements per Gram Added to a Five-GallonBatch

As an example, pretend I am usingMonadnockMountain SpringWater,and I want to make an amber ale. The analysis from the company’s website

showsacalciumcontentof3.4mg/L,hardnessoflessthan10mg/L,chlorideof2.5mg/L, and essentially nothing else. I’d like my water to have a bit ofcharacter,withelementsthatatleastexceedtheminimumthresholdsplusbeintherangeofcarbonatesneededforanamberbeer.

I’m going to add three grams of magnesium sulfate for 15 ppm ofmagnesium and 60 ppm of sulfate, three grams of sodium bicarbonate for 45ppmofsodiumand114ppmofcarbonates,andfourgramsofcalciumchloridefor56ppmofcalciumand100ppmofchloride.

HopChemistryWhen Iwas a kid, I asked my dad what was used to make beer. He said“hops.”Asaboywhoenjoyedcatchingallmannerofgrasshoppersandcrickets,I had an image inmymind that a “hop”was likely to be a tiny grass-eatinginsect of some sort. A bunny rabbit didn’t sound plausible. Just imagine mysurprisewhenIlearnedthathopsareactuallytheflowerofaclimbingvine.

Somehoppelletswithalpha-acidcontentnotedonthelabel.

Hops are added to beer for two purposes: to provide a bitterness thatbalancesthesweetnessofmaltandasapreservative.

Hops contain a number of important compounds. Referenced mostfrequently are the alpha acids: cohumulone and adhumulone. These acids areresponsiblefortheabilityofhopstoimpartbitterness,andhopsareusuallysoldwithanotationastothepercentageofalphaacidstheycontain.Intheirnaturalform,alphaacidsarenotwatersoluble,butwhenhopsareboiledlongenoughthe alpha acids isomerize. The change in structuremakes themwater soluble,andtheisomerizedacidshaveabacteriostaticeffectongram-positive18bacteriasuchaslacticbacteria.

Beta acids in hops include adlupulone, colupulone, and lupulone. Unlikethealphaacids,boilingthehopsdoesn’tcausethebetaacidstoisomerizeintoa

water soluble form. These acids form an important part of the aroma ofbitterness,though,sohopsbeingusedfortheirbetaacidcontentareaddedlateintheboilsothebetaacidsaren’tboiledaway.

Hops also contain a number of essential oils that contribute non-bitterflavorandaroma, includingcaryophyllene, farnesene,humulene,andmyrcene.Theseessentialoilsaren’tfoundonlyinhops.Theyalsocontributetothearomasofplants asdiverseasbay,ylang-ylang, thyme, coriander, cannabis, rosemary,cloves, black pepper, and gardenia, among others. Though they are usuallyaddedlateintheboilorevenaddedtotheprimaryfermenterwithoutboiling(aprocess known as dry hopping), the differences in boiling point and solubilitybetween the various essential oils can create differences in the flavor of beerwith even slight differences in technique. Each variety of hop used for aromaalsostartsoutwithdifferentrelativeproportionsofthesecomponents.

Ifallyouhaveevertriedforbeeriscommercialvarieties, thenyoumightwellbeskepticalofpeopleclaimingtotastecitrus,flower,orothercomponentsinhome-craftedbeers,butthefactisthathopshavetheabilitytoimpartawidearray of flavors and scents. In the next chapter we’ll examine different hopvarietiesandtheiruses.

FermentationThe term “dextrose” is used for the sugar created in malting. It just sohappens that dextrose is a synonym for glucose, so the fundamental chemicalequation for turning sugar into alcohol in beer is identical to the equation forwine:glucose ethylalcohol+carbondioxide+energyC6H12O6 2(CH3CH2OH)+

2(CO2)+energy

Nearlyallofthesugarsinwinearefermentable,whereasmanycreatedinmalting andmashing are not.These non-fermentable sugars provide body andsweetnesstobeer.

SpecificGravityThespecificgravityofbeerismeasuredusingthesamemethodsasforwine,butthemeaningofthemeasurementsisverydifferent.Inwinemusts,sugarissooverwhelmingly present compared to other dissolved solids that the specific

gravity translates directly into sugar concentration with minimal error. As aresult, when a wine is completely fermented, it will end up with a specificgravityoflessthanone.Thislowspecificgravityisaresultofthefactthatthealcoholinthewinehasalowerspecificgravitythanwater.

Beer wort is a more complex mixture; it contains a variety of bothfermentableandnon-fermentablesugars,aminoacids,short-chainstarches,andothercomponentsthatincreaseitsspecificgravity.Asaresult,measurementsofstarting specificgravityalonegiveno indicationof theamountof fermentablesugar in thewort, and thereforeno indicationofalcoholcontent.Furthermore,thespecificgravityofbeerthathascompletedfermentationwillbegreaterthanone,becauseeven though its fermentable sugarhasbeenconverted toalcohol,theshort-chainstarchesandnon-fermentablesugarsremain.

Specific gravity readings are taken while lautering so you know whenlauteringhasbeencompleted.Theyarealsotakenwhenthewortisfirstplacedin theprimary fermenter (thismeasurement is theoriginalgravityorOG) andwhen thebeer isbottled (this iscalled the finalgravityorFG).ThedifferencebetweentheOGandFGiscalledattenuation.

Thisisexpressedasapercentageusingthefollowingformula:attenuation=100%*(OG-FG)/(OG-1)

Attenuationisthepercentageofpotentialsugarthathasbeenconvertedtoalcohol.Itgivesagoodestimateofalcoholcontent,butisprimarilyameasureoftheentirebrewingprocess,aseverythingfromthemaltingtothemashingtotheyeastvarietywillhaveaneffectonattenuation.Ahigherdegreeofattenuationindicates a beer that has more alcohol and less sweetness, whereas a lowerdegreeofattenuationindicatesabeerwithloweralcoholbutgreatersweetness.

You can tell approximately howmuch alcohol your beer has by using ahydrometer table to subtract the potential alcohol reading that corresponds toyour final gravity from the potential alcohol reading corresponding to youroriginalgravity.

Anotherwayistousethefollowingformula:

AlcoholPercentbyVolume=117*((OG-1)-(FG-1))

For example, if the starting gravity of your beer is 1.068 and the finalgravityis1.017,thealcoholcontentis:117*((1.068-1)-(1.017-1))=5.97%

Conditioning

Beer can be bottled after the primary fermentation if the fermentation isallowedtoproceedforacoupleofdaysafteritsobviouscompletion.Itisrackedintotheprimingbucket,theprimingsugarisadded,andthebeerisbottled.

Beer handled in this way is fine for drinking so long as it is consumedwithinacoupleofweeksafterithasdevelopedadequatecarbonation.Itdoesn’tkeepverywellbecausealotofvisibleparticulatesremaininthebeer,andthoseparticulatesstarttoautolyzeanddegrade,impartingoff-flavorstothebeer.

Likewise,beerhandledinthisfashioniscalledgreenbecauseithasnothadanopportunityfortheflavorstomeldandcombine.Aginginthebottlehelpsabit,butthereisaracebetweenaginganddegradation.Tosolvetheseproblems,anumberofconditioningmethodshavebeendevelopedtogivebeerbettermeldedflavors,fewerparticulates,andlongershelflife.

ClarificationClarification is the process of removing particulatematter and hazes fromyour beer. A secondary fermentation, in which the beer is racked from theprimary fermenter intoaglasscarboyasa secondary fermenter, cangoa longwaytowardsallowingsolidstosettle.

Most often, the steps to clarify beer start right in the boiling kettle. Irishmoss is routinely added fifteenminutes before the end of boiling at the sametime you would insert the wort chiller. Irish Moss is a brown seaweed alsoknown as carrageen—a substance you have likely already consumed in icecream, dressings, and so forth. It is inexpensive, and very effective atcoagulatingproteins.

Forbeersthatwon’tbesubjectedtosecondaryfermentation,Irishmossisusually sufficient. As the primary fermentation dies down, the moss helpscoagulatetheproteins,andtheyfalltothebottomofthefermenter.Thematerialatthebottomofthefermenteriscalledtrubb.Whenyourackthebeerfromtheprimaryfermenterintoeitherasecondaryortheprimingbucket,thetrubbisleftbehind.

Forbeersthatwillbesubjectedtosecondaryfermentation,IrecommendacombinationofgelatinandPVPP.AddamixtureofgelatinandPolyclar(PVPP)tothesecondaryfermenter,oneweekbeforebottling.

Gelatin prevents protein hazes and condenses any dead yeast cells in thebeer.Tousegelatin,measureoutonegramoffininggelatin,andmixthatwithtwo tablespoons of cold water in a clean coffee cup. Separately, put seventablespoons of water in a glass measuring cup, and heat on high in the

microwave for oneminute. Add the hot water to the dissolved gelatin in thecoffeecup,mixingthoroughly.Allowthis tocooldowntoatemperatureof80degrees,andthengentlystirthewholeamountintofivegallonsofbeer.

I recommend adding Polyclar (PVPP) at the same time. These are tinystatically charged beads of harmless plastic that will attract any remainingparticlesnotalreadyattractedby the Irishmossorgelatin.Mix¼ teaspoonofPolyclarintothegelatinbeforeaddingit.

Other clarifying agents are available; use them according to themanufacturer’sdirections.

SecondaryFermentationandLageringJust as with wine, the secondary fermentation is not primarily for theconversion of sugars to alcohol, because 99% of that occurs in the primaryfermenter.Secondaryfermentationisn’treallyafermentationprocessatall—itisaconditioningprocess.Secondaryfermentationallowsforyeastandparticulatesto settle out and for the combination and melding of various flavoringcompounds.Overall it can provide greater biological stability of the beer. Forales, secondary fermentation takes place at room temperature and for a periodthatistwiceaslongastheprimaryfermentation,notexceedingsixteendays.Soif your primary fermentation was four days, you can carry out a secondaryfermentationforanywherebetweeneightandsixteendays.

Beerislight-sensitive.Exposuretolightwillliterallygiveitflavorssimilarto skunk. Most secondary fermenters are glass, so make sure that glassfermentersarekeptawayfromsunlight.Youmightevenconsidercovering thesecondaryfermenterwithablanket.

Lager-typebeersaremadesimilarlytoalesatfirst,buttheyarefermentedusingaformofyeastthatisadaptedtofermentingatthebottomofthecontainerandthatrequireslowertemperatures.Theprimaryfermentationisundertakenatunder 60 degrees, and the secondary fermentation, in this case known aslagering,takesplaceattemperaturesaslowas35degrees.

The temperature of the primary lager fermentation is dictated by thedirectionspertainingtotheparticularyeaststrainyouareusing.Thetemperatureofthesecondaryfermentationknownaslageringistendegreeslower,downtoaminimumof35degrees.

Beer is a fertile medium for accidental inoculation with undesiredorganisms, and because of its low alcohol level, it is nowhere near asbiologically stable as wine. Furthermore, chemical reactions including those

associatedwithagingtakeplaceatfasterratesastemperaturerises.Sothelengthoftimeyoucanlagerisdictatedbythetemperatureatwhichlageringisdone.At35degrees,youcanlageraslongaseightweeks.At40degrees,youcanlagerforsixweeks.At45degrees,youcanlagerfornolongerthanfourweeks.

Maintaininglageringtemperaturesisdifficultinthetypicalhome.Brewerswho choose this method of conditioning, which produces the smoothest beerflavors,typicallyemployadedicatedrefrigeratorwithasupplementalthermostatthatwillallowittooperateattemperaturessuitableforlagering.

Though lagering is usually employed with beers made with bottom-fermentinglageryeast,youcanalsoemploythetechniquewithalesmadewithtop-fermentingyeast.Becausethealeyeastwon’tworkattemperaturesthatlow,itsprimarypurposewouldbetoallowforclarificationandthesmoothingoutofflavors.

BottlingandCarbonationBeershouldbe bottled in thick, high-quality bottles thatwillwithstand thepressureofcarbonation.Thebottlesshouldalsohaveadarkcolortoblockoutlightandpreservethequalityofthebeer.Oncebeerisbottled,ifitiswell-madeinitially,itwillbesuitablefordrinkingaftertwoorthreeweeks,anditsqualitywillimproveinthebottleforuptothreeorfourmonths,afterwhichqualitywillstarttodecline.

Beertobebottledisrackedintowhatiscalledaprimingbucketorbottlingbucket.This isnothingmorethanaplasticpail like theprimaryfermenter thathas a spigot on the bottom.The reasonwhy a bottling bucket is also called apriming bucket is because it is used for adding priming sugar for purposes ofcarbonation.Primingsugargivestheresidualyeastinthebeerasmallsnack,andonce the beer has been capped that small amount of sugar is consumed togeneratecarbonationunderpressure.

Tocarbonatefivegallonsofbeer,eitherfiveounces(¾cup)ofcornsugar19oronecupofmaltextractisaddedtotwocupsofwaterinasmallsaucepanandboiled to assure sterility.After boiling, the pan is coveredwith a lid to avoidcontaminationandplacedincoldwaterinthesink(Don’tletanygetinthepan!)tocool itoff tobelow80degreesbefore it isadded to thebeer in theprimingbucketandcarefullymixedinwithlittlesplashing.

Five ounces of corn sugar is sufficient to provide carbonation at a levelidentical to that employed by most American lagers—about 2.65 volumes ofCO2 per volume of beer. You can use more priming sugar to get more

carbonation,andlessprimingsugartogetlesscarbonation.Somestylesofbeer,such as Scottish ales, only use one volume of CO2 per volume of beer andothers,suchasGermanwheatbeers,canuseasmuchas4.3volumesofCO2pervolume of beer. Standard beer bottles canwithstand three volumes of CO2 atstandardroomtemperatures.Beyondthatandyou’llwanttouseheavierbottles.

The following equation gives the amount of corn sugar added to a five-gallonbatchtoachieveanylevelofcarbonationofonevolumeorgreaterat75degrees.

OuncesofCornSugarfor5gallons=(VolumesofCO2×2.65)–2

Aftertheprimingsugarhasbeenmixedwiththebeerintheprimingbucket,thebeeristransferredintobottlesusingabottlingwand.Abottlingwandhasaspring-loadedvalveatthebottom.Youinsertitinthebottle,pressingitagainstthe bottom until the bottle is full and then withdraw the wand. This puts thecorrectamountofbeerinthebottle,andleavesthecorrectamountofairspace.After filling, put the caps loosely on the bottles for fifteen minutes beforecappingthem.Thisgivesthecarbondioxideinthebeertimetodisplacesomeoftheoxygenfromtheatmospherebeforecapping,andtherebyallowsthebeertokeepbetter.PleaseseeChapter10forstep-by-step instructionsonprimingandbottling.

18Theterm“gram-positive”referstoabroadcategorizationofbacteriaaseithergram-positiveorgram-negativedependinguponwhethertheircellwallsarestaineddarkblueorpurplebygramstain.

19½cupofhoneymaybesubstituted.

9

BeerIngredientsandRecipes

ThoughIspentthelastchapterdescribingbeerasascience,itisreallyanart.Thesciencejusttellsyouhowandwhy,butartiswhatwillinformyourchoicesof how to combine these things. The potential ingredients, proportions, andcombinationsinbeerareeffectivelyinfinite,butthebasicscanbelaidoutsothatyou can mix and match. There are already books dedicated to duplicatingexisting styles of beer. Rather than cover thatmaterial, I am instead going tocover the ingredients and how they are combined in such away that you canmakeyourownstylesofbeer.

MaltMaltcomesintwobasicforms:basemaltandspecialtymalt.Basemaltsareoften light-colored because they haven’t been roasted enough to disrupt theirenzymes, and they serve as the base for recipes. Specialty malts have beenroasted, smoked,orotherwise treatedso that theyconveydifferent flavorsandcolors. Typically, their enzymatic power has been reduced or destroyeddependinguponhowtheyhavebeentreated.

Some,suchascrystalmalts,havealreadyconvertedtheirstarchestosugarsbeforekilningtokilltheenzymes,sotheyprovidefermentablesugartothewortwhenmashedwith thebasemalt.Thedarker their roast, themore their sugarsadd sweetness because they become increasingly unfermentable with heatexposure.Otherspecialtymaltsarepracticallyunconvertedandserveprimarilyforflavorandcolor,thoughsometinyamountoftheirunconvertedstarchesmaybe converted in themash if they are combinedwith a basemalt of sufficientreserveenzymaticactivity.

The color of malt is given in “degrees Lovibond.” The pale lagers andpilsners commonly consumed are 2 or 3° Lovibond, whereas the pitch blackimperialstoutsare70°Lovibond.Maltscanhavecolorsasdarkas500degreesLovibond.Theyareaddedto thewort inverysmallquantitiesandthedilution

makesthecolorlighter.Finishedbeerhaslesscolorthanthewortbyabout30%.

BaseMaltInthepriorchapterIdiscussedhowmaltismadesothatyoucanmakeyourown by sprouting grains.What I described is the procedure for making basemalt.Abasemalthasnotbeenheatedtosuchadegreeastodestroyordiminishits enzymes. As a result, basemalt is the core ingredient fromwhich beer ismade. Not only does it have enough enzymatic activity (also called diastaticpower) to convert all of its own starches to sugar, it has enough left over toconvertthestarchesinadjunctgrains.

Diastaticpower isgiven in“degreesLintner.”Forgrains tobeeffectivelyutilized in themash, the combineddiastatic powerof all grains shouldbe40°Lintnerorgreater.

Basemalts are not roasted, so they give rise to light-colored beer unlessmixed with something darker. A downside of base malts is that a compoundcalled dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is generated when they are mashed. Thiscompound, if it remains in thewort,willgiverise tovariousundesiredflavorsincluding that of corn, onions, and cabbage depending upon concentration.Luckily, DMS is volatile and when the wort is boiled, it is driven off. It isimportant that the wort be cooled quickly using a wort chiller, not just forsanitation reasons, but because cooling it quickly prevents the wort fromreabsorbingtheDMS.

Somemaltsusedinourexamplerecipe.

There are dozens of base malts, but there are four styles that lendthemselves well to beginning efforts. North American two-row is made fromtwo-rowbarleygrownintheU.S.orCanada.Two-rowbarleyhasalotofproteinandatypicaldiastaticpowerof140°Lintner.Whenusingthisbasemalt,youcanuse adjunct non-malted grains of up to of the total grain.Commonvarieties

includeHarringtonandMetcalf,anditiscommonforthesetobesoldblended.Thisisoneoftheleastexpensivemalts,andyoucanmakefivegallonsofbeerfrom it for about$10. It isverypale, less than twodegreesLovibond, so it iscommonforbrewerstoaddsomespecialtymalttodarkenthebeer.Becauseofitshighproteincontent,itshouldbestep-mashedusingaproteinrest.

NorthAmerican six rowmalt has an extremely high enzymatic power of160° Lintner, allowing for as much as half the total grain in a recipe to beunmaltedadjunct.Thismakesitverypopularwithmass-marketbrewerieswholike to includecheaper rice andcorn in theirmash to savecosts.Especially ifadjunctgrainsareused,aproteinrestwillbeneededtoconvert theproteinsinthegrainstofree-formaminoacidsrequiredbytheyeast.Thisbasemaltispale,attwodegreesLovibondorless.

Britishpalealemalthasacolorof4°Lovibond,iswell-converted,andwitha diastatic power of only 40-65° Lintner it has very little enzymatic potentialbeyond what is needed for its own conversion in mashing. However, its lowproteincontentandhighconversionmakeitoneofthesimplestbasemaltstouseas it lends itself well to single infusion mashing. It doesn’t work well withunmalted adjunct grains, but it is finewith the addition of specialtymalts foraddedflavorandcolor.

GermanandBelgianPilsnermaltisverypaleattwodegreesLovibondandhasadiastaticpowerof110°Lintner.Though it isusedpredominantly inbeerstylesofthesamename,itshighdiastaticpowerlendsittouseinanynumberofrecipes.

MaltType DiastaticPowerinDegreesLintner2-RowPaleMalt 1106-RowPaleMalt 150PilsnerMalt 125WheatMalt 120ViennaMalt 100MunichMalt 70PaleAleMalt 55

DiastaticPowerofCommonMalts

SpecialtyMalts

Specialtymaltsaretreateddifferentlyfrombasemalts,andthisresultsinthedevelopment of different flavors and colors that enhance beer. Specialtymaltsareusedtomodifythickness,color,flavor,mouth-feel,andothercharacteristics.Somespecialtymaltsaddfermentablesugars,suchasthelighter-coloredcrystalmalts,butmainlytheyaddunfermentablesugarsforsweetnessalongwithmalty,caramel,andchocolateflavors.

Specialtymalts can be broadly divided into two categories: crystalmaltsand roastedmalts.Crystalmalts areprocessed in such away that the starchesandproteinsaremashed right inside thegrain’shull.Theyarekeptwetas thetemperature is raised through themashing range, andwhen theyaredried, thesugarscrystallize.Apalecrystalmalthasalotoffermentablesugarandcanbeusedalmost likeamaltextract.Whencrystalmaltsareheated to impartcolor,thedarkertheybecomethemoreofthesugarsbecomeunfermentable.Socrystalmaltswillprovidecolor,mouth-feel,andsweetnesstobeer.

Roasted malts are roasted or kilned to various degrees, resulting indifferences in color and flavor. They contribute little or nothing in terms offermentablesugarandwiththeexceptionoflightMunichmaltswithadiastaticpowerof70°Lintner,theyhavenoenzymes.Eachmalthasitsownprofileduetodifferencesinthevarietyofgrainusedtomakeit,andthetechniquesusedingerminationanddryingpriortokilningorroasting.

AdjunctGrainAdjunctgrainsareaddedtoprovidesugar,body,flavor,andenhancedheadretentioninbeer.Withtheexceptionofinstantoatmeal,theyshouldbesubjectedtobetaglucans andprotein rests inmashing. Inotherwords, anytimeyouuseadjunctgrains,youshouldutilizestep-mashingprocedures.Becausethesegrainsaren’t malted, they should be used in conjunction with base malts that willcontributeenoughenzymeactivitytoconvertthestarchestheycontaintosugar.

When using adjunct grains, you want the total diastatic power of yourmashedgrainstoaveragefiftyorgreater.Ifitislessthanthat,youwon’tgetfullconversion.Youcanassesstheaveragediastaticpowerbyuseofthefollowingformula:((Pounds*DiastaticPower)+(Pounds*DiastaticPower)...)/TotalPounds

Grain

SoifIhavearecipethatincludestwopoundsoftwo-rowmalt,fivepoundsof pale malt, one pound of unmalted wheat and one pound of oatmeal, the

averagediastaticpowerofmygrainbillis:((2*110)+(555)+(10)+(1*0))/9=55

Youcanuseanygrainorevennon-grainssuchasamaranthinbeer,butthegrain needs to bemechanically processed in such a way as tomake it easilymashed. Usually, this means flaking. Flaked grains are soaked, flattened, andthendried.Becauseof the soakingprocess, their cellwalls are alreadybrokendown.Whenusingadjunctgrains thathavenotbeen flaked,youneed tocookthemfirstbyboilingtheminwateruntiltender.

In addition,when adjunct grains are included in the lauter, they lack thehullsneededforfiltrationsoitishelpfultoaddricehulls(theouterhullsofrice)to themash in a volume roughly equal to that of the adjunct grain employed.Thiswillkeepthegrainsinthelautertunfromcompactingsotheycan’tfilter.Youcanbuyricehullsatstoresthatcatertohomebrewers.Alargebagsellsforlessthan$2.Hereissomeinformationonsomecommonly-usedadjunctgrains:

Oatmealcomesinvariousforms.Instantoatmeal(thekindinthecanister,not the packets) can be added directly to your grains. The old-fashioned kindneedstobepreparedfirst(byfollowingpackagedirections)beforebeingadded.Oatmealisapopularadjunctforhigheralcoholdarkbeers,anditaddsasmooth,creamymouth-feeltobeer.Useat5%to10%oftotalgrains.

FlakedRiceisavailableatbrewingstores.It isrice thathasbeencrushedwhilewetandthendried.Theflakingprocessmakesitmoreeasilymashed.Riceadds little if any flavorbut its starchesare readilyconverted, so it isgood forraising thealcoholcontentofbeerwithoutaddinga thickermouth-feel.Useat5%to20%oftotalgrains.

FlakedBarleyisusedinhighalcoholbeers togivebodyandanicehead.Youcanusefrom5%to10%flakedbarleyinyourmash.

Wheatcanbeaddedtobeeraseitheramalt(treatmaltedwheatasabasemaltwithadiastaticpowerof120°Lintner)orasanunmaltedadjunctgrain.Asanunmaltedadjunctgrain,itisflakedlikericeorbarley.Itaddsalotofproteinto beer and a pronounced starch haze along with distinctive flavor. Useanywherefrom5%to20%flakedwheatinthemashtun.

Flaked corn is a popular adjunct grainwith commercial breweries in theU.S.becauseitisplentifulandcheap.Itaddsabitofflavorwhilelighteningthecolor and increasing the alcohol content. Unfortunately, most of the cornavailable isgeneticallymodifiedandthere isno labelingrequirement.Youcanuse anywhere from5% to 20% though once you usemore than 10%you canexpectabitofcornflavor.

AdjunctSugarTheamountoffermentablesugarmadeavailabletotheyeastinyourwortisafunctionofboththeingredientsandthemashingtemperature.Highermashingtemperatures yield fewer fermentable sugars and a thicker mouth-feel whilelowermashingtemperaturescreateathinnerbeerwithmorefermentablesugars.The amount of fermentable sugar relates directly to the alcohol content of thefinishedbeer,andalcoholcontentdirectlyaffectshowwellthebeerispreserved.Therefore, it is common to add adjunct sugar to beer worts if the brewingingredients and temperatures are likely to yield a beer with too little alcohol.When adjunct sugars are used, they are best added to the boil so theywill besterilized.Taketheoriginalgravitymeasurementaftertheboilsothesugarcanbemeasured.

Beeryeastcannotdirectlyutilizecane/tablesugar.Thecanesugarmustbehydrolyzedintofermentableglucoseandfructosefirst,andwhenyeastperformthehydrolysisenzymaticallytheprocesscanaddacider-liketasteandsmelltobeer.Toget around this problem,makeyourown invert sugar. Invert sugar istable sugar that has been converted into glucose and fructose by a catalyzedreaction.Tomake invert sugar, put¾ cupwater, teaspoon citric acid and½poundcanesugarinapotonthestove.Bringtoalightsimmerandholdtherefor twenty minutes while stirring. Invert sugar is used widely in British andBelgianbeerstyles.

Therearemanyotherformsoffermentablesugaryoucanaddtothewort,and the type of sugar used can affect the character of the beer. You can usehoney,maplesyrup,unsulfuredmolasses(thesulfuredkindwillhurttheyeast),brown sugar, demerara sugar, corn sugar, turbinado sugar, andmore. Stronglyflavoredsourcesofsugarshouldbeincludedatnomorethan5%oftheweightofthegrainused,andmoreneutralsugarsshouldn’texceed10%oftheweightofthegrainused.Soifyouareusingtenpoundsofgrain,youshouldn’tusemorethanhalfapoundofmolassesorapoundofhoneyinyourbatch.

PotentialExtractWhencreatingyour own recipes, one of themost important things you’llneedtoknowaboutyourgrainsispotentialextract.Potentialextractisameasureofhowmuchoftheweightofthegrainorotheradjunctwillbecomedissolvedinthewort.Thisaffectstheoriginalgravity(OG).Potentialextractisanabsolutetheoreticalmaximum,andinahomesetupyourextractionwillbelessefficientduetoimperfectmashing,sugarsnotdissolvedwhilelautering,andsoforth.You

canexpectyourefficiencytobesomewherebetween80%and90%,sofor thedesignofrecipes,wewilluse85%efficiency.

Thepotentialextractofgrain,malt,orsugarisgivenin“pointsperpoundper gallon” abbreviated as ppg. A “point” is an increase of .001 in specificgravity. You can predict the original gravity of your wort via the followingequation:

OriginalGravity=1+0.85*(PoundsPerGallonPotentialExtract.001)Youcanalsousetheequationinreverse.Ifyouknowwhatyouwantyour

OGtobe,youcanfigureoutthepoundspergallonthatyouwillneedthroughrearrangingtheequationasfollows:

PoundsPerGallon=(OG—1)/(.00085*PotentialExtract)Forexample, ifIwantabeerwithanOGof1.070andIamusingamalt

withapotentialextractvalueof32,thepoundsofmaltthatIneedpergallonofwortafterboilingis:

PoundsPerGallon=(1.070—1)/(.00085*32)or2.6poundspergallon.SoifIweremakingfivegallonsofbeer,Iwouldneed5*2.6or13poundsofmalt.

The following table lists the potential extract for a variety of commonmalts,adjunctgrains,andsugars.

MaltorAdjunct PotentialExtractAmerican2-rowmalt 37American6-rowmalt 35PaleAleMalt 34PilsnerMalt 36MunichMalt 33WheatMalt 39CrystalMalts 34Roasted/KilnedMalts 29–30DryMaltExtracts 45Honey 35CornSugar 40CaneSugar 45FlakedBarley 32FlakedCorn 37FlakedOats 37

FlakedRye 36FlakedWheat 35

PotentialExtractValueofMaltsandAdjuncts

ColorofBeerLikemalt,thecolorofbeersisexpressedindegreesLovibond,ameasurethatalsocorrespondstothemorescientificversioncalledStandardReferenceModelor SRM. SRM is measured using a spectrophotometer, and thankfully suchdevicesaren’treallyneeded.Forpurposesofpredictingthecolorofbeerfromitsingredients,justtwoequationsarenecessary.

First, theMaltColorUnits (MCUs)arecalculated foreachgrain,and theMCUsareaddedtogether.

MCU=(PoundsofGrain*GrainColorinDegreesLovibond)/VolumeofBeerBatchinGallons

Then,theaddedMCUsareconvertedtoSRMwiththeMoreyequation,forwhichyou’llneedascientificcalculator:

SRM=1.4922*MCU0.6859Forexample,ifIammakingfivegallonsofbeerfromeightpoundsofpale

alemaltatanaverageof2.2degreesLovibond,andonepoundofcrystalmaltatanaverageof62degreesLovibond,themathwouldlooklikethis:

MCU(PaleAleMalt)=(8*2.2)/5=3.52MCU(CrystalMalt)=(1*62)/5=12.4MCU(Total)=3.52+12.4=15.92SRM=1.4922*15.920.6859=9.96For some points of reference,MillerLite is 2 SRM,Bass PaleAle is 10

SRM,Porteris29SRM,andImperialStoutis70SRM.

HopsBeer, beingmade frommalt, can be a relatively sweet beverage.Withoutsomething to balance the sweetness, it isn’t a very appetizing drink. Thesweetness of hot chocolate is balanced with the bitterness of cocoa, thesweetness of cola drinks is balancedwith the sourness of phosphoric or citricacid,andthesweetnessofbeerisbalancedwiththebitternessofhops.

The more malt that a beer contains—or, more properly, the moreunfermentablesugarsimpartedtoabeerbyitsmalt—themorebitternessitneeds

asabalancedbeverage.Abeercanbemadecompletelyfrommaltandrequirevery little balancing bitterness because themaltwas so efficiently turned intofermentablesugarsthatlittleresidualsweetnessremains.Mostofthepalelagersmass-marketedintheUnitedStateshavelittleresidualsweetness,sotheydon’trequire much hopping, whereas the dark heavy brews of Britain requireconsiderablehopping.

Hops are used either for bittering or for flavor/aroma. Different hopvarietieshavebeendevelopedthatarebetterforeachpurpose, thoughtosomedegreethereisinterchangeability.Hopsusedforbitteringhaveahighpercentageof alpha acids, whereas those used for flavor/aroma have a much lowerpercentage. The thing is, hops are expensive, so even though you could useflavor hops for bittering, it ismore economical to use a bittering hop for thatpurposebecausethehigheralphaacidcontentallowslessofthemtobeused.

Inaddition,breederspaynoattentiontotheflavorandaromacharacteristicsofbitteringhopsbecausewhentheyareboiledinthewort,alloftheflavorandaroma are driven off. As a result, the flavor and aroma of bittering hops isusuallyinferiortothatofhopsbredforthespecificpurposeofprovidingaromaandflavor.

Bitteringandaromahopvarieties.

Hops are extremely vulnerable to spoilage.As a result,most of the hopsavailablearesoldascompressedplugsinnitrogen-filledsealedpackagesthatarerefrigerated. The following table lists some readily available varieties of hopsalongwithpertinentinformation.Dual-usehopsarenotedbylistingbothuses,intheorderofsuitability.

HopUsageChart

DeterminingtheAmountofHopsTheweightandtypeofhopsneededforaparticularbeeraredictatedbythestyleofthebeerortherecipeifyouarefollowingsuchguidelines.Butifyouaredesigning your own recipe, you can calculate the bittering hops needed tobalance the maltiness of the beer using some equations and a scientificcalculator.

Thebitterness of beer ismeasured in IBU, InternationalBitternessUnits.Each established style of beer has a range of IBU for that particular style.However,wearenotduplicatingstylesperse,becausethereisalreadyplentyofdata on that topic. Instead, we are trying to determine the range of hoppingneededforanybeerwehappentomake.

Ingeneral,thehighertheoriginalgravityofthebeer,themorebitternessitneeds inorder tocounterresidualsweetnessfromunfermentablesugars.Whenmaking your own beers, you may find the guidelines in the following table

helpful.

OriginalGravity BitternessinIBU1.030 6–121.040 10–161.050 14–241.060 20–321.070 30–401.080 36–48

BalancedBitternessRangebyOriginalGravity

Thehopsaddedforflavor/aromaduringthefinalfiveminutesoftheboiloradded directly to the secondary fermenter (a practice known as dry hopping)contribute little if anybitterness.Theyare selectedon thebasisof their flavorandaromaprofile,andyoucanuseoneounceforafive-gallonbatchinallcases.From there you can experimentwith using a littlemore or less, and differentvarieties.

MostoftheIBUsinbeercomefromthehopsthatareaddedforbitterness.Bittering hops are added at the start of the sixty-minute boil.The question is:Howmanyouncesofhopsdoyouaddtoachieveacertain levelofbitterness?This is determined by the alpha acid content of the variety of hops you havechosenand thegravityof thewort,because thehigher thegravityof thewort,the more compounds have already been dissolved, so the less efficiently theisomerized alpha acids will be dissolved. Glenn Tinseth20 did a tremendousamount ofwork that culminated in somevery useful equations that yield datathat is close enough for sound recipe design, and their result after algebraicmanipulationforafive-gallonbatchisasfollows:OuncesofHops=(6.7DesiredIBUs)/(AlphaAcidpercentUtilizationpercent)

Becauseweareassumingasixty-minuteboil(boilslongerthanthatmakeso little difference in utilization as to be undetectable), the factor that willdetermineutilizationpercentageisthespecificgravityofthewort.Keepinmindthatthespecificgravityofthewortwhenfirstaddedtothebrewkettleisgoingtobelowerthanattheendoftheboil,becauseabouthalfagallonofwaterinthewort will be lost in steam. So if you have planned a recipe with a specificoriginalgravityinmind,subtractfivepointswhenusingthefollowingtable:

WortGravity PercentUtilization1.030 27.6%1.035 26.4%1.040 25.2%1.045 24.2%1.050 23.1%1.055 22.1%1.060 21.1%1.065 20.2%1.070 19.3%1.075 18.4%1.080 17.6%

HopUtilizationFactorfora60-minuteBoil

For example, if I ammaking a batch of beerwith an original gravity of1.065,howmanyouncesofmagnumhopsshouldIincludeintheboil?Lookingatthechartrelatingbitternesstogravity,abitternessofaround32IBUshouldbefine.Thehopchartshowsthatmagnumhopsare13%IBUonaverage.Thehoputilizationchartshowsmyalphaacidextractionwillbe20.2%efficientwithagravityof1.065,butthatwillactuallystartabitmorediluted,soIwillgowiththe21.1%efficiencycorrelatedwithawortgravityof1.060.Substitutingthesenumbersintotheequation,Iget:

OuncesofHops=(6.732)/(1321.1)=.78ounces.

I can measure that out on my gram scale by multiplying the number ofounces (.78)by thenumberofgrams inanounce (28.3) toget22grams.SoIadd22gramsofmagnumhopsatthebeginningofthesixty-minuteboil.

YeastEven with all other ingredients being identical and subjected to identicaltechniques,thestrainofyeastusedtomakebeerwillhaveaneffectonthebeer’stasteandcharacter.Everystrainofyeastworksbestwithincertaintemperatureranges, and they will all have a different ability to turn sugars into alcohol.Different yeasts also create a different flavor profile in termsof esters, higheralcohols,andotherorganicproducts.

Becausethespecialtemperaturerequirementsoflageringaren’tavailableinmost homes, I am going to concentrate on ale yeast. If you decide to startmaking lagers and have set up an appropriate area, the same principles apply.ThestrainsIrecommendedearlier,SafbrewS-33,Wyeast1056andWyeast1084are good all-purpose yeasts formaking ale, but otherswill give you differentresultsworthexploring.Thislistisbynomeansexhaustive,butratherrepresentsstrainsthathaveworkedwellformeandmyfriends.

Oneaspectofthefollowingtablethatmaybeusefulisselectingayeastthatis well-adapted to the temperatures you can most easily maintain in yourfermenting area. For most of the winter, for example, the temperatures I canmaintainarebetween60and65degrees,whichrulesoutsomeyeastsaltogetherbutmakesothersagoodchoice.

Beeryeastisnotaswelladaptedtohighgravitywortaswineyeast.Hence,thehigherthespecificgravityofthewort,themoreyeastyouwillneed.Unlessyouareusingabrewer’syeastthatisspecificallyintendedforhigh-gravitywortssuchasWhiteLabs’WLP099,youwillneedtoeitherusemorepacketsofyeast,or amplify your yeast before pitching. As a general rule, you should add thesame amount of yeast youwouldnormally use for every ten points of gravityabove1.050.Soifyourgravityis1.070,youwillneedthreepackets,butifitis1.050youwillonlyneedone.

Ihavesuccessfullyfermentedwortswithagravityexceeding1.050withoutresortingtoadditionalyeast,butit’snotsomethingIwouldcounton.Giventhetime and effort involved in preparing beer, it’s far better to be safe than sorrywithsomethingsosimpleasamplifyingyeast.Yeast,especially liquidyeast, isprettyexpensive,soitisbettertoamplifyityourselfthanbuyadditionalpackets.Youcandothesamewithdryyeast,butthecostsavingsarenotasgreat.

ApplicationsofPopularYeastVarieties

Afurtherproblemisthatyeastdoesn’tliveforeverinthevialsorpacketsinwhichitcomes.Itsviability—thatis,thequantityofactiveyeastcells—declineswithage.Dryyeastislesssusceptibletothisthanliquidyeast,butanyformofyeast that is within three months of its expiration date should be multipliedbeforepitching.

Multiplying yeast is easy.Youmake a low-gravity sterilewort, aerate it,pitchtheyeastintoit,keepitatroomtemperature,andlet itmultiply(shaking

gentlyeveryfewhours)for18-24hoursbeforepitching.Theprimaryvariablesaffecting how much the yeast will multiply are the amount of wort used forpropagation, the size of the starting colony, and the presence of adequatenutrition.

Foryeastthatissimplyold,youcanusesixteenouncesofsterilewort.Formultiplyingbyafactoroftwo,useaquart.Forafactoroffour,usehalfagallon.

Tomakesterilewort,cleanoutyourkitchensinkandfillthebasinwithicewater.Putapotonthestovecontainingasmuchwaterasneededfortheamountofyeastyouintendtopropagate.Bringthewatertoaboil,andadd3½ouncesof dry malt extract (any brand will do) to the boiling water. Boil for fifteenminutes,thencoverthesaucepanandputitintheicebathtocooluntilitreachesatemperaturebelow80degrees.

Meanwhile, prepare the vessel that will hold your multiplying yeast bysanitizing it alongwith a stopper and airlock. I use a one-gallon jug.You cansanitizewitheithersulfiteorStar-sanforthejob,justmakesureyoudon’trinseafter.

Oncethetemperatureofthesterilewortisbelow80degreesbutabove70degrees, pour the sterile wort into your vessel, add the yeast, and install thesanitizedstopperandairlock.Setasidefor18-24hours,givingitagentleswirleveryfewhours.Whenthetimecomesforpitching,giveitaswirlandpouritsmoothlyintoyourprimaryfermenter.

PuttingitTogether:BeerRecipeCreationThepastcoupleofchaptershaveprobablyseemedendless,buthereiswherewebringitall togetherintosomethingpractical:areal-worldrecipe.IhaveonhandtwopoundsofPilsnermalt,fivepoundsofcrystalmalt,andtenpoundsofpalealemalt.IwanttouseupthePilsnermaltandmakeadarkamberale.Ialsohavesomecascadeandfuggleshopsonhand.IwilluseWyeast1084liquidaleyeastbecauseitstemperaturerangefitswellwithmydiningroominwinter.I’dlikeafairlyhighalcoholcontentsothebeerkeepsprettywellbecauseI’dliketogiveitasagift.

Two parts of our grain bill have already been decided: two pounds ofPilsnermalt and two pounds of dark crystalmalt for color. I’d like a startinggravityofabout1.065,sohowmuchpalealemaltwillIneedforthefive-gallonbatch?

Here it would be helpful to go back and review the section on potentialextract.TheamountofPilsnermaltpergallonistwopoundsinfivegallons,so

=0.4.ThepotentialextractofPilsnermaltis36andmyefficiencyis85%,sothePilsnermaltgivesme0.436.85=12.2pointsofgravity.

Theamountofcrystalmaltpergallonistwopoundsinfivegallons,so =0.4.Thepotentialextractofcrystalmaltis34andmyefficiencyis85%,sothecrystalmaltgivesme0.434.85=11.6pointsofgravity.

Somyexistingingredientshavealreadygivenme11.6+12.2=23.8pointsofgravity.Ineed65pointsofgravitytotal,whichmeansIneedtousethepalealemalttogiveme65-23.8=41.2pointsofgravity.

Palealemalthasanpotentialextractof34,andmyefficiency is85%,sotheamountofpalealemaltthatIneedpergallonis41.2/(34.85)=1.4pounds.Iammakingfivegallons,soIwillneed51.4poundsforatotalof7poundsofpalealemalt.

Somygrainbillformashingisasfollows:

7poundspalealemalt2poundsPilsnermalt

2poundscrystalmalt

I will be usingWyeast 1084 yeast, which has an average attenuation of75%,somyfinalgravitywillbe:1.065-.75(1.065-1)=1.016.Thealcoholinmybeerwill be given by the equation given in the previous chapter:AlcoholPercentbyVolume=117*((OG-1)-(FG-1)).

117*((1.065-1)-(1.016-1))=5.73%Iwouldlikeawell-hoppedbeer.Ihavesomecascadehopswithanaverage

alphaacidpercentageof7%.Myoriginalgravityisplannedtobe1.065,butitwillbeabitmoredilutedwhen I firstput it in thebrewkettle, so I’ll use theutilizationpercentagefor1.060,whichis21.1%.

Theequationfortheamountofhopstouseis:OuncesofHops=(6.7DesiredIBUs)/(AlphaAcidpercentUtilizationpercent)

so(6.7*32)/(7*21.1)=1.45ouncesofhops.

Somyreciperequires1½ouncesofcascadehops,andI’lluseoneounceoffuggleshopsinthelastfiveminutesoftheboilforaroma.

Myrecipesofarlookslikethis:

7poundspalealemalt2poundsPilsnermalt

2poundcrystalmalt

1.5ouncecascadehops(bittering,atthebeginningofboil)1ouncefuggleshops(aroma,attheendofboil)1packetofWyeast1084IrishAleyeast

What else doesmy recipe need?All that is left to add are any clarifyingagentsandwatertreatments.MybottleofIrishmosshasdirectionsrightonthepackage:oneteaspoonperfive-gallonbatchduringthelastfifteenminutesoftheboil.Thatwaseasy.Butwhataboutthewater?Myownwaterissoacidicthatitleavesgreenresiduefromthecopperitdissolvesinthepipes.It’snotdrinkable,so it would make horrible beer. Instead, I will use bottled water fromMonadnockMountainSpringWaterandsupportmylocalbusiness.

Referringbacktothechapteronthescienceofbeer,thewateranalysisontheirwebsiteindicatesthewatercontainspracticallynothing,butmymashwaterrequires at least 50 ppm (also known as mg/L) of calcium and 10 ppm ofmagnesium.Using the table in the sectiononwater chemistry, Idecide toaddthree grams of magnesium sulfate for 15 ppm of magnesium and 60 ppm ofsulfate,threegramsofsodiumbicarbonatefor45ppmofsodiumand114ppmof carbonates, and four gramsof calciumchloride for 56ppmof calciumand100ppmofchloride.

Somyfinalrecipelookslikethis:

MonadnockDarkAmberAle7poundspalealemalt(2.2Lovibondaverage)2poundsPilsnermalt(1.7Lovibondaverage)2poundscrystalmalt(62Lovibondaverage)1.5ouncecascadehops(bittering,atthebeginningofboil)1ouncefuggleshops(aroma,attheendofboil)1packetofWyeast1084IrishAleyeast

1tspIrishmoss

3gMagnesiumsulfate(Epsomsalts)3gSodiumbicarbonate(bakingsoda)

4gCalciumchloride

Wecannowcalculateitscoloraswell.MCU(PaleAleMalt)=(7*2.2)/5=3.08MCU(PilsnerMalt)=(2*1.7)/5=.68MCU(CrystalMalt)=(2*62)/5=24.8MCU(Total)=3.08+.68+24.8=28.56SRM=1.4922*28.560.6859=14.86

Thisbeerwillbeanicedarkamber.Becauseallofthemaltsinthisbeerarewell-converted, I will use a single-infusionmash. Because I’d like it to keepwell,Iwillincreasethealcoholcontentbymashingattemperaturesbetween149and 153. Since it is an ale, it will require from three to six days of primaryfermentation, and I’ll condition it in secondary fermentation for six to twelvedaysbeforebottling.Lastly,becauseitisahigh-gravitywort,(itsspecificgravityishigherthan1.050),we’llalsoneedtoamplifyouryeast.

Nowthatwehaveourrecipe,let’sproceedtothenextchapterwherealloftheforegoinginformationwillbepracticallyapplied!

20Tinseth,Glenn(1995—1999)TheHopPageathttp://www.realbeer.com/hops

10

BrewingTechniques

MyhomemadeMonadnock Dark Amber Ale is made from inexpensiveingredients Ihappen tohaveonhand. It is far from theonly recipeyoucouldmake.Usingthetablesandprinciplesintheforegoingchapters,youcouldmakeaninfinitevarietyofbeers.Butforpurposesofillustration,thisisaverytypicalbeer, andgivenhow little it costs in termsof ingredients, you’ll be impressedwithhowexcellentitis.

FromGraintoPrimaryFermenter

Mixedgrainsinthemashtun.

1.Cleanyourmashtunthoroughly,thenputyourgrainsinthemashtunandmixthemup.

Pouringthestrikewaterintothemashtun.

2.Weare using11poundsof grain.Youusebetweenone andone and a half

quartsofwaterperpoundofgrainwhenmashing.There are fourquartspergallon,soIamheatingthreegallonsofwater.Thewaterpouredintothemashtuniscalledthestrikewater.Iwantthewaterinthemashtuntobebetween152°and158°.Closer to158givesmoremouth-feelandcloser to152givesmorealcohol.Iwillsplitthedifferenceandaimfor155.Becausethegrainisatroomtemperature,thiswillcausethetemperatureofthewaterIaddtodrop.Therefore,Iwillbeheatingthestrikewaterto165.Whileitisheating,Iwilladd the 3g magnesium sulfate, 3g sodium bicarbonate, and 4g calciumchloride.

Afteraddingabitofpotassiumhydroxide,thepHisintheproperrange.

3. Pour in your strike water and immediately stir thoroughly, and check thetemperature. If it is too high or low, correct with the addition of colder orhotterwater.

Usingiodinetotestforstarchconversion.

4.CheckthepH.Ifit isabove5.8,addphosphoricacid.Ifit isbelow5.2,addpotassiumhydroxidesolution.Additionsshouldbe1ccatatimeifyouhavetobringthepHupordownmorethanapoint,and½ccatatimeforahalfapoint.

5.Allowtositforanhourcoveredtopreserveheat.Attheendofanhour,useaniodine test for starch conversion. If the test shows inadequate starchconversion,allowtositanotherhalfhourthentestagain.

Pouringtheconvertedmashintothelautertun.

6.Getyourspargewaterready.Heatthreegallonsofwateronthestoveto170degrees.TestthepH.AdjustthepHto5.4to5.6usingeitherphosphoricacidorpotassiumhydroxidesolutionasappropriate.

Useapitchertopourthefirstcoupleofquartsbackthroughthelautertun.

7.Whenthemashhasconvertedandthespargewaterisat170degrees,pourthecontentsofthemashtunintothelautertun.

Runningthewortfromthelauteringtunintothebrewpot.

8.Runacoupleofquartsthroughthelautertunintoapitcherandpourbackintothetopuntilthelautertunisfilteringadequately.Itshouldonlytakeacoupleoftimes.

9Breaktheyeastpacketandputinawarmplace.Ikeepitundermyshirt.10. Run your lauter slowly into your brew kettle, adding sparge water to the

lautertunalittleatatimeasthewortdrainsintothebrewkettle.Checkthespecificgravityofthewortcomingthroughthelautertunfromtimetotime.Stopwhenthespecificgravityreaches1.008.

11.Bringyourbrewkettletoaboil,setatimerforsixtyminutesandaddyourbitteringhops.

12. While the wort is boiling, clean and sanitize (I use Star San, a no-rinsesanitizer)yourprimaryfermenter,andputthehoseadapteronthefaucetforyourwortchiller.

Immersingthewortchiller.

13.With15minutesleftintheone-hourboil,addtheIrishmosstotheboilingwort,andinsertyourcleanedwortchiller.(IalsodousemywortchillerwithStarSanintheprimaryfermenterasI’mcleaningtheprimaryfermenter.)

Usingthewortchillertocoolthewort.

Thespecificgravityisexactlyasweplanned!

Pitchingtheyeast.

14.With5minutesleftintheboil,addyouraroma/flavorhops.15.Thesecondtheboilisover,moveyourbrewkettlewiththewortchilleronto

achairorsimilarholder,attachyourwortchillertoyoursinkandturnonthecoldwater.

16. Monitor the temperature of your wort. Run the wort chiller until thetemperatureisbetween70and80degrees.(Monitortheconnectionstoyourwortchillerforleaksandtightenthehoseclampsifneeded.)

Theprimaryfermenterisfilledandready.

17.Removethechiller,pourthewortintotheprimaryfermenterandaeratethewortbysplashingitaround.Alternately,youcanuseasanitizedrackingcanewithanaeratorattachedtotheendofthehosethatgoesinthefermenter.

18.Useyourwine thief to get a sampleofwort soyou can check and recordyouroriginalgravity.Inthiscase,theOGisexactlyasplanned.

19. Use sulfite solution to sanitize the expanded yeast packet, then open itcarefullyandpitchtheyeastbypouringitgentlyintothewort.

20.Affixthesanitizedlidandinsertanairlockfilledtothefilllinewithsulfitesolution.Carefully,without splashing, put the fermenterwherever it shouldbe. Because my floors are cold in winter when I make beer, I put myfermenteronatable.

Now...youwait.Withintwelvehoursanddefinitelyinlessthanaday,youshouldstart seeingbubbles issuing fromtheairlock. Ifyousniff theairlock, it

willsmelllikebeer.Theprimaryfermentationwillcontinueforthreetosixdaysdependingonthetemperature,thenutrientsinthewort,andthestrainofyeast.You’llknowprimary fermentation is completewhen the rateatwhichbubblesissuethroughtheairlockhasreducedtooneortwoperminute.Ifyouarebusy,youcanleavethebeerintheprimaryforaslongasanotherweek,butyoudon’twant to leave it too long or the yeast and debris that has accumulated at thebottomof the fermenterwill start tobreakdownand impartbadflavors to thebeer.

Onceprimaryfermentationisfinished,Iprefertoconditionalesthroughaperiod of secondary fermentation that is twice as long as the primaryfermentation,withaminimumofoneweekandamaximumof threeweeks. Ialsotakethatopportunitytoaddfiningssuchasgelatinandpolyclartohelpclearthebeer.Inthiscase,we’lluseaone-weeksecondaryfermentation,withfiningsaddedatthetimeofracking.

RackingYourBeertotheSecondaryFermenterIfyouread thechaptersonwine, thisprocess is identicalanduses identicalgear, except we’ll be adding a clarifier to the beer and sterilizing any top-upwaterbecausethealcohollevelinbeerislowenoughtomakeitmorevulnerabletospoilage.

1.Put½gallonofwaterinapot,boilitfor15minutesthenturnofftheheatandcoverthepot.Letitcoolto80degreesorless.

2.Useyourscaletomeasureoutonegramoffininggelatin,andmixthatwithtwotablespoonsofcoldsterilizedwaterinasanitizedcoffeecup.Separately,putseventablespoonsofwaterinaglassmeasuringcup,andheatonhighinthemicrowave foroneminute.Add thehotwater to thedissolvedgelatin inthecoffeecup,mixingthoroughly.Allowthistocooldowntoatemperatureof80degrees, add¼ teaspoonofPolyclar to thegelatinmixture.Coverwithasanitizedcoveruntilreadyforuse.

3.Thoroughlycleanaglasscarboyandthensanitizewitheithersulfitesolutionor a no-rinse sanitizer such as Star San. Do the same thing with yourautosiphon/rackingcaneandtheplastichose,therubberstopperforthecarboy,andanairlock.

4.Putthehoseinthesecondaryfermenter,gentlylowertheautosiphonintothewort in the primary fermenter, and give it a pump or two to get the flowstarted.

5. Continue until either the carboy is full with only minimal airspace or theautosiphon is suckingupgunk.Thenstop.Pour someof theprepared fininggelatinintothecarboyatintervalsuntilitisallusedup.

Sanitizingthesecondaryfermenter.

Rackingfromtheprimaryfermenterintothesecondaryfermenter.

6.Ifthereisstillroomintheprimaryfermenter,topitoffwithwateryouboiledearlier.

7.Applytherubberstopperandanairlockfilledwithwatertothefillline.8.Use a carboyhandle andgentlymove the carboy somewhere at amoderate60-70 degree temperature that is out of theway. If sunlight enters the area,coverthefermenterwithablankettoexcludelight.

Thiscarboyneedsalittleboiledwateraddedtoreducetheairspace.

Thereisnoprecisepointatwhichsecondaryfermentationcanbesaidtobecompleted,becauseitisprimarilyabulkagingratherthanfermentationprocess.Becausebeerhasarelativelylowalcoholcontentcomparedtowineandalotofdissolvedsolidsincomparisonaswell,itisn’tsuitableforlong-termaging.

Foralestheperiodofsecondaryfermentationcanrangeanywherefromonetothreeweeks.Agoodruleof thumbis itshouldbebulkagedforsomewherebetweenaslongastheprimaryfermentationtookandtwiceaslong,withathreeweekmaximum.Forlagers,becausetheagingtakesplaceatjustabovefreezingsobiologicalprocessesareslower,youcanbulkageforaslongassixweeks.

Inthiscase,wewillbulkageforaweekandthenbottle.Bottlingislikelythe least funaspectofhomebrewingsimplybecause it is repetitive.Foreveryfivegallonsofbeer,youarefillingasmanyas53bottles,sotheprocesscanbeabit tedious.On the bright side, once the beer is bottled, itwill be sufficientlycarbonatedandbottle-agedtobeconsumedintwoweeks!Nothingisbetterthanbeveragesyou’vemadeyourself.

BottlingyourBeerThesinglemost important aspect of bottling beer is sanitation.The secondmost important aspect of bottling beer is also sanitation. Did I mentionsanitation? In all seriousness, this is where your beer is most vulnerable tocontamination,socleanlinessisimportant.

Sanitizingthebeerbottles.

1.Sanitizeyourbottlingbucketandyourprimaryfermenterbucket.Youcanusesulfite solution mixed with three tablespoons of sulfite powder and oneteaspoonofcitricacidpergallonofwater,orano-rinseproductsuchasStarSanmixedaccordingtolabeldirections.Makeatleast2gallonsofsanitizingsolutionineachbucket.

2. Immerse your racking tube, bottling wand, and the lengths of plastic hoseyou’ll be using in the sanitizer in your primary fermenter bucket and pumpsanitizerthroughouttheentireworks.Leaveeverythingtosoak.

3. Clean your beer bottles thoroughly, and then immerse them in sanitizingsolutioninyourbottlingbucket.Youwon’tbeabletofitallthebottlesinthebucket.Leavethemfilledwithsanitizingsolutionforfiveminutes,thendumpthesolutionoutofthebottlesbackintothebottlingbucketandsetthebottlesaside.Repeatuntilallbeerbottleshavebeencleanedandsanitized.

Sanitizingthebottlecaps.

Theprimingsugarsolutioniscoolenoughtoaddtothebottlingbucket.

4.Puttwopotsonthestove.Inonepot,put50–60bottlecapsinwater,bringthewatertoaboilforseveralminutes,thenturnofftheheatandputthelidonthepottopreventcontamination.Intheotherpot,bringtwocupsofwaterandfiveouncesofcornsugar toaboil, then turnoff theheatandcover.This isyourpriming sugar and you can use a greater or lesser amount depending on thedesired degree of carbonation. (See the chapter on the science of beer fordetailsonhowmuchsugartouse.)Fiveouncesofcornsugargivesalevelofcarbonationequivalenttomostcommercialbeer.

5.Placeyoursecondaryfermenteronatableorcounter.Youmaywishtoputashortwedgeundertheedgeofthefermenterfurthestfromtheedgetohelpgetallthebeerout.Emptyallthesanitizingsolutionoutofyourbottlingbucket,but do not rinse it. Place your bottling bucket on the floor in front of yoursecondaryfermenter.

6.Place your pot of sugar solution in an ice bath in the sink to cool until thetemperature of the solution is between 70 and 80 degrees. Then pour thesolutionintothebottomofthebottlingbucket.

7.Takeyourrackingtubeandtheplastichoseforitoutofthesanitizingsolutionintheprimaryfermenterbucket,andemptyoutasmuchsanitizerasyoucan.

8.Carefully,soastoavoiddisturbingsediment,useyourrackingtubetotransferthe beer from the secondary fermenter to the bottling bucket.Donot let thebeersplasharoundbecauseitisvulnerabletooxidationatthisstage.

Transferringthebeerfromthesecondaryfermentertothebottlingbucket.

Fillingbottlesusingthebottlingwandiseasy.

Usingthecappertocrimpthecapsinplaceonthebeerbottles.

9.Set aside theempty secondary fermenter tobecleaned, andgently liftyourbottlingbucket fullofbeeronto thecounteror table.Putyourbottleson thefloorinfrontofthebottlingbucket.Toavoidspills,Iputmysanitizedbottlesopen-endupinthecases.

10.Removethebottlingwandandtheplastichosefromthesanitizingsolutionintheprimary fermenter,andemptyasmuchsanitizingsolution fromthemasyoucan.Usesanitizingsolutiononapapertoweltowipedownthenippleonthe spigot of the bottling bucket, then affix the hose to the nipple and thebottlingwand.Openthevalve.

11.Thebottlingwandismadewithaspring-loadedvalve thatallows liquid toflowwhenyoupressdownonit.Putthewandintoabottle,pressagainstthebottomof thebottle, andeaseupas thebeer reaches the topof thebottle’sopening.Whenyouwithdrawthebottlingwand,abitofairspacewillbeleftatthetop.Thisspaceiscalledullage.

12.Repeatuntilallbottlesarefilled.Then,withouttouchingthepartofthecapsthatwillcontact thebeer, lightlyplacethecapsonall thebottles.Leaveforabouttenminutessothatgassesfromthebeercandisplacetheoxygen.

13. Use your bottle capper to crimp the caps into place. Use slow, steadypressure. If youmess up, don’t be concerned. Just discard the cap and useanother.That’swhyyouboiledextras!

14.Onceyourbeerisbottled,cleanandsanitizeeverything.Thenletitdry,andputitaway.Oncetheequipmentisdryyoumightevenconsiderkeepingitinthelargeblackplastictrashbagstokeepdustanddebrisout.

15.Keepyourbeeratroomtemperaturefortwoorthreeweeks.16.Enjoyandsharewithyourfriends!

Anicelabelenhancestheperceptionofthequalityofyourproduct.

17.Remember,itislegaltoshareandevengiveawayhomebrewtoyourfriendsandneighbors,butitishighlyillegaltosellitordistillitwithoutalicense.

LabelingLabeling your finished beer serves two purposes: identification andpresentation.Onceyouhavebeenmakingbeerforawhile,youwillhavebottlesfloatingaroundofvariousorigins,andlabelingthebeerwillbeimportantjusttoknowwhatyouhave.

Presentation is everything. People are prejudiced regarding the quality ofwhatisinthebottlebythefashioninwhichitispresented.Anicelabelmakesallthedifferenceincreatingapositiveprejudice.ThoughthereareplacesontheInternet thatwillmake custom labels for you, in some cases they cost over adollareach.Obviously,that’smoreexpensivethanthebeeritselfandshouldbereservedforbeerbeingpresentedasagiftorforaspecialoccasion.Therestofthe time, perfectly presentable labels can be created on label stock using aninkjetprinter.

LogsThis is probably starting to get old, but I’ll continue to say it about

everything: keep a log of your beer-making efforts.Your log is an invaluabletoolforimprovingyourproductandlearningtogettheexactresultsyouneed.Itis only because of my logs that I was able to ultimately derive the simpleformulasandrecipesinthisbook.

With beer, very subtle differences in technique—such as a mashingtemperatureof152asopposedto155—canmakeabigdifferenceintheresults.Makenoteofeverythingandbythetimeyouareonyourfifthbatchofbeer,youwill start to appreciate the value of your log. It will also help you duplicateparticularlygoodbatchesofbeeryou’vemadeinthepast.

PARTIV

VinegarfromBeerandWine

11

PrinciplesandMaterialsforVinegar

Thereisvinegar,andthenthereisvinegar.Mostoften,webuyvinegarasacommodityproductwithoutgivingmuchthoughtastoquality.Thegallonjugsofdistilledvinegarinthesupermarketareindistinguishable.Thereisnopointinmaking your own vinegar when you can buy it for $1/gallon in bulk; so thischapterisnotaboutmakingthatkindofcommodityproduct.

Really good vinegar is a complex taste sensation to be savored andappreciated.Ittakesonthecharacterofthemalt,cider,orwinefromwhichitisderived. It can also be improved by aging as the complex flavor and aromacompounds meld, recombine, and change. It is truly a gourmet product, andhandcraftedexamplesareusuallymorethan$20/pint.

Vinegar in general is a healthy condiment. Vinegar increases satiety21thereby reducing caloric intake, it reduces the glycemic index of foods withwhich it is consumed,22 and may reduce the risks of certain types of heartdisease.23Andjustaswinepreservesmanyofthevitaminsandantioxidantsinthe original fruit, homemade vinegars made from those wines will likewisepreserve vitamins and antioxidants; therebymaking it evenmore healthy thanthecommodityvinegarsusedinthestudies.

So this chapter is not about duplicating commodity products that arecheaper to buy than they are to make. Rather, it is about making a uniquelyhealthfulproductwithgourmetqualities thatwill enhanceyour salads,greens,dressings,andanythingelseyoumakewithvinegar.

Ifyoumakewineandbeer,youwillalreadyhavetherawmaterialsathandallowingyou tomakegourmetvinegar inexpensively.SoIwill focusonusingwineandbeerasthestartingmaterialsinthischapter,eventhoughvinegarcanalsobemadeusingsimilartechniquesifyouusehardcider,sake,orpracticallyanyotherproductcontainingalcohol.

SpeakingofWineandBeer

Ireallyenjoymakingwineandbeer.Ienjoyeveryaspectoftheprocess,andIespeciallyenjoysharingmyworkwithsomeonewhowillappreciatetheresultsofmyefforts.Butsometimesmyeffortsresultinaless-than-stellarproduct.Thewine Imade from bottled blueberry juice and brown sugar comes tomind asdoesthebeerImadewithfartoomuchoatmeal.WhatonearthwasIthinking?Thegoodnews is, Icanuse these tomakevinegar.Youwill likelyhavesomelearningexperiencesofyourownthatwillserveasexcellentrawmaterial.

Somecommercialwinesandbeersareprettypoor.Evenifwineorbeerthatyou’vepurchasedisprettygood,itmayhavesatintherefrigeratortoolongorbenearitssell-bydate.Ratherthandumpthateffortormoneydownthedrain,youmightconsiderusingittomakeyourownvinegar.

Wine that you use to make vinegar cannot have been preserved usingpotassiumsorbateorsodiumbenzoate.Beerseldomhassuchpreservatives.Anywineyouusecanbenormallysulfitedoritcanbenon-sulfited.Thewinecanbewhiteorred,sweetordry,andmadefromanyconceivableediblefruit.Thebeeryouusecanbemadefrombarley,wheat,oranyothergrain.Andeven thoughyouwilllikelychoosewinesorbeersforthisprocessthatwerenotoptimalfordrinking, it is very important that the starting material you choose bebiologicallysound.

Anysoundwineorbeerthatyouuse,evenifitisn’tverygoodfordrinking,willstillyieldaproductfarsuperiortothe“winevinegar”or“maltvinegar”youwillfindatthesupermarket.The“wine”theyuseasastartingproductwasneverintendedfordrinkinginthefirstplace,whereasyourswasplannedwithdrinkingqualityinmindandishenceabettermaterialfromwhichtomakevinegar.

WhatisVinegar?Vinegarisadiluteformofaceticacid,ranginginstrengthfrom4%to8%.Itismadebytheoxidationofethylalcoholintoaceticacidthroughafermentationprocess undertaken by acetic acid bacteria (AAB). Just as the yeast in winederives its energy from sugar and produces ethyl alcohol as a waste product,AAB derive their energy from alcohol and produce acetic acid as a wasteproduct. And just as the ethyl alcohol in wine acts as a preservative againstorganismsthatcannottoleratealcohol,aceticacidactsasapreservativeagainstorganisms that cannot tolerate the lowpH created by acetic acid.This is howpicklingfoodsinvinegarkeepsthemfromspoiling.

AceticAcidBacteriaThere are a great many specific strains of AAB. They are present on thesurfaceofbothhealthyanddamagedfruitaswellasthenectarofflowers.Theyarealsocommonlytransferredbythefruitfliesthatcouldhavebeenattractedtoyourwinemakingorbrewingprocess.

Wineisproducedinanaerobicconditions,meaningthatoxygenisexcluded.Vinegar, on the other hand, is produced under aerobic conditions as theAABrequireoxygentowork.Intheabsenceofoxygen,thebacteriagodormant.

VariousstrainsofAAB24arepresentinwinemustfromtheverybeginningandremaininthewineevenwhenitisbottled.25Theprimaryfactorthatkeepsitsuppressedinwineislackofoxygenandalcohollevelsthataretoohighforthebacteriatoprocess.Soespeciallywithnewly-madewines,allthatistheoreticallynecessary to turn wine into vinegar is to permit the entry of oxygen. In thepresence of oxygen the bacteria would quickly proliferate as a film on thesurfaceofthewineandturnthealcoholtoaceticacid,especiallyifthealcohollevelisunder10%.

Beer is even more susceptible to acetification because its lower alcoholcontent, lack of sulfites, and higher nutritional content make it an attractivetarget.

Aceticacidbacteriaarenottheonlybacteriathatcantakeholdinwineorbeer, and leaving the results to chance can result in a product that is not onlyunusable,butthoroughlyrotten.Soforourpurposes,justasaspecificstrainofyeastisusedtomakewine,aspecificstrainofbacteriaisusedtomakevinegar.Aceticacidbacteriaarecommerciallyavailableinaformcalledvinegarmother.Vinegar mother, also known as Mycoderma aceti, is a gelatinous substancecontainingtheAABthatformsonthesurfaceofvinegar.Thoughvinegarcouldcertainly be made from Gluconobacter oxydans or Acetobacter pasteurianusamong many other possibilities, all of the commercially available vinegarmothersareAcetobacteraceti.

Acetobacteracetineedstofloatontopofthewineorbeeryouusetomakevinegarsothatithasaccesstooxygenatalltimes.Withoutaccesstooxygen,itwillgodormant.Thevinegarmotheryouobtainmaylooklikecrudevinegar,oritmaylooklikejelly.Ifitlookslikejelly,itisverylikelythatwhenyouputitinyourvinegarcrock, itwillsinkandtherebygodormantfor lackofoxygen.Topreventthis,apieceofthinwoodaboutthesizeofaplayingcardisfloatedontop of thewine or beer, and the vinegarmother is placed on it. This piece ofwoodisusuallymadeofoakandiscalledavinegarraft.

Vinegarmothersareavailableaswhitewine,redwine,beer/malt,andcider.

All of them have the same acetic acid bacteria, and the only difference is thecarrier.Insmallbatchesofvinegar—saylessthanagallon—thecarriermakesadifference in the flavor, but in larger batches of vinegar the carrier doesn’tmatter.

Somestrainsofaceticacidbacteria,suchasgluconobacteroxydans,willgodormantonceallof theethylalcoholhasbeenconsumed.But theAcetobacteraceti that you’ll beusingdoesnotgodormantonce all of the ethyl alcohol isused. Instead, itstartsconsumingtheaceticacid that itproduced,with theendresult being just carbon dioxide. So vinegar conversions using a commercialvinegarmothermust be arrested once the conversion has completed or you’llendupwithnovinegaratall.

Theconversionprocesscanbestoppedintwoways.Forpurposesofagingthevinegar,itcanbeplacedinacanningjarwithatight-fittinglidthatexcludesoxygen.This leaves thevinegaralive,butdormant.Forpurposesof long-termstorageoruseinanenvironmentwhereoxygenmightbeadmitted,thevinegarispasteurized.Vinegar ispasteurizedbyheating it to150degreesfor30minuteswith the lid adjusted as for canning to prevent evaporation. Once it has beenpasteurized,itcanbestoredinanycleancontainerforanearlyindefiniteperiodoftime.

EthanoltoAceticAcidConversionIf you are using commercial beer or wine to make vinegar, the amount ofalcohol(byvolume)islistedonthelabel.Ifyouareusingyourown,youshouldhaveagoodideahowmuchalcoholisinyourbeerorwinefromthehydrometerreadingsyourecorded.

Thechemicalequationfortheconversionofethanoltovinegaris:C2H5OH+O2 CH3COOH+H2OSoethanolplusoxygengetsconvertedtoaceticacidpluswater.Lookingat

theequation,eachmoleculeofethanolisconvertedintoonemoleculeofaceticacid.Themolecularweightofethanolis46.07anditsdensityis.789g/cm3.Themolecularweightofaceticacidis60.5anditsdensityis1.049g/cm3.

Thismeans that every gram of alcoholwill result in 60.5/46.07 or 1.313gramsof vinegar.Agramof alcoholwill occupy1/.789or 1.27 cm3. Alcoholpercentages are done by volume, but vinegar percentages are done byweight.Wecangetagoodideaoftheconversionfactor,thatis,howmuchaceticacidagivenamountofethanolwillcreate,bydoingthemathforahypothetical10%wine.

IfIhavealiterof10%wine,thatlitercontains100mlofalcohol.100mlofalcoholhasamassof100cm3/1.27cm3or78.7grams.Themassofthevinegarproducedwillbe78.7*1.313or103grams.

Therefore, a10%alcoholbyvolumewinewill create a10.3%byweightvinegar.Soinessencethepercentagesareidentical.Knowingthisfactwillallowustodilute thebeerorwineweareaddingtothevinegarmother toproduceavinegarofknownstrength.We’dstill test it just tobesure,ofcourse.But thisallowsustomakeourvinegarveryprecisely.

HowtoSafelyUseHomemadeVinegarinCanningAllcanningbookstellyoutoneverusehomemadevinegarincanning.That’sbecausepicklingrecipesrelyuponthevinegarhavingacertainstrengthof5%,and if you use vinegar of a lesser strength you couldwind upwith botulism-taintedfoodthatcouldkillyou.Soifyoudon’tknowforsurethatthestrengthofyourvinegaris5%orgreater,youcan’tuseitsafely.Ofcourse,ifthevinegarissubstantiallystrongerthan5%youcouldwindupwithpickledfoodsthatarealotmoreacidicthanyou’dlike.Youcanalwaysdiluteitifitistoostrong.

The solution to this problem is to figure out howmuch acidity is in thevinegar.Youcandothiseasilybyusingtheingredientsinastandardacidtestingkitavailablefromallwinemakingsuppliers,apHmeter,andaslightchangeinprocedure.IspecifyusingapHmeterratherthanthephenolphthaleinindicatorbecause phenolphthalein turns pinkwhen the endpoint is reached, and such acolorchangemaybedifficulttodiscerninvinegarofcertaincolors.ApHmeterwon’ttrickyoureye.

Equipment

150mlbeaker

110mlsyringe(noneedleneeded)0.2NSodiumHydroxidesolutionDistilledwaterpHmeter

Rinsing the syringe using distilled water after each use, put 2ml of thevinegar to be tested and 20ml of distilled water in the 50ml beaker. Fill thesyringewith0.2Nsodiumhydroxidesolutiontoexactlythe10mlmark.Initially,add1mlofsodiumhydroxidetothebeakereachtime,swirl, thentestwiththepHmeter.AsthepHapproachesitsendpointof8.3,uselesserquantities.RepeatuntilthesolutionhasapHof8.3.

Theamountofacidinyourvinegarisgivenbythefollowingequation:PercentageAceticAcid=0.6×(10-readingofsyringeatendpoint)

21Östman,E;Granfeldt,Y;Persson,L;Björck,I(2005).“Vinegarsupplementationlowersglucoseandinsulinresponsesandincreasessatietyafterabreadmealinhealthysubjects.”EuropeanJournalofClinicalNutrition59(9):983–8

22Johnston,C.S.;Kim,C.M.;Buller,A.J.(2004).“VinegarImprovesInsulinSensitivitytoaHigh-

CarbohydrateMealinSubjectsWithInsulinResistanceorType2Diabetes.”DiabetesCare27(1):281–2

23Johnston,CarolS.;Gaas,CindyA.(2006).“Vinegar:medicinalusesandantiglycemiceffect.”MedGenMed8(2):61

24Acetobacteraceti,gluconobacteroxydans,andacetobacterpasteurianuspredominate.25A.Joyeux,S.Lafon-Lafourcade,andP.Ribéreau-Gayon(1984),“EvolutionofAceticAcidBacteriaDuringFermentationandStorageofWine,”AppiEnvironMicrobiol.1984July;48(1):153-156

12

VinegarMakingTechniques

Makingvinegar is easier than making wine or beer and requires minimalequipmentoringredients.Otherthanavinegarcrockandthewineorbeeryou’llbeusing,youcangeteverythingelseyouneedforunder$30.Herearetheitemsyou’llneed:

VinegarCrockVinegarcantheoreticallybemadeinanysortofcontainer.Traditionally,itismadeinoakbarrelscalledvinegarcasksorinceramicurnsknownasvinegarcrocks.

Therearethreeimportantfeaturesinacontainerusedtomakevinegar.Thecontainershouldhaveamouthwideenoughthatyoucaninsertyourvinegarraftandpreferablyyourwholehand.Itshouldhaveatap,spout,orspigotnearthebottom,butfarenoughfromthebottomthatitdoesn’tpickupsediment.Finally,itshouldbemadeofamaterialthatwillnotreactwiththevinegar.Vinegarisadiluteacid,soitwillreactwithmostmetalsgiventime.

Giventhesefeatures,youarenotconstrainedtoonlyuseproductsofficiallysold as vinegar crocks. Anything officially sold as a vinegar crock will quitefrankly be seriously over-priced. I looked on the Internet recently and foundmanyofthempricedatnearly$100!

I use two containers to make vinegar. One is a miniature ceramic watercrock that holds a half gallon. It costs $24. The other is a one-gallon plasticbeverage dispenser I picked up at a department store for $4. Both of thesecontainers have the essential features, including the spigot. Normal ceramicwatercrockshold2½gallons,anamountwhichmayfarexceedtheamountofvinegaryouplantomake.That’swhyIgotaminiature½galloncrock.

Youcouldgoalloutandgetanoakvinegarcask,butthatwillsetyoubackatleast$80.Ifyouwantyourvinegartobeoak-aged,justaddoakcubestothesealedpintorquartjarthatyouareusingtoageyourvinegar.

CheeseclothandRubberBandsTheseitemsareusedoverthemouthofyourvinegarcrocktoallowoxygentoenterbutkeepfruitfliesandothercrittersout.Notallcheeseclothiscreatedequal. The material that is sold as “cheesecloth” at the supermarket is notsuitableformakingcheese,andevendoubledortripleditwon’tkeepfruitfliesoutofyourvinegar.

Unless you have a good gourmet shop nearby that sells real cheesecloth,youmay have to order it from a supplier of cheese-making supplies over theInternet.Itisabitexpensivewhenyouincludeshipping,soIrecommendsavingonshippingbyorderingacoupleofpackages.Theywon’tgotowastebecauseyou’llneedthecheeseclothformakingcheeseinthenextchapter.

Thesizeof theneededrubberbandswillbedifferentdependingupon thesizeofthemouthofyourvinegarcrock.Theonlycautionworthmentioningisthatlightandvinegarfumeswilldegradetherubber,sochecktherubberbandsweeklyandreplacethemifyouseesignsofdeterioration.Otherwiseyou’lllookatyourcrockonedayandfindmorefliesinitthanvinegar.

Use a doubled piece of high-quality fine cheesecloth to cover yourvinegarurn.Otherwise,fruitflieswillgetintoyourvinegar.

MiscellaneousSuppliesAvinegarraftisasmallthinpieceofoakthatfloatsontopofyourvinegar.Its purpose is to keep the vinegarmother from sinking because if the vinegarmothersinks,itwillstopmakingvinegar.Theseareavailableinvinegarkitsorindividually from many Internet sites. Just type “vinegar raft” into a searchengine.

Thematerialsforoak-agingvinegararesimpleandinexpensive.

Somepeopleprefer the tasteofvinegar thathasbeenaged inoak,or theastringency contributed by the tannins leached from the oak. Oak barrels areexpensiveandtime-intensivetomaintain.Analternativeisaddingoakchipsoroakcubestothevinegar.Addaquartercuppergallon,enclosedinatiedspicebag for easy removal later. The chips or cubes are added during the agingprocess and left in the vinegar for four to sixweeks. For these purposes, youdon’twanttouseoakfromyourbuildingsupplystore.Instead,orderitfromawinemaking supplier. Winemaking suppliers can offer a range of oaks withdifferent taste characteristics thatyouknowaren’t contaminatedwith anythingnasty.

Canning jars are a good choice for aging and storingvinegars.They sealtightly,whichwill cause the vinegarmother to go dormant during aging, andtheycanbeusedrepeatedlywhichmakesthemagoodbargain.

Oneotherthingyoumayfindhelpfulisafunnelthatyouhaveattachedtoapieceofplastichosesuchasthehoseusedforrackingwine.Asvinegarisbeingmade,youneedtoaddmorebeerorwine.Theeasywaytodothiswithoutriskof disturbing the vinegar mother is to insert the hose into the liquid in thevinegarcrock,andaddtheliquidthroughthefunnel.

A candy thermometerwill beneeded for pasteurizingvinegar, unless youplantocanitusingaboilingwaterbathcannerforlong-termstorage.

ConsolidatedEquipmentandIngredientList•Vinegarcrock•Vinegarmother•Cheesecloth•Rubberbands•Vinegarraft

•Canningjars•Candythermometer•Oakchipsorcubes(optional)

MakingYourVinegarThe first thing to do is pre-dilute your wine or beer if needed. At levelshigher than7%alcohol itmight inhibit theAAB.Youcanalwaysmake it lessconcentrated,downto3%,forpurelyculinaryuseorifyourbeeronlyhasthatmuchalcohol, and it isn’t unusual for sherryvinegars tobe ashighas7%. Ingeneral, I recommenddilutingto5.5%sothevinegarcanbeusedwithgreaterversatility.Alwaysdilutewithclean,non-chlorinatedwater. Iusebottledwaterforthispurpose.

So ... howmuchwater do you add to your beer orwine to get a certainpercentageofalcohol?StartbydividingthecurrentconcentrationinpercentbythedesiredconcentrationinpercenttogetC.SoifIhavesome10%wineandIwant 5.5%, I divide 10by5.5 to get 1.82.Next,multiply the volumeof yourwine(say500mlinastandardwinebottle)byCtogetthetotaldilutedvolume:500ml×1.82=910.Finally,subtractthevolumeofwinefromthetotalvolumetogetthevolumeofwateryouneedtoadd.910ml–500ml=410ml.

Thisalsoworkswithbeer.SayIhavesomebeer that is6%alcoholandIwanttodiluteitto5.5%.Thestandardbeerbottleis12ounces.SoC=6%/5.5%=1.09.Multiply12oz×1.09=13.Finally,13–12=1, so Iwouldaddoneounceofwater.

The quantity of dilutedwine or beer that you use is important because ittakesawhileforthevinegarmothertowork,andinthemeantimetheunderlyingbeerorwineisvulnerabletooutsideinfection.Youwanttolimittheamountyouputinthecrocktonomorethantriplethevolumeofthevinegarmother,whichiseightounces.Soyourinitialingredientsofthevinegarcrockwillbe24ouncesofbeerorwinedilutedasneededandeightouncesofvinegarmotherforatotalof32ounces.

MakingVinegar,StepbyStep1.Cleanyourvinegarcrockthoroughlyandsanitizeitusingsulfitesolution.(Seethechaptersonwineforhowtomakesulfitesolution.)

2.Checkthecapacityofthecontainerofvinegarmotheryouordered.Usuallyitiseightounces.

3.Adddilutedwineorbeertothevinegarcrock.Theamountaddedshouldbetwicethevolumeofthevinegarmother.Soifyouhaveeightouncesofvinegarmother,put24ouncesofwineorbeerinyourcrock.Thealcoholpercentagecannotexceed7%.

4.Openyourvinegarmother.Ifitisgelatinous,placeyourvinegarraftontopofthewater/winesolutioninthevinegarcrock.

5.Addthevinegarmother.Ifitisallliquid,justgentlypouritintothecrock.Ifitisgelatinous,additontopofthevinegarraft.

6.Coverthemouthofthecontainerwithcheeseclothandholditinplacewitharubberband.

7.Setthecontainerinadarkplaceoratleastsomeplacewelloutofthesun.Theideal temperaturerangeis80to90degrees,but itwillprogressfineat70to100.

8.Dependingontemperatureandotherfactors,thecompleteconversionofwineto vinegar can take anywhere from six weeks to threemonths. Check yourvinegar weekly by sniffing it through the cheesecloth. It should smell likevinegarisforming.

9.Toincreasethevolumeofthevinegarbeingmade,youcanaddmoredilutedwineorbeerstartingatthefourthweekandeveryfourthweekthereafter.Addbyusingasanitizedfunnelandtubing.

10.Sixweeksafterthefinaladditionofwine,starttastingsmall(lessthan¼tsp)samplesofthevinegartoseeifitisdone.It’sdonewhenallthealcoholflavorhasbeen replacedwithvinegar flavor.Your tongueandnoseareamazinglysensitive and able to detectmany substances in very low concentrations ofparts-per-million. This is as accurate as any easily performed test indeterminingifthevinegarisdone.

11.Oncethevinegarisdone,itisimportanttoremoveitfromthevinegarcrockbecausewithallthealcoholgone,thevinegarmotherwillstartconsumingtheaceticacid,andtherebydestroythevinegar.Takeoutasmuchvinegarasyoucanthroughthespigotandthenstartyournextbatchusingthesamevinegarmother in that container. As long as your vinegar doesn’t becomecontaminated,youcanusethesamevinegarmotherindefinitely.

Themotherinthisvinegarcrockisdoingnicely.

AgingVinegarJustlikewine,vinegarmadefromwinewillmellowwithage.Freshly-madevinegarisverysharpwithalotofpointededges.Whenitisallowedtoage,thecompoundswithin thevinegarcombine invariousways thatmake thevinegarmoremellowandtobringoutotherflavorcomponents.

Eventhoughit iseasy tovisualize thevinegarmotherassittingon topofthewine,manyofitsbacteriaarespreadthroughoutthevinegar.Whenyoudrawoffasample,even if it looksclear, it is filledwithaceticacidbacteria. (Thesebacteria, incidentally,are totallyharmless tohumans.)Freshly-madevinegar isteemingwithlife.

Whenvinegarisaged,itisagedwiththatlifeintact.Thevinegarisdrawnfromthecrockviathespigotandplacedinacontainersealedsoas toexcludeair.Thisrenderstheaceticacidbacteriadormant.Vinegarcanbekeptinasealedcontainer for an indefiniteperiodof time. In fact, genuinebalsamicvinegar isagedforatleasttwelveyears,andoftenforaslongas25years.TheminimumperiodofagingIwouldrecommendissixweeks.

Vinegar can be aged in porcelain, glass, impervious plastic, or woodenbarrels.Alotofthebettertraditionally-madevinegarsfeatureoakaging.Theoakaging serves to impart an astringent principle to the vinegar in the form oftannin. Tannin is not just one substance. The term “tannin” refers to literallydozensifnothundredsofrelatedcompoundsformedaroundeitheragallicacidoraflavonecore.Tanninshaveincommonnotonlytheirastringency,butalsotheirabilitytobindandprecipitateproteins.Thismeansthattanninsintroducedinto vinegar will scavenge stray proteins left over from fermentation bycombiningwiththemtoformaninsolublesubstancethatwillsinktothebottomofthecontainer.

Soovertime,aninitiallyhighleveloftanninsisreducedandanumberofprotein-or amino acid-based substances are removed. This serves to alter the

flavorinmorewaysthanmerelyintroducingastringency.Infact,theadditionoftannin,throughitsabilitytoremoveothersubstances,canparadoxicallydecreasetheastringencyofvinegaroveraperiodofagingbyremovingothersubstances.Tannins also combinewithmetals in a process known as chelation.Chelationforms soluble compounds that include the metal but render it unavailable tocombinewithothersubstances.Thislikewiseaffectstheflavor.

Youcanuseoakintheagingofyourvinegarbyplacingaquartercupofthecubesorchipsinatiedspicebaginyouragingvinegar.Leaveitinthecontainerforsixweeks,andthenremoveitusingsterilizedtongsandre-sealthecontainer.The rest of the vinegar’s aging will continue to be affected by the tanninsimpartedbytheoak.

KeepingVinegarEventually,theagingprocessendsandthevinegarisreadyforstorage.Thenextstep is tofilterandpasteurize.Perfectlyadequatefiltration isachievedbypouringthevinegarfromthejarinwhichitisagingthroughafunnellinedwithacoffeefilterintoacleancanningjar.

Fill thejarwithvinegartowithinaquarterinchofthetop,andinstall thetwo-piececanning lid.Processfor10minutes inaboilingwaterbathorsteamcannerandpasteurizationiscomplete.

MakingHerbalVinegarsI’ll confess that I have never purchased an herbal vinegar.Anytime I haveseenherbalvinegar,itisusuallyinsomesortofcraftshop.Thevinegarisinanornate bottle with a sprig of some herb and has a fancy label. It also has anobscenelyfancyprice.Thepriceseemscrazy tomebecauseI’mprettycertainthat the vinegar they usedwas $1/gallon commodity vinegar and the sprig ofherbcostaboutapenny,andthecostis$12forsixounces.Nothanks!

Herbal vinegars can be quite nice, though, andmaking your own is easyenough.Youcanmakeitusingcommodityvinegarfromthesupermarketoryourownhandcraftedvinegar.Idon’trecommendusingcidervinegarsforherbs.

Asyoumayknowfromanearlierbook,26growingyourownherbsiseasy.Thehardpartforbeginnersischoosingwhichherbstouse(andhowmuch).Tohelp you get started, I suggest the following single herbs: borage, thyme,rosemary,dill,basil,tarragon,andoregano.

Irecommendmakingyourherbalvinegarsfromfreshherbswhenpossible.

Usingfreshherbs,Irecommend½ounceoffreshherbpercup(eightounces)ofvinegarasastartingproportion.Becausethevinegarisapreservative,theherbswon’trot.Whenusingdriedherbs,usetwotablespoonsofdriedherbpercupofvinegar.

The procedure is straightforward.Add the cleaned herbs to the containerthatwillholdtheherbalvinegar.Heatupthevinegartoasimmer(NOTaboil!),andthenpourthevinegarintothecontainerholdingtheherb.Sealthecontainer.Allow the flavors to meld for three or four weeks to develop the full flavorbeforeusing.

If you want something really impressive for making an oil and vinegardressing for salad, I would suggestmaking vinegar from pearwine, and thenusingthepearvinegartomakeaborageherbalvinegar.

OilandVinegarDressing

Ingredients:

11ounces Virginoliveoil5ounces Handcraftedwinevinegar2ounces Water1Tbsp Pulverizeddehydratedsweetredpepper1Tbsp Pulverizeddehydratedonion1tsp Seasalt1tsp Garlicpowder1tsp Driedoregano1tsp Driedbasiltsp XanthangumOR½tspdriedpowderedpurslaneorokra(optional)

ProcedureAdd¼cupofwaterand½cupplus2Tbspvinegartoyourcontainer.Add

theremainingsolidingredientsexceptforthexanthangum/purslane.Shakeandallow to sit for a few minutes. Add the xanthan gum/purslane and shakethoroughly.Add1¼cupplus2Tbspofoliveoil.Shakethoroughly.

The purpose of the xanthan gumor purslane in this recipe is to keep themixturefromseparatingtooquicklyforpracticalusebecauseoil/vinegarandoil/

water don’t normally mix. The xanthan gum or purslane helps to keep it insuspension. If you use xanthan gum, don’t use more than the recommendedamountoryou’llendupwithajelly-likesubstanceratherthandressing.

26MaximizingYourMiniFarm

PARTV

CheeseMaking

13

Cheese:IngredientsandEquipment

Proteinisanessentialpartofthehumandiet.Thoughvegetablesourcescanprovideprotein, inmost cases theprotein lackscrucial aminoacids.Themostreadilyavailablecompleteproteinsaremeats,eggs,anddairy;thelattertwoaretheleastexpensive.Continuingthethemeofpreservingnutritivecontentthroughfermentation,wearriveatcheese.Milkcontainsalotofcompleteprotein,butitisalsohighlyperishable.

Intheagesbeforerefrigerationwasreliablyavailable,oneofthefewwaysto make the nutritional value of milk last longer while also making it quiteportablewasturningitintocheese.Hardcheesesinparticular,ifwaxed,canlastforyears.

Another advantage of cheese is that many hard cheeses lack lactose.Lactoseisasugarinmilkthatmanyfolks(includingmyself!)cannotdigest.Asa result, if they consume most milk products they will suffer severegastrointestinal distress—sometimes for days. When the whey and curd areseparated in the firstphasesofmakingcheese,94%of the lactosestays in thewhey.Mostagedcheeseslacklactoseandasaresultprovidelactose-intolerantpeoplewithadeliciouswayofobtainingthenutritionalbenefitsofmilk.

Cheese also has its own health benefits. It is rich in cancer-preventingconjugated linoleic acid and sphingolipids, fights tooth decay, and helpsmaintainbonestrength.

Likebeermaking,cheesemakingisbothartandscience.Ifanything,thereis even more art to making cheese because it requires practice to master thevarioussteps.Sothischapterisenoughtogetyoustarted,butyou’lllikelywanttobranchoutonceyou’vemasteredthetechniquescoveredhere.

WhatisCheese?Cheeseisthecoagulatedfatandproteinfromthemilkofdomesticateddairyanimals. The fats and proteins ofmilk are coagulated in variousways for the

manufacture of different types of cheese. In some cases, a bacterial culture isadded.Thebacterialcultureconsumeslactosetomakelacticacid;thislacticacidcausesthecoagulation.

In other cases, rennet is added.Rennet is a complexmixture of enzymesthat likewise coagulates milk. In yet other cases, an acid such as citric acid,tartaricacid,orevenvinegarisusedtocausecoagulation.Thoughtheproductsof these various methods of coagulation are markedly different, they are allcheesebecausetheyhaveincommonthecoagulationofmilk.

Milk:WhereitallBeginsIntheUnitedStates,cowsaretheusualsourceformilk;goatsareutilizedtoalesserextent.Inothercountries,themilkofbison,buffalo,sheep,horses,yaks,andotheranimalsarealsoused.Thenatureofthemilkofdifferentspeciesvariesappreciably and this is reflected in the character of the cheese produced.Theoretically,youcouldmakecheeseusingthemilkofanymammal;Iwouldn’tattempt this until you get good at making cheese from well-characterizedherbivoressuchascowsandgoats.Notonlythat,tryingtomilkatigerorabearisprobablymoredangerousthanwarranted.

Mostorganicmilkisultra-pasteurized,makingitunsuitableforcheese.

Likewise,thecomponentsofthemilkwillvarybetweendifferentbreedsofdairy cattle.Even themilkof aparticular cowwill varywith seasonanddiet.Probably the most striking example of this was in the cream cheese mygrandmotherwouldmakefromcowsthathadbeeneatingwildonions.Thesmellandtasteofthewildonionswastransferredtothemilkandhencetothecheese.Inthecaseofcreamcheese,theresultsweredelicious!

It is important to know that though pasteurized milk is fine for makingcheese,theultra-pasteurizedmilkthatyoufindinthestoreisunsuitable.Thisis

unfortunate, because it is the organic brands that tend to be ultra-pasteurized.Ultra-pasteurization is used to extend the shelf-life of expensive milk thatdoesn’tsellveryquickly.Unfortunately,thatprocessdamagestheproteininmilksoextensivelythatitisunsuitableformakingcheese.

Milk fromother animals can certainlybemade into cheese, but doing sowouldrequirechanges in timing, temperature,quantitiesof ingredients,andsoforththataresimplytooextensivetobetreatedinasinglechapter.

So we are going to use pasteurized, homogenized cow’s milk from thegrocerystoreas the learningmediumforyour first forays intocheesemaking.After youhavemastered these skills, you canbranchout from there.You canfind specific types ofmilk suitable for your needs by finding a local dairy atwww.smalldairy.com.

AboutRawMilkCheeseconnoisseurs insist that thebest cheeses aremade from rawmilkthathasbeenneitherpasteurizednorhomogenized.Thetroubleisthatrawmilkisnotreadilyavailableandquiteoftentherearelegalimpedimentstobuyingitdirectly from farmers. The basis for these legal impediments is widespreadrecognitionofthelikelihoodofthepresenceofpathogensinrawmilk.

In former times the largest risks of raw milk were brucellosis andtuberculosis;todaytherisksaree.coli,salmonella,andlisteria.Testingofvatsofmilk inmodern times shows that even from healthy cows, anywhere from0.87% to 12.6% of rawmilk harbors dangerous pathogens.27Howdo healthycows give pathogen-infested milk? They don’t. Inadequate sanitation andcleaning of equipment introduces fecal bacteria into the milk. The reasonpasteurization became a requirement in the first place was that farmers wereactivelyfalsifyingtheirrecordssothattuberculosis-infectedcowswouldn’thavetoberemovedfrommilkproduction.28

The reason it continues to be required is because human nature hasn’tchanged,andmaintainingsanitationonanindustrialscaleofabiologicalproductcreated by an animal that excretes feces requires extreme levels ofconscientiousnessthatcannotbeguaranteed.Inessence,becausethehealthinessof cows and their milk can be tested to assure a safe product withoutpasteurization,itispossibletosellperfectlyhealthyrawmilk.Butpasteurizationisrequiredanywaytocompensatefortheexistenceoflazyordishonestpeoplethatwill prioritize theproductionof a single infected cowover thehealth andwell-being of their customers. I’m quite suremost peoplewould do the right

thing,butinanindustrialsystemwheretheoutputsofvariousfarmsaremixedtogether, it only requires one feces-contaminated vat to sicken thousands ofpeople.

Obviously,rawmilkthatdoesnotcontainpathogenscanbemade.Humanshave consumed raw milk for thousands of years before pasteurization wasinvented. Such milk was collected at home by the end users, so there was adirect correlation between shoddiness and adverse consequences that wouldresult from collectingmilk in a bucket that wasn’t clean. Themilk was usedimmediately rather than transported thousands of miles, so any pathogenspresent had less opportunity tomultiply to dangerous or infective levels. It isthereforepossibletoobtainrawmilkthatwillnotmakeyousick,provideditissuppliedbyanhonestandconscientiousfarmer.

Howtodetermineifsomeoneishonestandconscientious,Ican’tsay.IfIcould write a book describing a sure-fire technique of that sort, personnelmanagersacrosstheworldwouldrejoice.Intheabsenceofthat,Iwouldinsteadlookattheideaofmutualself-interest.Ifafarmerweretosellyourawmilkthatmade you sick, your family could sue him into oblivion. So it is in his bestinterest,ifhesellsrawmilkatall,tomakesureitispristine.Manysuchfarmersuse small-scale low-temperature vat pasteurization just to be sure, and thisprocess is less damaging to the milk proteins than standard pasteurizationprocesses.

Oneotherlayerofprotectionistoonlyuserawmilktomakehardcheesesthatareagedforlongerthantwomonths.Theprocessofcheese-making,whencombinedwith the conditions of aging in cheese, serve to eliminate potentialpathogens and render the cheese safe.Thisonly applies to agedhard cheeses!Softcheesesandthoseeatenlessthantwomonthsfrommanufactureshouldbeconsideredasriskyasrawmilk,andIpersonallyavoidmakingcheesefromrawmilk,butthat’sanindividualchoice.

If you use raw milk in cheese-making, there are only two proceduralchanges you’ll need to adopt. The first is that you can avoid using calciumchloride(describedlater),andtheotheristhatwhenheatingthemilk,especiallyfor thermophiliccheeses,youwillneedto top-stir themilk.Topstirringis justslowlydraggingautensilacrossthetopquarter-inchofmilkinordertokeepthemilkfatsfromseparatingout.

Tofindrawmilk,IrecommendthefollowingInternetresources:

•ACampaignforRealMilk:www.realmilk.com•TheWestonA.PriceFoundation:www.westonaprice.org•Farm-to-ConsumerLegalDefenseFund:www.farmtoconsumer.org

CategoriesofCheeseCheese canbe categorized in variousways depending upon the substancesfromwhichitismade,itsappearanceorconsistency,whetheritisagedoreatenfresh,andtheproceduresusedtoproduceit.Forourpurposes,wewillusefreshand aged cheeses as categories, as well as soft and hard cheeses, since thesecategorieshavethegreatestdifferentiation.

EquipmentWhenitcomestotheequipmentneededtomakecheese,qualitymatters.Thegoodnewsis thatmostofthisequipmentisaonce-in-a-lifetimepurchase.Youwill likely end up orderingmost of these items over the Internet because youmayhavedifficultyfindingthemlocally.

Qualityingredientsandequipmentwillcontributetoaqualityproduct.

MeasuringCupsandSpoonsYou want both a large (2+ cup) and small (1 cup) Pyrex™ glass liquid

measuring cups. You will also need measuring spoons, but not the ordinarycheap ones you get at the dollar store. You want high-quality stainless steelmeasuringspoonsthatmeasurein , , ,and¼teaspoonincrements,aswellasthetraditionalsizes.

Ihavenotedbycomparingvolumestomylaboratorystandardsthatcheapmeasuringspoonsareoftenundersizedoroversized.Thisisnotacriticalmatterwhenmaking a cake;whenmaking cheese it can spell thedifferencebetweensuccessandfailure.

LargeDoubleBoilerWithbatchesofcheesestartingwithagallonofmilkorlessandthatusea

mesophilicstarterculture(moreonstartercultureslater),youcangetbywithastandard large pot that you set in a sink of hot water. For batches of cheeserequiringmorethanagallonofmilkorusingathermophilicstarterculture,youwillneedadouble-boiler. Incheese-making, thisdouble-boiler is alsocalleda“cheesepot.”Forverysmallbatchesofcheesestartingwithaquartofmilk,youcanimprovisebysettingasmallerpotintoalargeroneaslongasthehandlesonthe smaller pot will sit on the lip of the larger pot so the smaller one issurroundedbywater.

Again,dependingonthesizeofyourlargestintendedbatchofcheese,youmaybeabletouseadouble-boilerassmallaseightquarts.Butbecauseittakesalargeamountofmilktomakeenoughcurdtoyieldverymuchhardcheeseafterpressing,youwon’tgowrongwithaboileraslargeas20quarts.Nomatterwhatsize you use, make sure it is stainless steel because acidifiedmilk will leachaluminumorironintoyourcurdandimpartmetallicflavors.

If you don’t already have a double-boiler, this is probably the mostexpensiveitemyou’llneedtoget.SearchingtheInternet,Ifoundpricesrangingfrom $88 to $130 for a 20-quartmodel. Itwon’t come cheaply, but you’ll bethankful that you got it. You can use it for batches of cheese starting withanywherefromonegallontofourgallonsofmilk,anditsconfigurationwillhelptoholdtemperaturessteadywhilepreventingscorching.

ColanderYou’llneedalargeeight-quartcolanderthatwillfitintothecheesepotwith

thehandlesrestingontheedgesofthepot.You’llusethistoseparatethecurdsfromthewhey,withthewheygoingbackintothepot.

SpecialUtensilsYou need a large stainless steel slotted spoon, a stainless steel skimming

ladle,andastainlesssteelcurdknife.ThislatterutensilisspecializedsoyouwillprobablyhavetogetitviaanInternetsource.

CheeseclothYouwanthigh-qualitycoarse(20threadcount)andfine(60threadcount)

cheesecloth.Thefinecheeseclothisusedformakingsoftcheesesuchascreamcheese;thecoarsecheeseclothisusedtoholdhardercheesesduringthepressingorcuringprocess.

Cheeseclothispackagedintwo-yardincrements,soyougetapiecethatis

three feetwideandsix feet long.Cutoffpiecesasneededwithgoodscissors.Beforeuse,cheeseclothmustbesterilized.Putitinapanofwater,boilforfiveminutes and then dump the cheesecloth andwater into a colander in the sink.Cheeseclothcanbere-used.Rinseitundercoolrunningwater,workafewdropsof dish liquid into it, rinse it thoroughly, and boil it for five minutes. Afterboiling, hang it up to dry, then store the dried cheesecloth in an airtight bag.Don’tforgettosterilizeitbeforeusingitagain.

BambooSushiMatsTheseallowgoodaircirculationforcheesethatiseitherdrainingoraging,

andisessentialinmakinghardcheeses.Luckily,theyareinexpensiveat$4eachorless.Theycan’tbesanitizedandshouldbediscardedafteruse.

CheeseWaxoraVacuumSealerCheesewax isused toprotect thecheese fromairwhile itages.This isa

specialkindofwaxthatmeltsatalowenoughtemperaturethatitwon’thurtthecheese when you brush it on. Don’t try to substitute canning wax for this!Anotheralternativeistouseavacuumsealertosealthecheeseinanairtightbagfrom which all air has been evacuated. That’s what I do because it is moreconvenientthanwaxing.

Twotypesofcheesepress.

CheesePressandMoldAcheese press is used to knit the curds together into a solidmasswhile

expelling excesswhey.There are a variety of designs of varying expense andcomplexity.AsearchontheInternetwillevenrevealmanyfreedesignplansformakingyourown.

Formostof thebatchesofcheeseI’vemade,Ihaveusedasimpleplasticpressandmoldthatonlycost$21.Thedownsideisthatyouhavetouseexternal

weightswithit.Still,youcan’tbeatitforthepriceandeaseofuse.Recently,IhaveacquiredastainlesssteelpressmadebyWoodLabthatworksverywell.

Instant-readDigitalThermometerTemperatures are critical when making cheese. Some types of cheese

requiregraduallyraisingthetemperatureorholdingatacertaintemperatureforaspecifiedtime.Thebestthermometerforsuchpurposesisonethatgivesyouaninstantandaccuratereading.Agooddigitalthermometerisnotexpensive.

I have a “Norpro electronicdigital read thermometer/timer” that cost $16and a hand-held Hamilton Beach instant-read digital thermometer. Both costunder$20,havestainlesssteelprobesthatareeasytosterilize,andcanbefoundatcook-warestores.

DedicatedSmallRefrigeratorTraditionally, many styles of cheese were quite literally aged in caves.

Cavesmaintainaconstanttemperatureandhumiditythroughouttheyear.Mostofusdon’thaveaccesstoasuitablecave,andwedon’thaveanareainthehousethatwillreliablymaintainacertaintemperatureformonthsonend.

If you decide tomake cheeses requiring aging, youwill find a dedicatedrefrigerator indispensable. A second-hand dormitory-sized refrigerator and anexternalthermometersetuptoturnitonandoffasneededwillworkperfectlyfor such an endeavor. A refrigerator dedicated to cheese-making is called a“cheesecave.”

IngredientsNotalloftheseingredientsareneededforallcheeses,butyou’llwantthemon-hand.Someoftheseyoumayalreadyhavefromyourexcursionsintowine,beer,andvinegarmaking.

Vinegar,lemons,andtartaricacidThese common acids are used to make soft cheeses via the direct

acidificationmethod.Inthismethod,themilkisheatedtoacertaintemperature,ameasuredamountofacidisaddedandstirredintothemilk,andthenthemilkclotsafteraperiodoftime.Thisclottedmilkispouredintoacolanderlinedwithcheesecloth;thecheeseclothistiedintoabag.Thebagishunginawarmplaceforthewheytodrainoutofthesoftcurds.Theseareamongtheeasiestcheeses

tomake,andtheyworkespeciallywellasdipsandspreads.

Calciumchloride,30%solutionWhen milk is pasteurized, the calcium ion balance is upset in the milk,

whichcan impedepropercurd formation.Asmall amountof calciumchloridesolutiondilutedfurtherindistilledwaterandmixedintothemilkcancorrectthisimbalance.

Youcanorderfood-gradecalciumchlorideandmakethesolutionyourself(percentages are by weight!), or you can order the pre-mixed solution fromvariousInternetstoresspecializingincheesemakingsupplies.

Calcium chloride, incidentally, is also an ingredient in some ice meltingpellets used tomelt the ice on sidewalks and driveways. This is a very crudeproduct that isn’t suitable for human consumption, somake sure youget foodgradecalciumchloride.

FlakedorcanningsaltSaltisusedasaflavorenhancer,abacteriostaticpreservative,amodulator

for enzymatic action, and it helps expel water from cheese curds throughosmotic pressure. Special “flaked” cheese salt is available, but canning salt orCelticseasaltwilldoaswell.

The important thing is to avoid the ordinary salts in the grocery storebecausenotonlydomanyofthemcontainiodine,theyoftencontainanti-cakingagentsandotherchemicalsthatcouldinterferewithcheese-making.Soanythingyouuseshouldbepurelysalt.

StarterCultureYou can buy starter culture in packets from a supplier, or you canmake

your own from buttermilk and yogurt. Starter cultures are either mesophilic(meaning“mediumheat-loving”)orthermophilic(meaning“highheat-loving”).Startercultureisaninoculantcontainingamixofbacteriathateatthelactoseinmilkandexcrete lacticacid.Thefirstpurposeof thesebacteria is to lower thepHofthemilkinordertoencouragecurdformation.Thesecondpurposeisthecontinuingdevelopmentofflavorcharacteristicsduringthemakingandagingofthecheese.Thenatureofthestarterculturestronglyinfluencestheflavorofthecheese.

Mesophilic starter cultures work best at room temperature—around 72degrees. They usually contain at least Streptococcus lactis, and many also

containStreptococcus lactis var.cremoris alongwith other lactic acid bacteriasuchasL.delbrueckii subsp. lactis, L. lactis subsp. lactis biovardiacetylactis,andLeuconostocmesenteroidessubsp.cremoris.

Streptococcus lactis is used to make cultured buttermilk; therefore freshbuttermilk with active live cultures can be used to make a mesophilic startercultureforcheese-making.Cheesesthatbeginwithamesophilicstarterincludefarmhousecheddar,edam,stilton,andMontereyJack,amongothers.

Thermophilic starter culturesworkbest at temperatures above80degreesandbelow130degrees.Aspecificrecipewilldictatethebesttemperaturewithinthisrangefortheparticularcheesebeingproduced,butthecultureworksbestat110degrees.Exceeding130degreesmaykillathermophilicculture.Thisculturemaylikeheat,butitdoesn’twanttobescaldedorboiled.Thermophilicstartersare used to create Swiss and Parmesan cheeses among others. Streptococcusthermophilus is a common bacteria in thermophilic starter cultures, butLactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, L.casei,andL.plantarumareallused.

Yogurtismadewiththermophilicbacteria.Oneprominentbrandoforganicyogurt uses six live cultures that include Streptococcus thermophilus,Lactobacillusdelbrueckiisubsp.bulgaricus,andL.casei.Thismeansthatplainyogurt can be used to makemore yogurt, and it can also be used to make athermophilicstartercultureforcheese.

Ifyouopttobuystarterculturesfromacheese-makingsupplystoreinsteadofmakingyourown,thereareonlytwoimportantthingsyouneedtoknow:Youwantthesortofculturecalleda“directvat”culture,andyoushouldputitinthecoldestpartofyourfreezertheverysecondyougetit.Keepitinthefreezeruntilreadyforuse.

RennetRennet is an enzyme that was originally derived from the stomachs of

sucklinganimals.Itisaproteolyticenzymethatbreaksproteinbondsinsuchawayastoturnliquidmilkintosolidcurds.Allinfantmammalsproducerennet.Thisturnsmilkintoasolidformthatstaysintheirdigestivetractlonger.That’swhywhenababyspitsupmilk,ithasmysteriouslyturnedintoaclumpysolid.Babiesofallmammalshaveminiatureinternalcheesefactories.

Inpractice,animalrennetisabyproductofvealproduction.Animalrennetofthissortisextremelyperishableandhastobekeptrefrigerated.It’salsoprettyexpensive.

Rennetcanalsobemadefromcertainfungiandplants.Thesortmadefrom

plantshastobemadefreshonthespot,whichmaynotbefeasibleduringwinteror ifyoucan’tfindtheplants.ForourpurposesIamrecommendingvegetablerennet,whichisactuallymadefromfungi.Itisinexpensiveandifyouputitinthefreezeritwillstaygoodforaboutsixmonths.Itcomesintabletsthatcanbedividedintohalvesandquarters;thismustbedonecarefullyasithasatendencytodisintegrate.

Rennet isanextremelypowerfulenzyme.Tinyquantitieswillclotgallonsofmilk.Whenaddingrennet,dissolvetherequiredamountintoaquartercupofdistilledwateroveraperiodof20minutes, thensprinkle itover thesurfaceofthemilk.Mixitintothemilkusingup-downandback-and-forthmotionsratherthan swirling because swirling doesn’t mix as efficiently. It’s important thatrennetbemixedefficientlybecauseotherwisethecurditformswillbeofunevenconsistency.

HowtoMakeRennetfromNettlesIn a pinch, youmight need to make your own rennet from nettles. This

rennetworks,butitdoesn’tgiveascleanabreakorassolidacurd.Putapoundofstingingnettletipsinalargepotandcoverwithwater.Bring

toalightboilandboiluntilthevolumehasbeenreducedbyhalf.Filterthroughcheeseclothintoacleancontainer.Youcankeepthisintherefrigeratorforuptotwoweeks.Youuseonecuppergallonofmilktobecurdled.

OtherCulturesandEnzymesAs your cheese-making expertise increases, you’ll want to try to make

specific typesofcheese.Toward thatend,youwillneeddifferentculturesandenzymes.

Lipase is anenzyme that splitsmilkfat into free fattyacids. Itdevelopsacharacteristicpicanteflavorinthemanufacturingoffeta,blue,mozzarella,andprovolonecheeses.Likerennet,itisextremelypowerful.Unlessarecipedirectsotherwise,usebetween and tspofthepowderpergallonofmilk.Dissolvethe powder in a half cup of coolwater for 30minutes prior to use. Lipase isaddedimmediatelybeforerennetbysprinklingitontopofthemilkandmixingitinusinganup-downandback-and-forthmotion.

Propionic Shermanii culture is used to create the characteristic holes andflavorofSwisscheeses.Asitferments,itcreatescarbondioxidethatexpandstocreatetheholes.Thisisaddedtothermophilicstartercultureattherateof tsppergallonofmilk.

Not allmesophilic or thermophilic starter cultures are created equal. The

specific varieties of bacteria make a difference in the ultimate flavor of yourcheese. As you learn more about cheese, you will want to try other startercultures.

27PositionStatementonRawMilkSalesandConsumption,CornellUniversityFoodScienceDepartment28“NotonMyFarm!:ResistancetoBovineTuberculosisEradicationintheUnitedStates,”AlanL.OlmsteadandPaulW.Rhode,January2005,TheJournalofEconomicHistory(2007),67:768-809CambridgeUniversityPress,Copyright©2007TheEconomicHistoryAssociation,doi:

10.1017/S0022050707000307

14

PracticalCheeseMakingTechniques

In this chapter, I am going to progress from the easiest and least time-consumingtechniquestothemoreinvolved,usingafewexamples.Bymixing,matching,andvaryingthesetechniquesyoucanmakeawidearrayofinterestingcheeses.Buttermilkandyogurtarean ideal startingplacebecausebothcanbeusedtomakeothercheeseswhilesavingmoneyonstartercultures.

HowtoHaveaLifetimeSupplyofButtermilkandMesophilicCheeseStarterI have always loved cultured buttermilk. Its thick consistency with sweet-tartness is irresistibly delicious, and it makes wonderful pancakes as well!Buttermilk costs 70%more than regularmilk, so if you like it, you can savemoneybymakingyourown.

Startwithculturedbuttermilkfromthestorethatuseslivecultures.Youcanmake any amount of buttermilk you’d like from this by re-culturing. To re-culture, put the amount ofmilk youwould like to turn into buttermilk into astainlesssteelcontainer.Eitheruseadouble-boilerorputthecontainerofmilkintoasinkofhotwater,andraisethetemperatureto86degrees.

Holdat86degreesfortenminutes,thenadd¾cupofbuttermilkperquartofmilk.(1½cupsofbuttermilkforahalf-gallonand3cupsofbuttermilkforagallon.)Removethemilkfromtheheat,coverwithcheeseclothtokeepoutbugsbutallowoxygen,andallowittositatroomtemperatureundisturbedfortwelvehours.

That’s it.Really. Ifyou refrigerate itafter the twelvehoursareup, itwillkeepintherefrigeratorforuptotwoweeks.Anytimeyouwantmorebuttermilk,justrepeatthisprocedureusingabitofthebuttermilkyoualreadymadeandyoucanhavebuttermilkforeverunlessyoursupplybecomescontaminated.

Anytime a cheese recipe calls for “mesophilic starter” you can use yourbuttermilk at the rateof fourouncesofbuttermilkperonegallonofmilk that

you’llbe turningintocheese.It ispossible tofreezebuttermilkforuse later tomakecheese,butIdon’trecommendthatastheviabilityoftheculturebecomesspotty.Irecommendusingonlyunfrozenbuttermilktomakecheese.

HowtoHaveaLifetimeSupplyofYogurtandThermophilicStarterCultureYogurtisabitmoredifficult tomakethanbuttermilkbecauseitrequires theyogurt-in-progresstobeheldatahighertemperatureforalongtime.Ayogurt-makingmachinecanhelp,ormaketheyogurtonaweekend.Ifyourfamilyusesalotofyogurt,itmaybeworthwhiletopurchaseayogurtmachineforlessthan$100.Yogurtcostsanywherefrom300%to400%morethanmilk,soifyoueatalotofyogurtyoucansavealotofmoneybymakingyourown.

Youcanmakeyogurtsuccessfullyfromplainyogurtfromthestore,oryoucanbuyastartercultureforthespecifictypeofyogurtyouwishtomake.Viilicultureproducesathickbutmildyogurtsimilartowhatyouyoumostlyseeinstores,whereasPiimäculturemakesathinner,drinkableyogurt.Therearemanyother cultures available, but no matter how you start your first batch, yogurtcultures are serial cultures, meaning that you can continue to propagate themindefinitelysimplybyusingaquantityfromthelastbatchtomakethenext.

Ifyoudecidetouseplainyogurtfromthestoretomakemoreyogurt,pleasereadtheingredientlabelcarefullytomakesureyouarebuyingaproductmadeonlyfrommilkandcultures.Therearesomeyogurtbrandswhose“plain”yogurtcontainsadulterantsandother ingredients thatwon’tbehelpful.Pectinisoftenusedasathickenerandthisisokay.

First,heatyourmilkto185degreesinadoubleboilerwhilestirringoften.Thisistokilloffcompetingorganisms.Then,removethemilkfromtheheatandallowit tocool tobetween105and122degrees.Onceit isbetweenthese twotemperatures,addeitheryourstartercultureaccordingtopackagedirectionsor¾ cup of live yogurt per gallon of milk. Pour the mixture into cleaned andsterilizedquartcanningjars,andadjust thetwo-piececapsforaseal.Keepthetemperatureof thesecontainersat105 to122degrees for thenexteighthours.Thetemperaturecanbemaintainedbyfillingthesinkwithwaterat120degrees,and then adding a bit of boiling water to the water in the sink whenever thetemperature drops below 110 degrees. After eight hours, put your jars in therefrigeratorwheretheyogurtwillkeepfortwoweeks.

Maintaining this temperature for so longwillbedifficult,but thebacteriahaveabettersenseofhumor thanmost regulatoryagencies, soas longasyou

keepthetemperatureabove98butbelow130,youryogurtwillstillbefine.Tomaintain this temperature you can use the sink method already mentioned, amattressheatingpadoranelectricblanket;be sureyoukeepaneyeon thingsandcheckfrequentlysoitdoesn’toverheat.Or,useyourovenifitcanmaintaintemperatures under 120. A slow-cookerwithwater on the lowest settingmayalso work by setting the jars in water in the slow-cooker and watching thetemperature.Thekeyistoimprovisecreatively.

Theyogurtyoucreateisplainyogurt.Youcanmixanythingwithityou’dlike—fruit, nuts, granola, sweeteners, etc. If you decide to use it as athermophiliccheesestarter,usefourouncesofyourfreshplainyogurtpergallonofmilkthatyouwillbeturningintocheese.

Okay,Let’sMakeSomeCheese!There are literally hundreds of types of cheese, all of which requiredifferencesinprocedure,technique,oringredients.Ratherthantrytocoverallofit,Iamgoingtoillustratehowtomakefourrepresentativecheesesthatareeasilymade at home using the ingredients and equipment described. Between thesefour cheeses, all of the basic techniques will be covered, and you will gainenoughexperiencetoexperimentandbranchout.

I am going to cover a direct acidification soft cheese. Using the sameprinciple, you could make a soft cheese using a different acid. Then, I willdemonstrate a soft cheese using a starter culture. Next, I will demonstrate aminimally-agedhardcheeseusingbothstartercultureandrennet.Finally,Iwilldescribemaking an aged cheddar cheese andmost importantly the cheddaringtechnique.

SoftCheesebyDirectAcidification:QuesoBlancoUsing a double boiler, raise the temperature of one gallon of milk to 180degrees while stirring so the milk doesn’t precipitate protein. Add ¼ cup ofvinegarbyslowlydribblingitintothemilkwhilestirring.(Youcanusedistilledvinegarorsomeofyourhomemadevinegar.Foradifferenttaste,youcanusethejuiceof3-5lemons.)Continuetostirfortentofifteenminutesuntilthemilkiscompletelyclotted.Ifthemilkdoesn’tclot,adduptofourmoretablespoonsofvinegarwhilemixingforanothertentofifteenminutes.

Raisingthetemperatureto180degreesbeforeaddingthevinegar.Noticethecheeseclothboilingontheright.

Meanwhile, prepare cheeseclothbyboiling in apanof cleanwater.Afterboiling, use the cheesecloth to line a colander. Pour the clottedmilk into thecheesecloth-lined colander, allowing the liquid to go down the sink.After thecheesehascooled,formthecheeseclothintoabag,andhangitoverabowluntilliquid no longer drains out of the bag. (This works best at standard roomtemperature. If the temperature is too cold, the cheesewon’t drainwell. Thisprocessshouldcompletewithinfivetosevenhours.)

Theclottedmilkdraininginthecolander.

Ihaveahiddenhookundermycabinetsforhangingcheesetodrain.

This easy cheese is greatonbagelsormixedwithherbsasavegetabledip.

Scrape the cheese out of the cheesecloth into a clean, covered container.Addandmixsalt,driedherbssuchasgarlicpowder,dill,orbasilintothecheeseasdesired.This iswhat iscalleda“fresh”cheeseanditshouldberefrigeratedpromptlyaftermaking.Usewithinaweektoavoidspoilage.Becauseofallthedifferent thingsyoucanmixwith this, it is averyversatilecheese thatcanbeusedforbagels,dips,anddressings.

SoftCheeseusingYogurtStarterCulture:Farmer’sCheeseAdd½teaspoonof30%calciumchloridesolutionto¼cupofwater,andmixthoroughlywithonegallonofmilkinadoubleboiler.Usingthedouble-boiler,raise the temperature of the gallon ofmilk to 105 degrees.While themilk isheating, dissolve¼of a rennet tablet in¼ cup of cool non-chlorinatedwater.Oncethemilkhasreached105degrees,keepitthereforfiveminutesandthenaddone cupof plainyogurt, stirring it in thoroughly.Keep the temperature at105degreesfortenminutes,thenturnofftheheat.

I’lladdtheyogurtoncethemilkreaches105degrees.Youcouldalsouse

commercialthermophilicstartercultureforthisstep.

Here I amadding the dissolved rennet by pouring it slowly through aslottedspoonforbetterdistribution.

Once the temperature has dropped to 95 degrees, add the rennet bysprinkling it over themilk andmixing using a gentle up-down and back-and-forthmotion.Removethepotandcoveritwiththelid.Allowthemixturetosetfor about an hour and then check for the development of the curd.Check thecurd by inserting a clean and sterile blunt object (such as a glass candythermometer).Ifitcanbewithdrawncleanlywithoutanythingstickingtoit,andtheholeitmakesdoesn’timmediatelyfillwithliquid,thecurdisreadyandyouhavewhat is called a clean break. If the curd isn’t ready, allow the pot to setwhilecoveredforanotherfifteenminutesandcheckagain.

Nowthatyouhaveacleanbreak,youneedtocutthecurd.Thepurposeofcutting thecurd is toallow foruniformdrainageof themilk liquid (knownaswhey) from the curd. (Yes, this is the famous “curds andwhey”—a primitivepredecessor to cottage cheese—likely eaten by Miss Muffet in the nurseryrhyme.)

Yourgoalincuttingthecurdistocutthecurdintouniform-sizedcurdsforeven drainage ofwhey. In general, the smaller you cut the curds initially, theharder thestyleofcheeseyouaremaking; though therearepractical limits. Inthis case, you are cutting the curd into one-inch cubes.Do this by using yourcurdknife tofirstcutagridat right-angles theentiredepthof thecurdsoyouend up with a one-inch checkerboard pattern. Then, make horizontal cuts bypositioningyourcurdknifeat a45degreeangleandcuttingalongone rowofparallellinesinyourgrid.Thoughthereareallsortsofotherwaystodothisandspecialgearyoucanbuy,itisreallythatsimple.

Onceyour curd is cut, cover the pot again and allow it to sit for anotherfifteenminutessosomewheycangatheratthebottomofthepot.Then,putyourpotback into thedoubleboiler and slowly,overaperiodof30minutesor so,raise the temperature of the curds to 110 degrees. As the curds are heating,

gently—verygentlysoyoudon’tbreakthem—useyourslottedspoontostirthecurdsinsuchawayastoexchangethoseonthetopwiththoseonthebottominordertopromoteevenheating.Oncethecurdshavereached110degrees,keepatthattemperatureforthirtyminuteswhilegentlymixingeveryfiveminutesorso.Youwill notice the curds getting smaller and the amount ofwhey increasing.Whilethisprocessisongoing,preparealargepieceofcheeseclothbyboiling.

Thehorizontal cuts arebeingmadeby tracing the gridwith theknifeheldata45degreeangle.

The curds will release whey and shrink. The metal device is thetemperatureprobe.

Lineyourcolanderwithadouble-layerofcheesecloth,andgentlypourthecurdsandwheyintothecolander.Youcansavethewheyforbakinglater,addittoyourcompostpileorletitgodownthesink.(Ifthewheyisgreenish,donotbealarmed—thisisnormal!)Letthecurdsdraininthecolanderforanhourorso,thenputthecurdsintoabowlandsalttotaste,turningthecurdsevenlyforuniformdistribution.Ipreferseasaltforthis,butyoucanalsousecheesesaltorcanningsalt.Donotuseregulartablesalt(iodizedornot)becauseitwillmakeyourcheesetastebitter.

Prepare somemore coarse cheesecloth by boiling, and then use a doublelayer to line your clean cheese mold. Add the curds to the mold, fold thecheeseclothover topof the curds, andput the topof yourmoldon topof the

cheesecloth. Put yourmold in a shallowpan (a disposable pie platewould beideal) tocatchwhey that isexpelled.Add twopoundsofweighton topof themold,andplacethewholeworksintherefrigerator.

Thecheeseisbeingmixedwithflakedcheesesalt.

Iuseda2.5poundweightonthecheesepress,anditworkedfine.

The completed cheese beforewrapping it in plastic and storing in therefrigerator.

Oncethecheeseandpresshavebeenallowedtoworkintherefrigeratorforfour or five hours, turn the cheese out of themold, unwrap it, and place in aclosedcontainerintherefrigerator.Usewithinaweek.

HardMinimallyAgedCheeseUsingMesophilicStarter:NewIpswichJackMixone teaspoon of 30% calcium chloride solution into a quarter cup ofwater, and mix with two gallons of milk in a double-boiler. Bring thetemperatureofthemilkupto85-90degrees,andaddeither½tspofpowderedmesophilic starter or one cup of fresh cultured buttermilk,mixing thoroughly.Coverthemixtureandallowittoripenfor30–40minuteswhilemaintainingthetemperaturebetween85and90degrees.

While themixture is ripening, prepare your rennet solution bymixing½tablet of rennet with ¼ cup of cool non-chlorinated water. You’ll know themixture has ripened by the fact 30–40minutes have passed and it smells likebuttermilkoryogurt.Once themixturehas ripened,add therennetsolutionbydrippingitaroundthemilkandmixingitgentlybutthoroughlyusingup-downand back-and-forth motions. Continue to maintain a temperature of 85 to 90degreeswhileallowingthemixturetositcoveredforanhour.Atthispoint,thecurdsshouldgiveyouacleanbreak.

Useyourcurdcuttingknifetocutthecubesinto1/4-inchcubes.Continueholdingthetemperatureat85to90degreesforanother40minuteswhilegentlystirring the curds every fiveminutes or so.Keep the curds coveredwhile notstirringor checking the temperature.You’ll notice the curds shrinking and thevolumeofwheyincreasing.

Slowly increase the temperature to 100 degrees over a 30-minute periodwhilestirringeveryfiveminutesorso.Thisamountstoabouttwodegreeseveryfiveminutes.Holdthetemperatureat100degreesforanother30minuteswhilestirringeveryfiveminutes.

Now,verygentlysoasnottodamageorlosecurds,pouroffasmuchofthewheyasyoucan.Thismaybeeasiertodowithahelperholdingbackthecurdsusingtheslottedspoonwhilesomeoneelsetipsthepotoverthesink.

Put thepotback into thedoubleboilerandcontinue tostir foranother30minuteswhilemaintainingthetemperatureat100degrees.Meanwhile,prepareadouble-layerofcoursecheeseclothbyboilingfirst,anduseittolineacolander.Pour the curds into the cheesecloth-lined colander. Add two tablespoons ofcheesesaltandmixthecurdsgently.

Line your cheesemoldwith cheesecloth, and then pack themold closelywith the curds. Fold your cheesecloth over top of the curds, install the top ofyourmold,andputyourmold ina shallowpan tocatch thewhey thatwillbeexpelled.

Puta ten-poundweighton topof themold topress thecheese for fifteen

minutes.Then,removethecheesefromthemold,takeitoutofthecheesecloth,flipitoverwithinthecheesecloth,andputitbackinthemold.

This time, press the cheese for 30minuteswith a thirty-poundweight. (Irecommend stacking three 10-pound dumbbell weights as these are easier tohandle.)Then,takethecheeseoutofthepress,takeitoutofthecheesecloth,flipitagainwithinthecheesecloth,re-coverit,andputitbackinthemold.Pressitthistimewith40poundsfortwelvehours.

Afterthis,takeitoutofthemoldandcheesecloth,andlayitonabamboosushirollingmat.Flipitonthematonceadaysothatitdriesevenly.Afterthreetofivedays,itshouldbedrytothetouch.Onceitisdrytothetouch,itisreadyforaging.

This cheese should be aged at temperatures of from50 to 60degrees foranywhere from one to three months. Maintaining such temperatures is a tallorderinmosthomes,butanytemperaturerangefrom45to68willdo.Luckily(at least in this respect)my house is old and drafty so I can age cheese in akitchencabinetanytimefromNovembertoAprilwithoutneedofmaintainingaspecialenvironment.

If,however,youhappentoeitherliveinawarmerclimateorhaveamoreenergy-efficienthome,youwilllikelyneedtocreateacheese-cavefromadormrefrigeratorasdescribedearlierinthischapter.

Largercheeseswillformanaturalrindthatwillprotectthemfrominvasion;smallercheeses(likethesizethatwehavemadeinthisexample)willneedtobeprotectedbyeitherwaxorplastic.

Despite a couple of imperfections in uniformity of coating, thiswaxedcheeseisagingnicely.

Ifusingplastic,firstwashthecheeseusingvinegaronacleanpapertoweltoreducebacterialcounts,thensealitinplasticusingavacuumsealer.

Ifyouareusingcheesewax,meltitbyputtingasmallstainlesssteelbowl

inapotofboilingwaterandaddingwaxtothebowl.(Thisbowlwillbealmostimpossibletocleanafter,soyoumightwanttogetacheapbowlatadepartmentstore for this purpose.)After you havewashed the cheesewith vinegar, use anaturalbristlebrushtodipinthemeltedwaxandthenpaintitontothecheese.Oncethewaxhashardenedononesideofthecheese,turnthecheeseoverandcoattheotherside.Checkthecheeseoverthoroughlytomakesureyouhaven’tmissedanyspotsandthatthecheeseiscoateduniformly,andthensetthecheeseasidetoage.

Afterthischeesehasagedforamonth,itissafeforpeoplewhoarelactoseintolerant; after it has aged for twomonths, it is safe even ifmade from rawmilk.

MonadnockCheddarThischeesestarts off identically to theNew Ipswich Jack cheese, and theprimaryvariancestartswith thecheddaringprocess.Mixone teaspoonof30%calcium chloride solution into a quarter cup of water, and mix this with twogallonsofmilkinadouble-boiler.Bringthetemperatureofthemilkupto85-90degrees,andaddeither½tspofpowderedmesophilicstarteroronecupoffreshculturedbuttermilk,mixingthoroughly.Coverthemixtureandallowittoripenfor45-50minuteswhilemaintainingthetemperaturebetween85and90degrees.

While themixture is ripening, prepare your rennet solution bymixing½tabletofrennetwith¼cupofcoolnon-chlorinatedwater.Oncethemixturehasripened, add the rennet solution by dripping it around themilk andmixing itgentlybut thoroughlyusingup-downandback-and-forthmotions.Continue tomaintain a temperature of 85 to 90 degrees while allowing themixture to sitcoveredfor45minutes.Atthispoint,thecurdsshouldgiveyouacleanbreak.Ifnot,allowtositforanother15minutesandtestagain.

Thecutcurdsarestartingtoreleasewhey.

Use your curd cutting knife to cut the curd into 1/2-inch cubes. Slowlyincrease the temperature to 97 to 100 degrees over the next 40minuteswhilegentlystirringthecurdseveryfiveminutesorso.Keepthecurdscoveredwhilenot stirringor checking the temperature.You’ll notice the curds shrinkingandthe volume ofwhey increasing.Hold this temperature for another 30minuteswhilestirringperiodically topreventmattingorclumping.During the last fiveminutes,don’tstirsothecurdscansettleonthebottom.

Lineacolanderwithboiledcheeseclothandput thecolanderovera largepottocollectthewhey.Pourthecontentsofyourdouble-boilerintothecolanderandputalidontoptoretainheat,andallowtositforonehour.(Makesurethatthe levelof thewhey in thepot isn’t highenough to actually touch the curds.Anyexcesswheycanbedrainedorputinyourcompostpile.)

Here is the distinctive process thatmakes cheddar cheese and it is called“cheddaring.” At the end of an hour you’ll notice that the curds haveamalgamated into a solidmass.Cut themass of curd into slabs about¼ inchthick. Stack the curds like dominoes and cover with the cheesecloth. Everyfifteenminutes,rearrangethestacksotheslabsthatwereoutsidearenowinside,andthosethatwereonthetoparenowatthebottom.Afterfourorfiveroundsofthis,thetextureshouldresembleveryfirmtofuorturkeybreast.

Theslabsarecutandbeingstacked.

Thecheeseslabsarestacked.Youcanseetheliquiddrainingfromthem.

Cheeseintheprocessofmilling.

After the cheese slices have reached the desired texture, they need to bemilled.Thatjustmeansyouneedtocuttheseslicesupintochunksaboutthesizeofapea.Putthemilledcurdinabowlandsprinklewith1½teaspoonsofflakedsaltwhilegentlyrollingthecurdsaroundforuniformdistribution.

Line your cheesemoldwith cheesecloth, and then pack themold closelywith the curds. Fold your cheesecloth over top of the curds, install the top ofyourmold(alsocalledthefollower),andputyourmoldinashallowpantocatchthewheythatwillbeexpelled.

Puta ten-poundweighton topof themold topress thecheese for fifteenminutes.Then,removethecheesefromthemold,takeitoutofthecheesecloth,flip it over in the cheesecloth, andput it back in themold.Presswith the tenpoundsofweight for another45minutes.The reasonweusea lightweight atfirstistopreventexpellingfatwiththewhey.

Then,flipoverthecheeseinthecloth,andincreasetheweightto40poundsfor24hours.Thenextday,flipthecheeseagain,andcontinuetopresswith40pounds for another 24 hours. So in total, the cheese has beenpressed for twodaysandanhour.

Now,removethecheesefromthecloth,wipeitdownwitheithervinegarorabrinesolutionusingacleancloth,andplaceitinaprotectedroom-temperatureplaceon a bamboomat for a dayor twountil a rind starts forming. (You canmake brine solution by mixing as much salt into water as the water willdissolve.)WhatIdotokeepinsectsawayisputawirescaffoldoverthecheeseanddrapesomecheeseclothoverit.Oncetherindhasstartedtoform,eithercoatthecheesewithcheesewaxorsealitinaplasticbagusingavacuumsealer.

Thepressedcheesewheelonabamboomat.

Awirescaffoldwillholdthecheeseclothawayfromthecheeseandkeepfliesaway.

Mature the cheese from one to three months. The ideal temperature foraging cheddar is 50 degrees.During thewinter, this is the temperature ofmyporchsoI’mlucky.Youcanageitattemperaturesrangingfrom45to60anditwillcomeoutfine.

TipforMaintainingTemperaturesReadingbooksaboutcheesemaking,you’dthinkeveryoneownsapreciselycontrolledstovethatallowsmaintainingtemperatureswithinasingledegreeforhoursonend.Intherealworld,maintainingtemperaturesissomewhatdifficult.Usingadouble-boilerkeepsthemilkfromscorching.Unfortunately,whenyouraisethetemperatureofthemilkto,say,90degreesusingadoubleboiler,iftheinnercontainerisleftintheoutercontainerthetemperaturewillcontinuetorisewellbeyondthatofthecultureyouareusingevenifyouturnofftheheat.

Oncethemilkhasreachedthehigherendofthetemperaturerange,simplyremove the inner container from the outer container and set it on an unusedburneronthestove.Checkthetemperatureonceinawhileandifitseemstobegoingtoolow,justsetitbackintheoutercontainerforafewminutes,andtakeitback out once the temperature is in the proper range. Because the amount of

milkandwaterinvolvedhasasubstantialthermalmass,usuallythisneednotbedonemorethanonceforaparticularwaitingperiod.

ExperimentandKeepaLogAlotoftimespeoplewanttomakecheeseslikethosethattheybuyatthestore.Ifyouwanttodothat,thereareahostofsitesontheInternetthatgivespecificrecipes.ButwhatIrecommendinstead,isthatyouexperimentandkeepalog.Ihavecoveredallthefundamentalprinciplesyouneedtoknowinordertomakeyourownuniquecheeses.Freshcheeseshave tobe refrigerated tobesafeandshouldbeusedinlessthanaweek.Cheesesmadefromrawmilkhavetobeagedfor at least two months to be safe. Hard cheeses need to be pressed withincreasingamountsofweight.Butnow,fromjustthefourcheesesIhavegiveninthischapter,youcanthinkaboutthevariations.

The Queso Blanco recipe was a direct acidification cheese made withvinegar. What would happen if, instead of adding vinegar, you added amesophilicstarterandhelditat88degreesforanhourbeforepouringintothecheesecloth?Itwouldcertainlytastedifferent!

The soft Farmer’s Cheese described earlier used a yogurt (thermophilic)starter culture. What if you used the same technique, but instead used abuttermilk(mesophilic)starterandvariedthetemperatureaccordingly?

TheJackcheeserecipeisprettyinteresting.Don’tyouwonderwhatwouldhappen if you used a thermophilic starter and some lipase instead of amesophilic starter? How would it come out?What would it taste like?Whatwould happen if you added a pint of heavy cream and a tablespoon of winevinegartooneoftherecipes?

So rather thancopyingother recipes,what Iamencouragingyou todo isfollowthegeneralprinciplesIhavedescribedheretomakeyourownandkeepnotes. I think youwill be very pleasantly surprised at how easy it is tomakeastonishingly good cheese that is uniquely your own and can’t be boughtanywhere at any price. This is ultimately what will make cheese-making aworthwhilethingforamini-farmer.

PARTVI

BreadforEveryOccasion

15

ArtisanBreadsontheStone

Though the wisdom of consuming grains in any form has been crediblychallengedbysomebiochemists,2930breadremainsastaplefoodformillionsifnotbillions,andisknownasthestaffoflife.Breadinsomeformispresentinnearlyeverycultureandtheshapesittakesaremyriad.

SomeofthemostcherishedbreadsintheWesternworldarewhatarenowknownasartisanbreads,andyoucanbuyaone-poundbouleinthesupermarketfor around six dollars. Tender on the inside, crunchy on the outside, andindescribablydelicious,it’sashamethatsuchbreadispricedoutofreachoftheaveragepersonforanythingbutspecialoccasions.Butitdoesn’thavetobe.

Onebenefitofaself-sufficientapproachtolivingisthatitgivesyouaccesstoalifestylethatwouldbeunaffordableotherwise.Whenyoudothingsyourself,yougettohavefoodsofthehighestqualityforlessmoneythaninferioritems.Youcanmakeartisanbreadyourselfforaboutfiftycentsaloaf.

TheBasicChemistryofBreadThoughothergrainsareoftenusedinbread,wheatis theidealbecauseofits protein structure. Wheat flour contains starch and five protein groups—albumin,globulin,proteoses,gliadin,andglutenin.Ofthese,onlythelattertwoaren’tsolubleinwater.Whenflourandwateraremixed,thealbumin,globulin,andproteosesaredissolved.Thisgets themoutof thewayandthegliadinandglutenincombinetoformgluten.

Gluten iswhat gives bread dough its elasticity. If you’ve ever seen pizzacrustmade,you’veseenhowfaritcanstretch.Inorderforglutentoformchainsof that sort, the dough can either be relatively dry and kneaded, or it can berelativelywetandallowedtositforafewhours.

Artisanbreadhasonlyfourbasic ingredients: flour,water,salt,andyeast.That’sall.Nothingmoreisneeded.Breadmadeinbreadmachinesneedstoriserapidly, so sugar is included so the yeastwill have immediate access to food.

Because the dough for artisan breads is allowed to sit, during which time acertain amountof autolysisoccurs, someof the starch in the flour isnaturallyconvertedtosugar.

Saltisusedinbreadfortwopurposes.Thefirstistolimittheactivityoftheyeastsoyoudon’twindupwithhugeairgaps inyourbread.Thesecondis tostrengthenthegluten.Theyeastusedforbreadisthesamespeciesasthatusedforwineandbeer,butthespecificvarietyhasbeenselectedforbakingpurposes.Theyeasteatssugarsandmakesalcoholandcarbondioxide.Thecarbondioxidemakesthebubblesinthebread,andthealcoholevaporatesduringbaking.

Apotentialfifthingredientcanalsobeincluded,andthatislactobacillus—lacticacidbacteria.Lactobacilluscanlivesymbioticallywithbreadyeast.Whenit does, it turns the alcohol byproduct of yeast into lactic acid, which givessourdoughbreaditsflavor.Thelacticacidhelpstopreservethebreadandgivesit a shelf life that is nearly as long as that of commercial breads containingpreservatives.Upuntilthe1800s,practicallyallleavenedbreadwassourdoughbecauseyeastandlactobacillusasseparateorganismswereunknown.Oncethedifference was discovered, yeast was cultured by itself for the purposes ofleavening. So, interestingly, by separating the symbiotic yeast/lactobacilluscultureforconvenience,preservativesinbreadbecamenecessary.

Artisanbreadrequiresonlythesefourbasicingredients.

TheFive-MinuteMethodArtisan breads have traditionally been time-consuming to make, but thecombinationoftwoinnovationsallowsyoutomakeno-kneadbreadinaslittleasfiveminutesaday.Thefirstinnovationwasintroducedin1994byJimLaheyoftheSullivanStreetBakeryinNewYorkCity.Thiswastheincorporationofasubstantially larger proportion of water into the dough and allowing longersittingtimes.Thisallowstheglutenchainstolinkwithoutkneading.Thesecondinnovation was introduced in 2007 by Jeff Hertzberg and Zoë François, andconsistsof thesimplefact thatdoughmade in this fashioncanberefrigerated.

Whenthetwoinnovationsarecombined,youcanmakedeliciousartisanbreadinmereminutes.Thefollowingismyexplanationandadaptationofthemethod.

Thecoreideaofthemethodisthatifyoumakeaverywetdoughandsetthedoughasideintherefrigerator,theglutenchainswillinterlinkontheirownover time, thus obviating the need for kneading the bread to obtain a goodconsistency.Thedoughcanbekeptinacoveredcontainerintherefrigeratorforuptotwoweeks,andallyouhavetodoistakeitout,cutoffaportionofit,letthatportionrise,andthenpopitintheoven.Overtime,asyousaveportionsofthedoughfrompreviousbatchesforyournewbatches in thesamebowl,yourbreadwill develop its own sourdough character without need formaintainingseparatesourdoughcultures.

EquipmentTo use this method you need three pieces of equipment you might nototherwisehave.Thefirstisabakingstone.Abakingstoneisathinroundstoneonawirerack.Manystorescallitapizzastone.Becauseofitsnature,itabsorbsmoremoisturefromthebread,thusmakingacrispercrustwhilealsopreventingburning.You can buy either glazed or unglazed baking stones, but for artisanbreadyouwantanunglazedstone.Anunglazedbakingstoneshouldbeseasonedbycoatingitwithoilperiodicallyandshouldonlyberinsedinlukewarmwaterandwipedoff.Ifyouweretousesoap,itwouldharmtheseasoningandthesoapwould be absorbed into the pores. I use an unglazed stone I picked up at adepartmentstoreforabout$15.

Yourunglazedstoneshouldbeoiled,andneverwashedwithsoap.

Second,youneedabroilerpan.Putthebroilerpanintheovenontherackunderneath theoneholding thebakingstoneandbread.Put somewater in thebroilerpanso thatsteamgets trapped in theovenwith thebreadand thecrustwon’tdryouttoomuch.

Finally,youneedapizzapeel.Apizzapeelisanoversizedspatulathatyou

use toput thebreadonto thehot stone, and to remove thebread from thehotstone.ForalongtimeIjustusedabigspatula,butapeelworksbetter.Asimplewoodenpeelfor$10worksfine.

DoughThe dough used in this method has more water than typical yeast bread.Yeastbreadmostoftenincludeswaterandflourina1:3ratio,whereasthedoughusedinthismethodhasawater-to-flourratioofabout1:2.Thereasonisbecausethe higher water contentmakes the glutenmoremobile, and this allows it toform long elastic strands without kneading. The dough also uses less yeast,becausethelongersittingtimesgivetheyeastmoretimetomultiply.Thedoughismadeusingwhattheauthorstermthe6-3-3-13rule.31Enoughdoughforeightloaves of bread can bemadewith 6 cups of water, 3 tablespoons of yeast, 3tablespoonsofsaltand13cupsofflour.

It is important to measure flour properly. You use a dry measuring cup,spoontheflourfromthebagintothemeasuringcup,andthenlevelitwiththebackedgeof aknife.Thedifference in theweightof flour ina cupcanbeasmuch as 40% when using different techniques, so consistency of measuringtechniqueisimportant.

Spoon flour fromthebag into thedrymeasuringcupand then level itwiththebackedgeofaknife.

Thedoughisuniformlymoistened.

Thetechniqueformixingthedoughistoputthewaterinalargebowl,mixintheyeastandsalt, thenincorporatetheflouruntil it isuniformlymoist.Youcanuseadoughhookonamixer,oryourhands.Oncethedoughisthoroughlymoistened,leaveitcoveredwithakitchentoweltorisefortwoorthreehours.Then,coverthedoughwithplasticwrapandputitintherefrigerator.Thedoughcannowbeusedanytimefromthreehourstotwoweeksaftermaking.

Whenyourunoutofdoughandneedtomakemore,don’twashouttheolddough, just incorporate whatever is left over, whether a tiny bit or a goodhandful,intothenewdough.Thisway,overtime,yourbreadwillaccumulateauniquesourdoughflavorthatismissingfromthefirstfewloaves.

Thedoughbeforebeingplacedintherefrigerator.

MakingtheBreadIt literally couldn’t get any simpler. Flour your pizza peel so the doughwon’tsticktoit,takeoutyourcontainerofdoughanduseaserratedknifetocutoffahunklargeenoughtofillbothhands.Ifyourhandsaresmallish,useenoughtofillyourhandstwice.

Flour thedoughso itdoesn’t stickandshape it intoaball. (Bread in thisshapeiscalleda“boule.”)

Theproperamountofdoughforaloafofbread.

Shapingtheboulebystretchingthedoughfromthetoparoundthesidestothebottom.

Theshallowslashesallowthebreadtoexpandwithoutcracking.

Slidingthebouleontothepreheatedbakingstone.

Then,putitonyourpizzapeeltoriseandputafewshallowslashesinthetoptoallowforexpansionduringbaking.Setyourtimerfortwentyminutes.

Attheendoftwentyminutes,putyourbakingstoneintheovenandpreheatthe oven to 450 degrees and put the empty broiler pan on the rack under thestone. Set your timer for another twentyminutes. All together, this will haveallowedfortyminutesforthedoughtorise.

Whenthetimeisup,pouracupofwaterintothebroilerpanandslidethebreaddoughfromthepizzapeelontothebakingstone.Youmayneedtouseabit of a jerking motion similar to what you see the cooks doing in a pizzarestaurant.

Closetheovenandsetyourtimerfor30minutes.Attheendof30minutes,removeyourbreadfromyourstoneandputitonawireracktocool.I’vefound

youcanbakeitforuptothreeminuteslongerforadarkercrustwithoutdangerofdryingitout.

Thoughthereissomewait timewiththistechniqueduringwhichyoucandootherthings,youractualhands-oninvolvementisonlyfiveminutes.Thisisevenfasterthanusingabreadmachine!

Variations

FrozenDoughInsteadof keeping the dough in the refrigerator you can freeze it in one-

poundchunks.Allowthechunks todefrostovernight in therefrigeratorbeforeusing them. This is handy if you don’t eat much bread but want to have itavailablewithminimalfuss.

Coolingonawirerackpreservesthecrunchinessofthebottomcrust.

DifferentFlourAll-purpose flour is what the recipe usually uses, but you can substitute

bread flouror aportion (up tohalf the total flour)withwholewheat flour forvariationsintasteandtexture.Therecipeisprettyforgiving.

SourdoughUsing thismethod, over time your breadwill develop its own sourdough

culture. But you can use the instructions in the next chapter for making asourdoughculture,andsubstitutethreecupsofsourdoughcultureforoneofthetablespoonsofyeast.

DifferentShapesandAddedIngredientsDough is dough. By incorporating other ingredients or shaping it

differently, you can use it tomake cinnamon buns, donuts, dinner rolls, pizzacrust,andmore.

Pizzacrust is justamatterofshape.Cutoffaone-poundpieceofdough,coatitwithfloursoitdoesn’tstick,androllitout.Allowtosittwentyminutes.Youcankeepitonaflouredpizzapeelasyouaddtheotheringredients,andthenslideyourpizzaontothebakingstoneinapreheated450degreeoven.Cookfor15–20minutes,untilthecheeseisgoldenbrown.

Cinnamonbunsrequiretheadditionofsomesugar,fat,andcinnamon.Takeaone-poundpieceofdough,useyourhands to incorporate two tablespoonsofcooking oil, four tablespoons of sugar, and½ teaspoon of cinnamon.Roll outflat, cut into ribbons, and then roll up the ribbons into close spirals. Sprinklewith sugar and cinnamon, allow to rest for twentyminutes, and then cook fortwentyminutesinapreheated450-degreeoven.

Donuts require the addition of four tablespoons of sugar per pound ofdough and any other spices you prefer. Roll the dough into one-inch balls orshape them like regular donuts if you are more ambitious. Allow to rise fortwentyminutes.Deepfryat350degreesforfifteenminutes.Takeout,drain,andservewarm.

Dinner rolls with this dough aren’t as light and fine-grained as with astandardsweetrollrecipe,buttheyarestillquitegood.Rollthedoughintotwo-inchballs,placeonacookiesheet,patdownabit,letrestforfortyminutes,thenbakefortwentyminutesinapreheated400-degreeoven.

29Cordain,L.(2010),ThePaleoDiet,RevisedEdition30Wolf,R.(2010),ThePaleoSolution:TheOriginalHumanDiet31Hertzberg,J.&Francois,Z.(2008-2009),“FiveMinutesaDayforFreshBakedBread,”MotherEarthNews,December2008—January2009

16

Breadon-the-gowithYourBreadMachine

Ifyoulikebread,aboutthecoolestdeviceintheworldisabreadmachine.Igotmyfirstoneatapawnshopfor$25completewithamanual,andsomeofmydaughter’s earliestmemories include eatingpeanutbutter on freshly-slicedhotbreadfromthebreadmachine.

Naturally,thebreadfromabreadmachinecontainsfarfewerquestionableingredientsthanmostbreadfromthestore.Itcertainlydoesn’tcontainthewidearray of emulsifiers, preservatives, dough conditioners, and similar chemicalsnecessaryformakinganddistributingbreadonan industrialscale. Inaddition,you can control the quality of the ingredients by using organic butter, wholewheatflour,andsoforth.Theresultstastedramaticallybetterthanstorebread.

Many people buy breadmachineswith the best of intentions, but after acoupleofusestheywindupforgotteninthebackofaclosetsomewhere.Thereareacoupleofreasonsforthisthatareeasilyremedied.

Themost powerful argument formaking your own bread is the ingredientlabelonthebreadatthestore.

Thefirstreasonisthateventhoughabreadmachinedoesawaywithalotofthe work involved in making bread, it can take twenty minutes to gather theingredients andanother fiveor ten toput them in. I realize thatdoesn’t soundlikemuch, but the fact is that time is in short supply formost families and a

thirty-minuteprojectisabouttwentyfiveminutestoolong.Thesecondreasonisthatbreadmachinebreadishardtocutintouniform

slices for sandwiches. Inexpensive fixtures aremanufactured thatmake slicingyourbreadabreeze,but such fixturesarenever includedwithbreadmachinesandtheyareseldomifeverdisplayedinstoreswheretheyareeasytofind.Thelackofabilitytouniformlyslicebreadfromthemachinelimitsitsutility.

Asaresult,breadmachinesaretoooftenreservedforspecialoccasions,andstore-boughtbreadisusedday-to-dayforsandwichesandthelike.

InthischapterIamgoingtodescribeaverysimplemethodthatwillallowyoutomakebreadanytimeinjustfiveminutesandpointyouinthedirectionofguides tohelpyousliceyourbread. Inaddition, Iamgoing toexplainhowtomakeandusesourdoughstarteralongwiththeingredientsandprinciplesusedtoformulatebreadmachinerecipes.Thisway,youwillbewell-equippedtomakeyourownrecipesevenifyouboughtyourbreadmachinewithoutamanualatayardsale.

BreadMachinesSince their invention in 1986, there has been a profusion of makes andmodelsofbreadmachineswithawidearrayoffeatures.Overtime,theirrelativecosthasdroppedasfeatureshaveincreased.Mycurrentbreadmachineevenhascyclesformakingjam,amongotherthings.Youcanspendalotofmoneyonabreadmachine—asmuch as $300.But unless you are using it for specializedbreads,youwilldofinewitha$100model.

Ingeneral,abreadmachinehastimedcyclesforpreheatingingredientstooptimal temperatures, mixing the dough, and for rising, punch-down, andbaking.Howthesearetimeddependsonthetypeofbreadyouaremakingandhowdarkyou’dlikethecrust.Mostmachineshaveprovisionforeasilyselectingthepropersettingsforthemorecommontypesofbread.

Thisinexpensivebreadmachinehasmorefeaturesthanyou’lleverneed.

Breadmachineshaveshortcords.This isallegedly(accordingtooneusermanualIread)tokeeppeoplefromtrippingonthem.Inpractice,itmeansyouhavetolocatethemnearanelectricaloutlet.Theycontainanon-stickpan,andinthe center of thepan is a paddle formixing thedough.Sometimes thepaddlegetsenmeshed in thebreadso that it can’tbeeasily removedwithout losingasmallchunkofbread,butsprayingitwithabitofnon-stickcookingspraybeforeputting in the ingredients helps. Ingredients are added to the bread pan withliquidsfirst,thenmixeddryingredients,yeast,andoil(orbutter)inthatorder.

TheonefeatureinabreadmachineIbelieveismostusefulistheabilitytostartthebread-makingprocessatafuturetime.Evenoncealltheingredientsareinthepan,itcaneasilytakeoverthreehoursforthebreadtobefinished.Ifyougethomeat6PM,takecareofafewthingsandthenstartthebreadat6:30PM,itwill be 10PM before the bread is ready. That just doesn’twork.You need theability to dump the ingredients in the pan and push a few buttons before youhead off towork and arrive home to the smell of bread already baking.Mostbreadmakershavethisfeature,butcheckbeforeyoubuyone.

IngredientsArtisanbreadusesjustfouringredients:flour,water,salt,andyeast.Breadmadeinbreadmachinesalsoincludesoil,sugar,powderedmilk,andsometimeseggs.To some extent the purposes of these ingredients iswell-known, but I’dliketoexpandonthemalittle.

FlourWheatflourisavailableinself-rising,all-purpose,bread,andwholewheat

varieties.Avoidself-risingfloursformakingyeastbreadsastheleaveningtheyalready contain wouldmost certainly ruin the bread. Though bread flour willmakeafiner-texturedbreadandithasabitmoreglutenprotein,itisn’tnecessaryfor making bread, although some recipes will specify it. All-purpose flour iswhatismostcommonlyusedfor...well...allthethingsforwhichflourisused,includingmakingbread.Wholewheatflourisflourmadefromthewholewheatkernel.

Flour is the heart of bread because it is what forms the dough. And thegluten inwheat flour iswhatmakes leavenedbreadsodelightful.Othergrainscontainglutentovariousdegrees—barleyandryeparticularly.Butinanybread(exceptforgluten-freebreads)wheatflourwillbethecoreingredientwithanyotherflourservingonlyasanadjunct.

WaterYouwant tousegoodwater formakingyourbread. Ifyourwater isbad,

filteritwithreverseosmosisorusebottledwater.

SaltSaltisusedinbreadfortwopurposes.Thefirstistolimittheactivityofthe

yeastsoyoudon’twindupwithhugeairgaps inyourbread.Thesecondis tostrengthen thegluten.Thoughmany recipes andauthors state that non-iodizedsaltisbest,myresultshavebeenthesameusingseasalt,Celticseasalt,iodizedsalt, and non-iodized salt. The important thing is merely that the primaryingredientinyoursaltshouldbejustplainsalt:sodiumchloride.

YeastTheyeastusedforbreadisthesamespeciesasthatusedforwineandbeer,

but the specific variety has been selected for baking purposes. The yeast eatssugars andmakes alcohol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxidemakes thebubbles in the bread, and the alcohol evaporates during baking. You can usebreadmachineyeast,rapidriseyeast,orordinarybakingyeast.Allworkequallywell, and the only difference is that you need less of the rapid rise or breadmachine yeast than you would need of ordinary baking yeast. The followingtableletsyouinterchangetheminrecipes.

OrdinaryBakingYeast RapidRiseorBreadMachineYeast

¾tsp ½tsp

1tsp ¾tsp

1½tsp

1tsp

2¼tsp 1½tsp

1tbsp 2tsp

SugarBecausedoughusedinbreadmachinesisn’taswetasthatusedforartisan

breads and it doesn’t have enough time to autolyze, the yeast needs sugar inorder to leaven the bread.Any sugar not eaten by the yeast contributes to anaestheticallypleasinggolden-browncrust.Youcanusehoneyormolassesasasubstituteforsugar,butdon’ttrytouseartificialsweetenersbecauseyeastcan’tprocessthem.

FatsFatshelpmakebreadandcrustmore tenderandhelp thebreadstayfresh

longer.Usually,eitherahigh-qualityvegetableoilorbutter isused. Ifyouusebutterstraightfromtherefrigerator,cuttherequisitequantityintosmallchunkssothatthebreadmachinecanblenditintothedoughmoreeasily.

EggsEggs are used to give breads a soft, velvety texture. When eggs are

specified in recipes, large eggs should be used. Also, before an egg is used,allowittositatroomtemperatureforanhourorso.Eggsshouldneverbeusedin conjunctionwith a delay timer as allowing them to sit several hours in thebreadpanwillcausesalmonellaorotherdangerousbacteriatodevelop.Onlyusetheminrecipesyouarestartingimmediately.

Sourdough is a type of leavening consisting of symbiotically-pairedlactobacillus and yeast. Every sourdough is a little bit different, and somecultures have been passed down across generations since the 1700s or before.Sourdough starter is used in place of yeast, but it can also be used in tandemwithyeast.

Becausewildyeastsandlactobacillusareubiquitousinourenvironment,itis entirely feasible tomakeyourownsourdoughcompletely fromscratch, andI’ll cover that later in this chapter. You can also buy and propagatecommercially-madesourdoughcultures.

Whenyouareusingsourdoughcultureinplaceofyeastinarecipethatwillbe delayed in starting,mix the sourdoughwith thewater at the bottomof the

breadpanratherthanputtingthecultureontopoftheflourasyouwoulddowithdriedyeast.

CulturingandMaintainingSourdoughAs I’ve mentioned, you can readily make your own sourdough. Theprocedureiseasyenough,anditmakessenseifyouplantomakebreadatleastonceaweek. Ifyoudon’tplan tomakebread thatoften, then insteadofusingreal sourdough you can get something that tastes similar by adding ¼ tsp ofcitricacid(whichyoumayalreadyhaveformakingwine!)totheingredientsoftheloaf.

Tomakeyourownsourdoughculture,getafour-quartwide-mouthedglasscontainer.Addtwocupsofwater,3½cupsofflour,2¼teaspoonsofactivedryyeast,1tbspgranulatedsugar,andstiruntilsmooth.Coverloosely(notairtight)with plastic wrap, set in a warm place (70–80 degrees) for five days stirringthree timesaday.Over time, thestarterwillgrow,shrink,becomebubbly,getthinnerandevendevelopayellowliquidlayerontop.Justkeepstirringitthreetimes daily. At the end of five days, it should be obvious that you have anactively fermenting starter; cover with plastic and put in the fridge. It’s nowreadytouse.

This is a little bit hit-or-miss.Youwill usually end upwith a sourdoughstarter,buthowgoodittastesisanyone’sguessuntilyoutryit.Youmayormaynot get lucky. If you don’t, trying again is inexpensive.Everyweek, feed it ateaspoon of granulated sugar. Whenever you use a cup of sourdough starter,replacewithamixtureof½cupwater,½cupflourand1tspsugar.

If you plan to use sourdough a lot, you may benefit from buying acommercial starter culture. You can get good commercial cultures fromKingArthur Flour32 and Sourdoughs International.33 Another useful source ofsourdoughcultureisFriendsofCarl.34FriendsofCarlisagroupofpeoplewhohavecontinuedCarlGriffith’s traditionofprovidingsourdoughcultureforfreetoanyonewhoasks.Followtheinstructionsontheirwebsitetogetasourdoughculturedatingbackto1847.

If you buy a commercial starter culture (or obtain Carl’s), follow thedirectionswith theculture forstartingandmaintenancerather thanmygenericdirections. Each culture is acclimated a particular way, andmywaymay notworkbestforcertaincultures.

PrinciplesandPatternsinBreadMachineRecipesWhenIfirstgotabreadmachine,therecipesseemedrathermysterious.Theinstructionsemphasizedthecarethatmustbeexercisedinmeasuring,asthougha single errantmoleculewouldwreck thebread.But if you lookat somethinglong enough, patterns and rules emerge, and bread machine recipes are nodifferent.

Breadmachinerecipesmaintainaratioof1:3betweenwaterandflour.Thisisthecaseevenifarecipeuseshalfwhole-wheatflourandhalfregularorbreadflour.Youcanvarythisslightlyforawetterdough(e.g.increasethewaterbyordecreasetheflourby ),butyoushouldn’tmakeadrierdough.You’llwanttoincreasethevolumeofwaterby ifyouuseallwholegrain.

Salt is used at a ratio varying from 0.4–0.5 teaspoons of salt per cup offlour.ExceptinrecipessuchasFrenchbreadthatusenooil, theamountofoilused is identical to the amount of sugar used, and the amount of sugar variesfrom2–3teaspoonspercupofflour.Whenpowderedmilkisused,itisusedatarateofone toone-and-a-half teaspoonsper cupof flour.Theamountofbreadmachineorrapidriseyeastequalstheamountofsaltused.Ifsourdoughstarterisused,onecupisusedtoreplace1½teaspoonsofrapid-riseyeast,and½cupissubtractedfromtheamountofothernon-oilliquidsused.Liquidmilk,ifused,issubstitutedoneforonewithwaterforuptohalftheliquid.

That’sall.Theonlyotherconstraintisthatbreadmachinesareratedbytheweightoftheloavestheycanhandle.Theirbakingcyclesarecalculatedonthebasisofloavesofacertainweight,andtherecipehastobecompliantwiththosesizes. The basic form of bread machine recipes can be summed up in thefollowingtable.

BreadinaBagInMaximizingYourMiniFarm,Idescribedamethodforsettingasidefrozenmeals insuchawayas toavoidtheneedforeatingout.Suchamethodworksbecausepreparationtimeandcookingtimeareaboutthesamewithoutregardtoquantity. The difference in time for making four steaks instead of two isminuscule,sojustmakefoursoyoucanputthetwoyouaren’teatingtodayinthe freezer. If you do the samewith vegetables, in no time flat you’ll have astock of ready-made items that you can mix and match for a meal by justpopping them in the microwave. This is really easy, saves time, and mostimportantly saves money, because people spend as much as half their foodbudgeteatingoutduetoaperceivedlackoftimetomakemeals.

Thesameistrueofmakingbreadwithabreadmachine.Mostofyourtimeis spent in gathering ingredients, gathering the proper measuring tools, andlookingbackandforthattherecipe.Itdoesn’tseemlikemuch,butittakestheaverage person about twentyminutes—and thismight be twentyminutes theydon’thave.

Soinsteadofmakingupingredientsforasingleloafofbread,makeupallthedryingredientsforfouroreightloavesofbreadandsealtheminindividualbags.Thiswilltakeaboutfortyminutesinsteadoftwenty.Buttheper-loafcostintermsoftimewoulddropfromtwentyminutesaloaftofiveminutesaloaf.

All you do is set up four to eight bags, and then add in all the dryingredients.FirstputingredientXinalleightbags,thenputingredientYinalleightbags,etc.untildone.Putallofthedryingredientsbutyeastinallthebags,sealthem,andshakethemup.Inthisway,yougetridoftheneedforpre-mixingthedryingredientseachtimeyoumakealoafofbread.

Sliced bread is better for sandwiches.You can adjust the thickness byskippingslots.

In addition to your homemade bread mix, you usually only need threeingredients: water, butter, and yeast. That’s all.When you are ready to makebread,putthemeasuredamountofwaterinthebreadpan,dumpinyourmix,putthebutterandyeastontop,closethecover,andturniton.Comebacklaterandenjoyyourbread!

AsGoodasSlicedBreadAllyouneed to slicebreadeffectively,even intovery thinslices, isabreadslicing guide and a slicing knife. A bread slicing knife is designed with thespecificobjectiveof slicingbread, and it does sobetter than anyother sort ofknife.Theyaren’texpensive,soifyoueatbread,itisworthbuyingone.

There are a fewmodels of bread slicing guides available. I use a slicingguide called “BreadPal” but you could buy other versions or evenmake yourown.Thepictureshowshowstraightforwarditis.

The key to slicing bread is to let it cool first. Once it is cool, it slicesstraighterandwithlesstearing.Takeyourcooledloaf,putitintheslicingguide,anduseyourbreadslicingknifetoslicethebread.Nowyouhavebreadthatiseasilytoasted,usedforsandwiches,andalltheotherusesforwhichstore-boughtbreadisoftenpreferred.

Hannah’sHalfWholeWheatEarlierinthechapterImentionedmydaughterHannahenjoyingbreadfromthebreadmachine.Hereistherecipefora1.5-poundloafofherfavoritebread:

Ingredients

1cup+1Tbsp Warmwater1Tbsp Honey1½Tbsp Packedbrownsugar1½cups Breadflour1½cups Whole-wheatflour1½tsp Salt1Tbsp Powderedmilk1½tsp Breadmachineyeast

2Tbsp Butter

ProcedurePre-mix the dry ingredients (except the yeast) using awhisk or fork in a

bowl.Heatthewaterbriefly(20–30seconds)inthemicrowave.Addthehoneytothewaterandpourthewaterintothebreadpan.Addthedryingredientstothebreadpan.Cutthebutterintofourtoeightssmallchunksanddistributeevenlyaround the dry ingredients.Make a small indentation in the center of the dryingredients,andputtheyeastthere.Setthebreadmachineforwholewheat,lightcrustandactivate.

Whenbread is done, remove from thebreadmachine (Do thiswithovenglovesbecausethebreadpanishot!),waituntilitiscoolenoughtohandlebutstillwarm, then slice into thick chunks. Slather the chunkswith enough freshcreamybutterorpeanutbuttertomakeacardiologistwince,andservesteaming.

32KingArthurFlour,1-800-827-6836,www.kingarthurflour.com33SourdoughsInternational,1-208-382-4828,www.sourdo.com34FriendsofCarl,OregonTrailSourdoughP.O.Box321lefferson,MD21755USA,http://carlsfriends.net

Conclusion

Asaculture,onaverage,wespendalotofmoneyonbread,cheese,wine,andbeer.We don’t usually spend as much on vinegar, but the vinegar we buy isusuallyofdecidedlyinferiorquality.

Self-sufficiencyhasalotofbenefits.Thefirstisthatitsavesyoumoney.Ifyoueatbreadordrinkwineorbeer,knowinghowtomakeyourowncouldsaveyouhundredsofdollarsayear. Ifyouusuallyconsumeall three, it couldsaveyouthousandsofdollarsayear.Thosedollarsrepresenttimethatcouldbebetterinvestedelsewhere.Evenifsomeofthattimeisspentinmakingthefoods,thattimeisstillathomewhereyouhaveaccesstoyourfamilyandyourfamilyhasaccesstoyou.Thedollarsyousavemakeyoulessdependentonthedecisionsofanemployerthathasnoloyaltytoyou.Thedollarsyousavecanbeusedtopayoffdebtssoyouhavegreaterfreedom,tofundachild’seducation,ortoassureasecureretirement.

Thesecondbenefit is in thequalityof thefood.Inoneof thechaptersonbread I includedapictureof the ingredient label for some typicalbread.Yourown breadwon’t contain ingredientswith six syllables. Furthermore, you cancontrol thequalityof the ingredientsyouuse,and thecleanlinessofyourownprocedures.Becauseyouhaveanactualstakeinthequalityofwhatyouproduceandyourgoalisyourownfamily’shealth,youaren’tgoingtoskirttherulesjusttobemoreefficientormakeanextraone-tenthofapennyperloaforbottle.Youcanmakeyourownwinefromappletreesinyourbackyardthatyouknowforafacthaveneverbeen touchedwithanartificialpesticide rather than relyingonthehonestyofpeopleyouhavenevermet.Thesinglepersonyoucantrustwithyourhealthmorethananyoneelseisyou.

Thethirdbenefitisthatyoucancreateuniqueitemsofsuperiorqualityorunique characteristics that simply cannot be purchased at any price.Exampleswould be my wine made from pears, apples, and honey or vinegar producedfromsuchawine.Youwillneverfindanythinglikeitanywhere,anditsqualityissuperior.

Thefinalbenefitisthemostintangibleandthemostimportant.Knowledgeispower.Thereisnotonlyacertainpridethatcomesfromtakingcontrolofyourowndestinybyproducingyourownfood,butalsoafeelingofsecurity.Weliveinanuncertainworld.Terroristattacks,regulations,worldmarkets,tidalwaves,

earthquakes, andmelted nuclear reactor cores can affect us directly and affectour food supply.Most items thatwe eat have traveled at least 1,000miles intractortrailerspoweredbypetroleum,andthepriceofpetroleumcouldexplodeanytimeduetothevolatilityofeventsinoil-producingregions.

With the information in this book and a little bit of practice to buildconfidence, you could literally start your own winery or bakery. If you grewbarley,youcouldstartyourownbrewery.Youcouldmakeyourowncheesewithmilk from a neighbor’s cow, and trade that cheese to another neighbor for ahammer.Thisisthesortofknowledgethatcanbeappliedeverydaytosimplyimprove your finances and the quality of your food, but also gives youconfidence that you canprovide for your familynomatterwhat. It’s themostvaluableaspectofself-sufficiency,andthereasonwhyIwrotethisbook.Ihopeyouhave enjoyed reading the book and applying the knowledge asmuch as Ihaveenjoyedsharingit.

BrettMarkhamNewIpswich,NewHampshire

2012

Index

AAceticacidbacteria(AAB),159–161Acetification,51Acidblend,30Acidityofwine,46–47

adjusting,48–51measuring,47–48

Alcohols,13–15Aldehydes,15–16Aminoacids,16–17a-amylases,111–112β-amylases,112Artisanbread.SeeBreadAtomicweight,10Avogadro’sNumber,5,10

BBeer

bottlingandcarbonation,122–123clarificationof,120–121colorof,132–133conditioningof,120equipmentsformaking,101–102

airlocks,98autosiphon,98beerbottles,100bottlingbucket,100bottlingwand,100brewpot,94–95capper,99grainmill,101hydrometer,99lauteringtun,93–94mashtun,93pHmeter,99primaryfermenter,96primingbucket,96–97propaneburner,95rackingtube,98secondaryfermenter,97–98thermometer,99winethief,100wortaerator,98–99wortchiller,95–96

essentialsof,91–92fermentation,119finalgravity(FG)of,119hopsin,117–119,133–137ingredientsof,107

adjunctgrains,129–130adjunctsugar,130–131amylaseenzyme,104basemalt,126–128calciumsulfate,102–103citricacid,102clarifyingagents,104–105magnesiumsulfate,102–103malicacid,102malt,126pecticenzyme,103phosphoricacid,103potassiumhydroxide,103specialtymalts,128sulfite,105tartaicacid,102yeast,105–107,137–139yeastenergizer,105

originalgravity(OG)of,119,135recipesof,139–142secondaryfermentationandlagering,121–122typesof,91

Blueberrywine,49–50Bread,205–207

doughin,208–209equipmentforpreparing,207–208five-minutemethod,207frozendough,210ingredientsof,206,215–218machines,213–215,219–220making,209–210recipesof,219–220,222shapes,211sliced,221–222

sourdough,211,217–219Brewing,91–92

techniquesbottlingyourbeer,151–154labeling,154primaryfermenter,146–149racking,149–151secondaryfermenter,149–151

waterusedfor,113–117Brochet,Frederic,21

CCampdentablets,32,54,69–70,72,114

Cheese,176categoriesof,179cheddaringprocess,198–201equipmentformaking,179–183frombuttermilk,189–190frommilk,176–178fromyogurt,190–191ingredientsformakingcalciumchloride,183

flakedorcanningsalt,183–184lemons,183rennet,176,185–186starterculture,184–185tartaricacid,183vinegar,183

maintainingtemperatures,201mesophilicstarter,189–190,196–198minimallyaged,196–198soft

bydirectacidification,192–193byyogurtstarterculture,193–196

thermophilicstarterculture,190–191Cheesewax,181–182Chemicalformulas,8–9Cherrywine,50,74–75Chloramines,114Chlorine,114Citricacid,30,46,51,102Compounds,8–9,37Conservationofmatter,7–8Crystalmalts,128

DDensity,11–12,38Diastaticpower,126–130Dimethylsulfide(DMS),126–127Dough,bread,208–209

EElements,8

periodictableof,9Empiricalformulas,9–10Enzymes,109–112Esters,15

FFarmer’scheese,193–196Fermentationinhibitor,31–32Fortification,32,40,81–83

GGelatin,45,121Gluten,206–207Grapes,22,30–31,60β-glucanases,111

HHydrometer,11–12,99

IIodinetest,113

KKetones,15–16

LLacticacid,4,80,176,184,206Lactobacillus,184,206Lipids,53Lovibond,126

MMalicacids,30,80,102Malolacticfermentation,80–81Malts,110–112,126,128Mashing,112–113Matter,conservationof,7–8Meads,34,65Mesophiliccheese,189–190,196–198Metheglin,65Minerals,115–117Mixtures,8Molecularweight,10,37MonadnockCheddarcheese,198–201

NNewIpswichJackcheese,196–198Normality,10–11

OOakaging,83–84Organicacids,14–15,46Organiccompounds,12–13

PPathogenicbacteria,44

Pecticenzyme,31,51–52,74,78,103Periodictableofelements,9pH,12,43,114–115pHmeter,47–48,99,162Polyphenols,43Portwines,32,82Potassiumcarbonate,49Potassiummetabisulfite,25,32,54,84,98,105Potassiumsorbate,31Potentialextract,131–132Precipitation,43Primaryfermentation,23–24,69–70,96–97,104,120–123,146–149Proteases,111Proteins,16–17,175Pyment,65

QQuesoBlancocheese,192–193

RRackingtube,26,70–71,98RedWineHeadache,53Rennet,176,185Rippermethod,55

SSecondaryfermentation,23–25,71–72,97–98,104,120–122,149–150Sherrywines,82Soleraaging,84–85Solutions,8Specificgravity,11–12,41,43,69

ofbeer,119–120weightmethodofdetermining,39–40

Structuralformulas,9–10,15Sugar,22,38,217

adjusting,40–42measuring,38–40sourcesof,64–65

Sulfites,32,53–54,105testing,54–55,78–80

TTannins,12–13,30–31,43–45,75,170Tartaricacid,30,102,183Thermometer,99,182Thiamine,32,53,105Titration,47

V

Vinegar,159,183aging,170–171conversionofethanolto,161dressing,172equpimentformakingcheesecloth,166–167

rubberbands,166–167vinegarcrock,165–166vinegarraft,167

herbal,171–172incanning,162making,168–170

Vitisviniferagrapes,22–23,32,38

WWine

acidityof,46–47adjusting,48–51measuring,47–48

pectins,51–52sugarlevels

adjusting,40–42measuring,38–40

sulfite,53–54testing,54–55,78–80

tannins,43–45Winemaking

cleanlinessandsanitation,65–66equipment,29–30

airlocks,25–26corkers,26–27nylonstrainingbags,28primaryfermenter,24rackingtube,26,70–71secondaryfer-menter,24–25winebottles,28–29winethief,27–28

ingredientsof,30–35fruits,60–61herbs,63juices,61–62sourcesofsugar,64–65spices,63–64vegetables,62–63

processof,37–38recipesfor,66–68,73–74techniques,23

bottlingwine,72–73fortification,81–83malolacticfermentation,80–81oakaging,83–84primaryfermentation,69–70

racking,70–71secondaryfermentation,71–72soleraaging,84–85

withoutsulfites,77–78

YYeast,22,32,55–56,74,78,105–106,137–138,216–217

FermentisSafBrewS-33DryAle,106LalvinD-47,33LalvinICV-D254,33–34RedStarMontrachet,33RedStarPasteurChampagne,33

Wyeast1056AmericanAle,106–107Wyeast1084IrishAle,107Wyeast4632DryMead,34Yeastenergizer,32,52–53,105Yeastnutrient,52–53Yogurt,184–185,190–191

TableofContentsHalftitleTitleCopyrightContentsAcknowledgmentsPartIIntroductoryConsiderations

Chapter1IntroductiontoFermentedFoodsChapter2BasicChemistryforFermentation

PartIIMakingWineChapter3OverviewofWinemakingChapter4TheScienceofWineChapter5IngredientsandTechniquesChapter6AdvancedTechniquesinWinemaking

PartIIIBeerfromSeedtoGlassChapter7OverviewofBeerMakingChapter8TheScienceofBeerChapter9BeerIngredientsandRecipesChapter10BrewingTechniques

PartIV:VinegarfromBeerandWineChapter11PrinciplesandMaterialsforVinegarChapter12VinegarMakingTechniques

PartV:CheeseMakingChapter13Cheese:IngredientsandEquipmentChapter14PracticalCheeseMakingTechniques

PartVI:BreadforEveryOccasionChapter15ArtisanBreadsontheStoneChapter16Breadon-the-gowithYourBreadMachine

ConclusionIndex