miniature guide to critical thinking

8/12/2019 Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking

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The Miniature Guideto

A nnouncing t he

2 8 t h A n n u a l I n

t e r n a t i o n a l C o n

f e r e n c e o n

C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n

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N e a r U n i v e r s i t y

o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B

e r k e l e y J u l y 1 9 2 4, 2 0 0

8

S P E C IA L E D

I T I O N

Critical ThinkingC ON CE PTS A N D T O O L S

By Dr. Richard Pauland

Dr. Linda Elder

The Foundation for Critical Thinkingwww.criticalthinking.org

[email protected]

Clien t: FCT Proof 5 P roof 6 P roof 7 P roof 8

Projec tTitle:

Concepts/Tools Conf2008 (07-069)

12/3/0711:35a

12/3/0712:40p

12/3/073:20p

12/4/071:15p
http:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orgmailto:[email protected]:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orgmailto:[email protected]


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P lease join us for the

28th Annual InternationalConference on Critical Thinking

Near University of California at Berkeley July 19 24, 2008

For more than 25 years, the Foundation For Critical Thinkinghas emphasized the importance of teaching for critical thinkingin a strong, rather than a weak, sense. We are committed to a clearand substantive concept of critical thinking (rather than one thatis ill-dened); a concept that interfaces well wwith the disciplines,that applies directly to the needs of everyday and professional life,that emphasizes the affective as well as the cognitive dimensions ofthought. We advocate a concept of critical thinking that organizesinstruction in every subject area at every educational level, aroundit, and on it, and through it. One implication of such an emphasis isthis: that only through long-term planning can a substantive conceptof critical thinking take root in instruction and learning. We needshort-term strategies, of course. But without long-term planningnothing substantial occurs. Deep learning does not result.

The 28th International Conference will focus onT he A rt of T eaching for I ntellectual E ngagemen t.

Intellectually engaged students take ownership of content throughactively thinking it through, value questions more than answers, seekunderstanding over rote memorization. As an integral part of theseprocesses, students learn how to learn, using disciplined reading,writing, speaking, and listening as modalities in learning. In thesame spirit, all conference sessions will be interactiveintegratingreading, writing, and teaching as modes for internalizing the ideas.

To register, visit our website: www.criticalthinking.orgOr call toll-free 800.833.3645.


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1The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

Contents

Why Critical Thinking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Elements of Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

A Checklist for Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Questions Using the Elements of Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Three Levels of Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Universal Intellectual Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Template for Analyzing the Logic of Articles and Textbooks . . . . . . 11

Criteria for Evaluating Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Essential Intellectual Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Three Kinds of Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

A Template for Problem-Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Analyzing and Assessing Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

What Critical Thinkers Routinely Do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Stages of Critical Thinking Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

The Problem of Egocentric Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

The Problem of Sociocentric Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Envisioning Critical Societies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Fifth Edition 2008 Foundation for Critical Thinking Press www.criticalthinking.org
http:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orghttp:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.org


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2 The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem:Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left toitself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down right prejudiced.Yetthe quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build dependsprecisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both inmoney and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be system-atically cultivated.

A Denition:Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view toimproving it.

The Result:A well cultivated critical thinker: raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely; gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it

effectively; comes to well reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against

relevant criteria and standards; thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing

and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practicalconsequences; and

communicates effectively with others in guring out solutions to complexproblems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self directed, self disciplined, self monitored,and self corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellenceand mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication andproblem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our native egocen-trism and sociocentrism.

2008 Foundation for Critical Thinking Press www.criticalthinking.org


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The Elements of Thought

Point of Viewframes of reference,

perspectives,orientations

Implications andConsequences Elements

of Assumptions Thoughtpresuppositions,axioms, taking forgranted

Concepts

theories,denitions, laws,principles, models

Purposegoals,objectives

Question at issueproblem, issue

Informationdata, facts,observations,experiences

Interpretationand Inferenceconclusions,solutions

Used With Sensitivity to Universal Intellectual Standards

Clarity Accuracy Depth Breadth SignicancePrecisionRelevance



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A Checklist for Reasoning

1) All reasoning has a PURPOSE. State your purpose clearly. Distinguish your purpose from related purposes. Check periodically to be sure you are still on target. Choose signicant and realistic purposes.

2) All reasoning is an attempt to FIGURE something out, to settle someQUESTION, solve some PROBLEM. State the question at issue clearly and precisely. Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope. Break the question into sub questions. Distinguish questions that have denitive answers from those that

are a matter of opinion and from those that require consideration of

multiple viewpoints.

3) All reasoning is based on ASSUMPTIONS. Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they

are justiable. Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view.

4) All reasoning is done from some POINT OF VIEW. Identify your point of view. Seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well

as weaknesses. Strive to be fairminded in evaluating all points of view.



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5) All reasoning is based on DATA, INFORMATION and EVIDENCE. Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have. Search for information that opposes your position as well as

information that supports it. Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate, and relevant

to the question at issue. Make sure you have gathered sufcient information.

6) All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS andIDEAS. Identify key concepts and explain them clearly. Consider alternative concepts or alternative denitions of concepts. Make sure you are using concepts with care and precision.

7) All reasoning contains INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we

draw CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data. Infer only what the evidence implies. Check inferences for their consistency with each other. Identify assumptions that lead to inferences.

8) All reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICATIONS andCONSEQUENCES.

Trace the implications and consequences that follow fromyour reasoning.

Search for negative as well as positive implications. Consider all possible consequences.



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Questions Using the Elements of Thought(in a paper, an activity, a reading assignment...)

Purpose: What am I trying to accomplish?What is my central aim? My purpose?

Questions: What question am I raising?What question am I addressing?Am I considering the complexities in the question?

Information: What information am I using in coming to that conclusion?What experience have I had to support this claim?What information do I need to settle the question?

Inferences/Conclusions:

How did I reach this conclusion?Is there another way to interpret the information?

Concepts: What is the main idea here?Can I explain this idea?

Assumptions: What am I taking for granted?What assumption has led me to that conclusion?

Implications/

Consequences:

If someone accepted my position, what would be the

implications?What am I implying?

Points of View: From what point of view am I looking at this issue?Is there another point of view I should consider?



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Three Levels of Thought

Level 3:Highest Order Thinking

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Level 2:Higher Order Thinking

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Level 1:Lower Order Thinking

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Lower order thinking is often distinguished from higher orderthinking. But higher order thinking can be inconsistent in quality. Itcan be fair or unfair. To think at the highest level of quality, we need

not only intellectual skills, but intellectual traits as well.



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Universal Intellectual Standards:And questions that can be used to apply them

Universal intellectual standards are standards which should be applied to thinking toensure its quality. To be learned they must be taught explicitly. The ultimate goal, then, isfor these standards to become infused in the thinking of students, forming part of theirinner voice, guiding them to reason better.

Clarity:Could you elaborate further on that point? Could you express that point in another way?Could you give me an illustration? Could you give me an example?

Clarity is a gateway standard. If a statement is unclear, we cannot determinewhether it is accurate or relevant. In fact, we cannot tell anything about it because wedont yet know what it is saying. For example, the question What can be done about theeducation system in America? is unclear. In order to adequately address the question,we would need to have a clearer understanding of what the person asking the question isconsidering the problem to be. A clearer question might be What can educators do toensure that students learn the skills and abilities which help them function successfullyon the job and in their daily decision making?

Accuracy:Is that really true? How could we check that? How could we nd out if that is true?

A statement can be clear but not accurate, as in Most dogs are over 300 pounds inweight.

Precision:Could you give me more details? Could you be more specic?

A statement can be both clear and accurate, but not precise, as in Jack is over-weight. (We dont know how overweight Jack is, one pound or 500 pounds.)

Relevance:How is that connected to the question? How does that bear on the issue?

A statement can be clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question atissue. For example, students often think that the amount of effort they put into a courseshould be used in raising their grade in a course. Often, however,effort does notmeasure the quality of student learning, and when that is so, effort is irrelevant to theirappropriate grade.



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Depth:How does your answer address the complexities in the question? How are you taking

into account the problems in the question? Are you dealing with the most signicantfactors?A statement can be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant, but supercial (that is, lack

depth). For example, the statement Just Say No, which is often used to discourage chil-dren and teens from using drugs, is clear, accurate, precise, and relevant. Nevertheless, itlacks depth because it treats an extremely complex issue, the pervasive problem of druguse among young people, supercially. It fails to deal with the complexities of the issue.

Breadth:Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there another way to look at this ques-tion? What would this look like from a conservative standpoint? What would this looklike from the point of view of?

A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and deep, but lackbreadth (as in an argument from either the conservative or liberal standpoints whichgets deeply into an issue, but only recognizes the insights of one side of the question).

Logic:Does this really make sense? Does that follow from what you said? How does that follow?Before you implied this and now you are saying that, I dont see how both can be true.

When we think, we bring a variety of thoughts together into some order. When thecombination of thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, thethinking is logical.When the combination is not mutually supporting, is contradictoryin some sense, or does not make sense, the combination is not logical.

Fairness:Are we considering all relevant viewpoints in good faith? Are we distorting some infor-mation to maintain our biased perspective? Are we more concerned about our vestedinterests than the common good?

We naturally think from our own perspective, from a point of view which tends

to privilege our position. Fairness implies the treating of all relevant viewpoints alikewithout reference to ones own feelings or interests. Because we tend to be biased infavor of our own viewpoint, it is important to keep the standard of fairness at the fore-front of our thinking. This is especially important when the situation may call on us tosee things we dont want to see, or give something up that we want to hold onto.



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Template for Analyzing the Logic of an Article

Take an article that you have been assigned to read for class, completing thelogic of it using the template below. This template can be modied foranalyzing the logic of a chapter in a textbook.

The Logic of (name of the article)

1) The main purpose of this article is ________________________________.(State as accurately as possible the authors purpose for writing the article.)

2) The key question that the author is addressing is ____________________.(Figure out the key question in the mind of the author when s/he wrote the article.)

3) The most important information in this article is ___________________.(Figure out the facts, experiences, data the author is using to support her/hisconclusions.)

4) The main inferences/conclusions in this article are __________________.(Identify the key conclusions the author comes to and presents in the article.)

5) The key concept(s) we need to understand in this article is (are) ____________.By these concepts the author means _________________________.(Figure out the most important ideas you would have to understand in order tounderstand the authors line of reasoning.)

6) The main assumption(s) underlying the authors thinking is (are) ___________.(Figure out what the author is taking for granted [that might be questioned].)

7a) If we take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are ______________.(What consequences are likely to follow if people take the authors line of reasoningseriously?)

7b) If we fail to take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are __________.(What consequences are likely to follow if people ignore the authors reasoning?)

8) The main point(s) of view presented in this article is (are) _________________.(What is the author looking at, and how is s/he seeing it?)



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Criteria for Evaluating Reasoning

1. Purpose:What is the purpose of the reasoner? Is the purpose clearlystated or clearly implied? Is it justiable?

2. Question:Is the question at issue well stated? Is it clear and unbiased?Does the expression of the question do justice to the complexity of thematter at issue? Are the question and purpose directly relevant to eachother?

3. Information: Does the writer cite relevant evidence, experiences, and/orinformation essential to the issue? Is the information accurate? Does thewriter address the complexities of the issue?

4. Concepts:Does the writer clarify key concepts when necessary? Are theconcepts used justiably?

5. Assumptions:Does the writer show a sensitivity to what he or she istaking for granted or assuming? (Insofar as those assumptions mightreasonably be questioned?) Does the writer use questionable assump-tions without addressing problems which might be inherent in thoseassumptions?

6. Inferences:Does the writer develop a line of reasoning explaining wellhow s/he is arriving at her or his main conclusions?

7. Point of View:Does the writer show a sensitivity to alternative relevant

points of view or lines of reasoning? Does s/he consider and respond toobjections framed from other relevant points of view?

8. Implications: Does the writer show a sensitivity to the implications andconsequences of the position s/he is taking?



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The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools 13

IntellectualIntegrity

Intellectual IntellectualAutonomy Humility

Intellectual Intellectual CondenceEmpathy Traits or Virtues in Reason

Intellectual IntellectualCourage Perseverance

Fairmindedness



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Essential Intellectual Traits

Intellectual Humility vs Intellectual ArroganceHaving a consciousness of the limits of ones knowledge, including a sensitivity tocircumstances in which ones native egocentrism is likely to function self deceptively;sensitivity to bias, prejudice and limitations of ones viewpoint. Intellectual humilitydepends on recognizing that one should not claim more than one actually knows. It doesnot imply spinelessness or submissiveness. It implies the lack of intellectual pretentious-ness, boastfulness, or conceit, combined with insight into the logical foundations, or lackof such foundations, of ones beliefs.

Intellectual Courage vs Intellectual CowardiceHaving a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs or viewpointstoward which we have strong negative emotions and to which we have not given aserious hearing. This courage is connected with the recognition that ideas considereddangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justied (in whole or in part) and thatconclusions and beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false or misleading. To deter-mine for ourselves which is which, we must not passively and uncritically accept whatwe have learned. Intellectual courage comes into play here, because inevitably we will

come to see some truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and distortionor falsity in some ideas strongly held in our social group. We need courage to be true toour own thinking in such circumstances. The penalties for nonconformity can be severe.

Intellectual Empathy vs Intellectual Narrow-mindednessHaving a consciousness of the need to imaginatively put oneself in the place of others inorder to genuinely understand them, which requires the consciousness of our egocentrictendency to identify truth with our immediate perceptions of long standing thought orbelief. This trait correlates with the ability to reconstruct accurately the viewpoints and

reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other thanour own.This trait also correlates with the willingness to remember occasions when wewere wrong in the past despite an intense conviction that we were right, and with theability to imagine our being similarly deceived in a case at hand.



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Intellectual Autonomy vs Intellectual ConformityHaving rational control of ones beliefs, values, and inferences. The ideal of critical

thinking is to learn to think for oneself, to gain command over ones thought processes.It entails a commitment to analyzing and evaluating beliefs on the basis of reason andevidence, to question when it is rational to question, to believe when it is rational tobelieve, and to conform when it is rational to conform.

Intellectual Integrity vs Intellectual HypocrisyRecognition of the need to be true to ones own thinking; to be consistent in theintellectual standards one applies; to hold ones self to the same rigorous standards ofevidence and proof to which one holds ones antagonists; to practice what one advocates

for others; and to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in ones own thoughtand action.

Intellectual Perseverance vs Intellectual LazinessHaving a consciousness of the need to use intellectual insights and truths in spite ofdifculties, obstacles, and frustrations; rm adherence to rational principles despitethe irrational opposition of others; a sense of the need to struggle with confusion andunsettled questions over an extended period of time to achieve deeper understandingor insight.

Condence In Reason vs Distrust of Reason and EvidenceCondence that, in the long run, ones own higher interests and those of humankindat large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging peopleto come to their own conclusions by developing their own rational faculties; faith that,with proper encouragement and cultivation, people can learn to think for themselves, toform rational viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think coherently and logically,persuade each other by reason and become reasonable persons, despite the deep seatedobstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it.

Fairmindedness vs Intellectual UnfairnessHaving a consciousness of the need to treat all viewpoints alike, without reference toones own feelings or vested interests, or the feelings or vested interests of ones friends,community or nation; implies adherence to intellectual standards without reference toones own advantage or the advantage of ones group.



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Three Kinds of QuestionsIn approaching a question, it is useful to gure out what type it is. Is it a question withone denitive answer? Is it a question that calls for a subjective choice? Or does the ques-tion require you to consider competing points of view?

2 3 One

1 No Multi-

System System System

Requir esevidence &reasoningwithin asystem

A cor rectanswer

Knowledge

Calls forstating a

subjectivepr efer ence

A subjectiveopinion

Cannot beassessed

Requiresevidence

& r easoningwithin multipl

systems

Better & worseanswers

Judgment



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A Template for Problem-Solving

To be an effective problem solver:1)Figure out, and regularly re articulate, your goals, purposes, and needs.

Recognize problems as obstacles to reaching your goals, achieving yourpurposes, or satisfying your needs.

2)Wherever possible take problems one by one. State each problem as clearlyand precisely as you can.

3)Study the problem to determine the kind of problem you are dealingwith. For example, what do you have to do to solve it?

4)Distinguish problems over which you have some control from problemsover which you have no control. Concentrate your efforts on problems youcan potentially solve.

5)Figure out the information you need to solve the problem.Actively seekthat information.

6)Carefully analyze and interpret the information you collect, drawingreasonable inferences.

7)Determine your options for action.What can you do in the short term? Inthe long term? Recognize your limitations in terms of money, time, andpower.

8)Evaluate your options, determining their advantages and disadvantages.

9)Adopt a strategy. Follow through on it. This may involve direct action or acarefully thought through wait and see approach.

10)When you act, monitor the implications of your action. Be ready to reviseyour strategy if the situation requires it. Be prepared to change your analy-sis or statement of the problem, as more information about the problembecomes available.



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Analyzing & Assessing ResearchUse this template to assess the quality of any research project or paper.

1) All research has a fundamental PURPOSE and goal. Research purposes and goals should be clearly stated. Related purposes should be explicitly distinguished. All segments of the research should be relevant to the purpose. All research purposes should be realistic and signicant.

2) All research addresses a fundamental QUESTION, problem or issue. The fundamental question at issue should be clearly and precisely stated. Related questions should be articulated and distinguished. All segments of the research should be relevant to the central question.

All research questions should be realistic and signicant. All research questions should dene clearly stated intellectual tasks that, being fullled, settlethe questions.

3) All research identies data, INFORMATION, and evidence relevant to its fundamentalquestion and purpose. All information used should be clear, accurate, and relevant to the fundamental question at

issue. Information gathered must be sufcient to settle the question at issue. Information contrary to the main conclusions of the research should be explained.

4) All research contains INFERENCES or interpretations by which conclusions are drawn.

All conclusions should be clear, accurate, and relevant to the key question at issue. Conclusions drawn should not go beyond what the data imply. Conclusions should be consistent and reconcile discrepancies in the data. Conclusions should explain how the key questions at issue have been settled.

5) All research is conducted from some POINT OF VIEW or frame of reference. All points of view in the research should be identied. Objections from competing points of view should be identied and fairly addressed.

6) All research is based on ASSUMPTIONS. Clearly identify and assess major assumptions in the research. Explain how the assumptions shape the research point of view.

7) All research is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and ideas. Assess for clarity the key concepts in the research. Assess the signicance of the key concepts in the research.

8) All research leads somewhere (i.e., have IMPLICATIONS and consequences). Trace the implications and consequences that follow from the research. Search for negative as well as positive implications. Consider all signicant implications and consequences.



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Critical thinkers routinely apply intellectual standards to theelements of reasoning in order to develop intellectual traits.

As we learnto develop

ClarityAccuracyRelevanceLogicalness

Breadth

PrecisionSignicanceCompletenessFairness

Depth

T H E S TA N D A R D S

PurposesQuestionsPoints of viewInformation

InferencesConceptsImplicationsAssumptions

T H E E L E M E N T S

Must beapplied to

Intellectual HumilityIntellectual Autonomy

Intellectual IntegrityIntellectual Courage

Intellectual PerseveranceCondence in Reason

Intellectual EmpathyFairmindedness

I N T E L L E C T UA L T R A I T S



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Stages of Critical Thinking Development

Master Thinker(Good habits of

thought are becomingsecond nature)

Advanced Thinker(We advance in keeping

with our practice)

Practicing Thinker(We recognize the need

for regular practice)

Beginning Thinker(We try to improve butwithout regular practice)

Challenged Thinker(We are faced with signicant

problems in our thinking)

Unreective Thinker(We are unaware of signicant

problems in our thinking)



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The Problem of Egocentric ThinkingEgocentric thinking results from the unfortunate fact that humans do not naturallyconsider the rights and needs of others. We do not naturally appreciate the point ofview of others nor the limitations in our own point of view. We become explicitly awareof our egocentric thinking only if trained to do so.We do not naturally recognize ouregocentric assumptions, the egocentric way we use information, the egocentric way weinterpret data, the source of our egocentric concepts and ideas, the implications of ouregocentric thought. We do not naturally recognize our self serving perspective.

As humans we live with the unrealistic but condent sense that we have fundamentally

gured out the way things actually are,and that we have done thisobjectively.Wenaturallybelieve in our intuitive perceptionshowever inaccurate. Instead of using intellectualstandards in thinking, we often use self centered psychological standards to determinewhat to believe and what to reject. Here are the most commonly used psychologicalstandards in human thinking.

ITS TRUE BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT.Innate egocentrism: I assume that what Ibelieve is true even though I have never questioned the basis for many of my beliefs.

ITS TRUE BECAUSE WE BELIEVE IT.Innate sociocentrism: I assume that thedominant beliefs of the groups to which I belong are true even though I have neverquestioned the basis for those beliefs.

ITS TRUE BECAUSE I WANT TO BELIEVE IT.Innate wish fulllment: I believe inwhatever puts me (or the groups to which I belong) in a positive light. I believe what feelsgood, what does not require me to change my thinking in any signicant way, what doesnot require me to admit I have been wrong.

ITS TRUE BECAUSE I HAVE ALWAYS BELIEVED IT.Innate self validation:

I have a strong desire to maintain beliefs that I have long held, even though I have notseriously considered the extent to which those beliefs are justied by the evidence.

ITS TRUE BECAUSE IT IS IN MY SELFISH INTEREST TO BELIEVE IT.Innateselshness: I believe whatever justies my getting more power, money, or personaladvantage even though these beliefs are not grounded in sound reasoning or evidence.

http:///reader/full/objectively.Wehttp:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orghttp:///reader/full/objectively.Wehttp:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.org


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Envisioning Critical Societies

The critical habit of thought, if usual in society, will pervade all itsmores, because it is a way of taking up the problems of life. Meneducated in it cannot be stampeded by stump orators ... They areslow to believe. They can hold things as possible or probable inall degrees, without certainty and without pain. They can waitfor evidence and weigh evidence, uninuenced by the emphasisor condence with which assertions are made on one side or theother. They can resist appeals to their dearest prejudices andall kinds of cajolery. Education in the critical faculty is the only

education of which it can be truly said that it makes good citizens.William Graham Sumner, 1906

Humans have the capacity to be rational and fair. But this capacity must bedeveloped. It will be signicantly developed only if critical societies emerge.Critical societies will develop only to the extent that: Critical thinking is viewed as essential to living a reasonable and fairminded life. Critical thinking is routinely taught; consistently fostered. The problematics of thinking are an abiding concern. Closed mindedness is systemically discouraged; open mindedness

systematically encouraged. Intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, condence in

reason, and intellectual courage are social values. Egocentric and sociocentric thinking are recognized as a bane in social life. Children are routinely taught that the rights and needs of others are equal to their own. A multi cultural world view is fostered. People are encouraged to think for themselves and discouraged from uncritically

accepting the thinking or behavior of others. People routinely study and diminish irrational thought. People internalize universal intellectual standards.

If we want critical societies we must create them.



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Fallacies: The Art of Mental Trickeryand ManipulationIntroduces theconcept of fallacies and details 44 foulways to win an argument.#533m

Engineering ReasoningContainsthe essence of engineering reasoningconcepts and tools. For faculty it pro-vides a shared concept and vocabulary.For students it is a thinking supplementto any textbook for any engineeringcourse.#573m

Critical Thinking for ChildrenDesigned for K6 classroom use.

Focuses on explaining basic criticalthinking principles to young childrenusing cartoon characters.#540m

For Faculty

Active and Cooperative Learning Provides 27 simple ideas for theimprovement of instruction. It lays thefoundation for the ideas found in the

mini guide How to Improve StudentLearning.#550m

How to Improve Student LearningProvides 30 practical ideas for theimprovement of instruction based oncritical thinking concepts and tools. Itcultivates student learning encouragedin the How to Study and Learn miniguide.#560m

Concepts & ToolsMini-Guide Price List:

(+ shipping and handling)124 copies . . . . . . . . . .$4.00 each25199 copies. . . . . . . .$2.00 each200499 copies . . . . . .$1.75 each500999 copies . . . . . .$1.50 each10001499 copies. . . .$1.25 each

For pricing of other guides, please visitour web site at www.criticalthinking.org

Critical and Creative ThinkingFocuses on the interrelationshipbetween critical and creative thinkingthrough the essential role of both in

learning.#565m

Critical Thinking Reading andWriting TestAssesses the ability ofstudents to use reading and writing astools for acquiring knowledge. Providesgrading rubrics and outlines five levelsof close reading and substantive writing.#563m

Socratic QuestioningFocuses on themechanics of Socratic dialogue, on theconceptual tools that critical thinkingbrings to Socratic dialogue, and on theimportance of questioning in cultivatingthe disciplined mind.#553m

Critical Thinking CompetencyStandards Provides a frameworkfor assessing students critical thinkingabilities.#555m

Educational Fads Analyzes andcritiques educational trends and fadsfrom a critical thinking perspective,providing the essential idea of each one,its proper educational use, and its likelymisuse.#583m

For More Information(To order guides or to inquireabout other resources)

Phone: 707-878-9100Fax: 707-878-9111E-mail: [email protected] site: www.criticalthinking.orgMail: Foundation for Critical Thinking

P.O. Box 220Dillon Beach, CA 94929
http:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orghttp:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.orghttp:///reader/full/www.criticalthinking.org


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About the Authors :

Dr. Linda Elderis an educationalpsychologist who has taughtboth psychology and criticalthinking at the college level. She

is the President of the Foundation for CriticalThinking and the Executive Director of theCenter for Critical Thinking. Dr. Elder has aspecial interest in the relation of thoughtand emotion, the cognitive and the affective,and has developed an original theory of thestages of critical thinking development. Shehas coauthored four books on critical thinking,as well as eighteen thinkers guides. She is a

dynamic presenter with extensive experience inleading seminars on critical thinking..

Dr. Richard Paul is a majorleader in the international critical thinking movement. He isDirec tor of Research at the Center

for Critical Thinking, and the Chair of theNational Council for Excellence in CriticalThinking, author of over 200 articles andseven books on critical think ing. Dr. Paul has

given hundreds of workshops on criticalthink ing and made a series of eight criticalthinking video programs for PBS. His viewson critical thinking have been canvassed inNew York Times, Education Week, TheChronicle of Higher Education, AmericanTeacher, Educational Leadership, Newsweek,U.S. News and World Report,and Reader sDigest.

ISBN 0-944583-10-5Item # 520m

The Foundationfor Critical Thinking

www.criticalthinking.org707-878-9100 800-833-3645

[email protected]

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